LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES 1

Richard M. Felder Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering

North Carolina State University

Barbara A. Soloman Coordinator of Advising, First Year College

North Carolina State University

ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS 2

 Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it—discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly first.

 “Let’s try it out and see how it works” is an active learner’s phrase; “Let’s think it through first” is the reflective learner’s response.

 Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone.

 Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.

Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get anything done.

How can active learners help themselves?

If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do something with it.

How can reflective learners help themselves?

If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or not class time for thinking about new information, you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don’t simply read or memorize the material; stop periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable you to retain the material more effectively.

1 1993 by Richard M. Felder and Barbara A. Soloman. See <www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Learning_Styles.html>

for additional details about the Index of Learning Styles and the Felder-Silverman learning styles model upon which the ILS is based. 2 R.M. Felder and R. Brent, Teaching and Learning STEM: A Practical Guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (2016),

pp. 107–109. <educationdesignsinc.com/book/>.

2

SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS 3

 Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships.

 Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.

 Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory) work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations.

 Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors.

 Sensors don’t like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don’t like “plug-and-chug” courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.

Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.

How can sensing learners help themselves?

Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming with friends or classmates.

How can intuitive learners help themselves?

Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don’t like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start answering and be sure to check your results. VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS

1

Visual learners remember best what they see—pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words—written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

3 R.M. Felder and R. Brent, Teaching and Learning STEM: A Practical Guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (2016),

pp. 187–188. <educationdesignsinc.com/book/>.

3

In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners, which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.

How can visual learners help themselves?

If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections. Color- code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the same color.

How can verbal learners help themselves?

Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates’ explanations and you learn even more when you do the explaining.

SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS 4

 Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly “getting it.”

 Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.

Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.

How can sequential learners help themselves?

Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references. When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you time. You

4 R.M. Felder, “Meet Your Students: 2. Susan and Glenda.” Chemical Engineering Education, Winter 1990, pp. 7–8.

<www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Columns/Susanglenda.html>.

4

might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely to be.

How can global learners help themselves?

If you are a global learner, just recognizing that you aren’t slow or stupid but simply function differently from most of your classmates can help a great deal.

4 However, there are

some steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more quickly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by consulting references. Above all, don’t lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material, and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.

FROM THE ACADEMY

Skin cancer and photoprotection in people of color: A review and recommendations for

physicians and the public

Oma N. Agbai, MD, a Kesha Buster, MD,

b Miguel Sanchez, MD,

c Claudia Hernandez, MD,

d

Roopal V. Kundu, MD, e Melvin Chiu, MD,

f Wendy E. Roberts, MD,

g Zoe D. Draelos, MD,

h

Reva Bhushan, PhD, i Susan C. Taylor, MD,

j and Henry W. Lim, MD

a

Detroit, Michigan; Wichita, Kansas; New York, New York; Chicago and Schaumburg, Illinois;

Los Angeles and Rancho Mirage, California; High Point, North Carolina; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

From

D

D

D

m

C

D

M

C

Ra

A

H

748

Skin cancer is less prevalent in people of color than in the white population. However, when skin cancer occurs in non-whites, it often presents at a more advanced stage, and thus the prognosis is worse compared with white patients. The increased morbidity and mortality associated with skin cancer in patients of color compared with white patients may be because of the lack of awareness, diagnoses at a more advanced stage, and socioeconomic factors such as access to care barriers. Physician promotion of skin cancer prevention strategies for all patients, regardless of ethnic background and socioeconomic status, can lead to timely diagnosis and treatment. Public education campaigns should be expanded to target communities of color to promote self-skin examination and stress importance of photoprotection, avoidance of tanning bed use, and early skin cancer detection and treatment. These measures should result in reduction or earlier detection of cutaneous malignancies in all communities. Furthermore, promotion of photoprotection practices may reduce other adverse effects of ultraviolet exposure including photoaging and ultraviolet- related disorders of pigmentation. ( J Am Acad Dermatol 2014;70:748-62.)

Key words: basal cell carcinoma; Bowen disease; dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans; dyspigmentation; melanoma; Merkel cell carcinoma; mycosis fungoides; people of color; photoprotection; radiation; skin cancer; skin of color; squamous cell carcinoma; sun protection; sunscreen; ultraviolet.

DEFINITIONS

BCC: basal cell carcinoma DFSP: dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans MED: minimal erythema dose MF: mycosis fungoides MM: malignant melanoma NMSC: nonmelanoma skin cancer POC: people of color SCC: squamous cell carcinoma SEER: Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End

Results SPF: sun-protection factor UV: ultraviolet

Whites: Non-Hispanic individuals of European descent

Blacks: Non-Hispanic individuals of African descent

Hispanics: Individuals who trace their origin or descent to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Spanish- speaking Central and South American countries, Spanish-speaking island nations of the Caribbean, and other Spanish cultures. Origin can be considered as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of the person or the person’s parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who

the Multicultural Dermatology Center, Department of

ermatology, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit a ; Department of

ermatology, Via Christi Clinic, Wichita b ; Department of

ermatology, New York University Medical Centerc; Depart-

ent of Dermatology, University of Illinois College of Medicine,

hicago d ; Northwestern Center for Ethnic Skin, Department of

ermatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of

edicine, Chicagoe; Division of Dermatology, University of

alifornia Los Angeles Medical Centerf; Desert Dermatology

ncho Mirage g ; Dermatology Consulting Services, High Point

h ;

merican Academy of Dermatology, Schaumburgi; and Society

ill Dermatology and Cosmetic Center, Philadelphia.j

Funding sources: None.

The authors’ conflict of interest/disclosure statements appear at

the end of the article.

Accepted for publication November 26, 2013.

Reprint requests: Reva Bhushan, PhD, Department of

Evidence-based Research, American Academy of

Dermatology, 930 E Woodfield Rd, Schaumburg, IL 60173.

E-mail: [email protected].

Published online January 30, 2014.

0190-9622/$36.00

� 2014 by the American Academy of Dermatology, Inc. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2013.11.038

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 749

identify their origin as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. This definition of Hispanic fully excludes the Portuguese, Brazilians, or anyone from any other country that speaks Portuguese.1

Asians: Individuals having origins in any of the original peoples of East Asia, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.1

INTRODUCTION Malignant melanoma (MM) and nonmelanoma

skin cancer (NMSC) account for 40% of all neoplasms in whites, making it the most common malignancy in the United States.2 Skin cancer is most common in whites and in people living in equatorial latitudes.3

The incidence of both MM and NMSC remains significantly lower in people of color (POC) when compared with whites as they are seen in about 5% of Hispanics, 4% of Asians, and 2% of blacks.4,5 Even so, multiple reports have demonstrated heightened morbidity and mortality in minority populations,

6-8

raising public health concerns in these groups. Although there are data detailing incidence of skin cancer in POC, these data are limited. In addition to skin cancer, factors such as photoaging, pigmentary disorders induced or exacerbated by ultraviolet (UV) exposure, and sunburn must be considered in POC. It is estimated that black, Hispanic, and Asian Americans will comprise approximately 50% of the US population by the year 2050.4 These evolving demographics, elevated rates of skin cancer morbidity and mortality in POC, and limited clinical data on additional adverse effects of UV exposure in this population mandate that physicians develop familiarity with the concept of optimized photo- protection for POC. An understanding of the varying clinical presentations of UV-related skin cancers in POC, in addition to relevant topics in photoaging and UV-related disorders of pigmentation, is necessary for adequate management of photoprotection in POC.

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF SKIN CARCINOGENESIS AND PHOTOAGING IN POC

Few studies have been performed to thoroughly evaluate biological differences between differing ethnic skin types. Skin color is primarily determined by the presence of melanin. Jimbow et al9 reported that dark skin has larger melanocytes that produce more melanin and melanosomes are distributed individually in keratinocytes rather than in aggre- gates. The rarity of cutaneous malignancy in

populations of darker complexions is secondary to photoprotection from a higher amount of epidermal melanin, which filters at least twice as much UV radiation as the epidermis of whites.10 In an in vitro study performed by Kaidbey et al,11 the amount of UV radiation reaching the papillary dermis of whites was greater than that of blacks by approximately 5-fold. The authors proposed that larger and more melanized melanosomes observed in POC absorbed more energy than the melanosomes in white skin, which were smaller, less dense, and lightly mela- nized. Furthermore, the authors estimated that the epidermis of blacks has an intrinsic sun-protection factor (SPF) of 13.4, whereas light skin has an SPF of 3.3.11 Therefore, exposure to UV radiation plays a lesser role in heightening the risk for skin cancer in populations of darker complexions.

Damage to DNA secondary to UV radiation is a major factor in cutaneous photocarcinogenesis and photoaging. However, the correlation of ethnicity and degree of sensitivity to UV rays has not been elucidated. Tadokoro et al12 performed a study evaluating the correlations between melanin content and degree of UVA- and UVB-induced DNA damage in normal-appearing skin of various ethnic groups. DNA damage was found to be most severe in qualitatively light skin. Baseline skin pigmentation and extent of DNA damage were inversely related, as individuals of darker skin tones were able to repair UVA-/UVB-induced DNA damage more rapidly than subjects with fair skin. Even low exposure to UVA/UVB radiation induced some appreciable DNA damage in all skin types, dispelling the myth that those with very dark skin are completely im- mune to UVA-/UVB-induced DNA damage.12

Indeed, NMSC and MM do occur in POC, despite the low relative risk.13 Because of the limited research on skin cancer in POC, there are few resources providing insight on evaluating darkly pigmented lesions in POC. Frequently atypical presentations, together with constitutive dark pigmentation, pose diagnostic challenges in the identification of characteristics such as variation in color within the lesions. Furthermore, certain skin cancers that are pigmented in POC may not be pigmented in whites (such as basal cell carcinoma, which is more likely to be pigmented in darker skin types); therefore, a high index of suspicion in POC is necessary in making the diagnosis.

5

BASAL CELL CARCINOMA Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most prevalent

skin cancer found in whites, Asians, and Hispanics.14

Hispanics are more likely to be given a diagnosis of multiple BCC rather than a single squamous cell

Fig 1. Nonmelanoma skin cancers in people of color. Pigmented basal cell carcinoma in elderly Hispanic man (right lateral orbital rim) (A); middle-aged Asian woman (right cheek) (B); middle-aged Hispanic man (right forehead) (C); and middle-aged Hispanic man (left nasal ala) (D). Hypopigmented mycosis fungoides in Hispanic man (back) (E) and black man (lower aspect of back) (F). G, Metastatic squamous cell carcinoma in black man (right parietal scalp, courtesy of Dr Marc Silverstein, Sacramento, CA).

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

750 Agbai et al

carcinoma (SCC).15 In contrast to Hispanic popula- tions, BCC is the second most common skin malig- nancy in blacks after SCC.4,5

The clinical spectrum of disease in BCC shows many parallels among blacks, whites, Asians, and Hispanics. The classic clinical presentation of a solitary pearly papule with central ulceration and rolled borders may be seen in POC, but may pose challenges in the physical examination as the characteristic pearly borders and telangiectasia may not be clinically as apparent in dark skin types (Fig 1). In whites, the majority of patients presenting with BCC are of advancedage([50years),mostcommonlypresenting with asymptomatic solitary translucent nodules with central ulceration.14 Pigmentation is present in over 50% of tumors in POC,4,16 whereas only 5% of BCCs affecting whites have been shown to be pigmented. In Asians, BCCs frequently present as brown to black papules, or have a ‘‘black pearly’’ appearance.17 The clinical presentation of BCCs in Asian skin ranges from nodules to papules, plaques, and ulcers.18 With regards to anatomic distribution, there are significant similarities between POC and whites. Approximately 80% of BCCs in POC were found in the head and neck,19 as has been shown in whites.14 Differential diagnosis for BCC in POC includes seborrheic kera- tosis, blue nevus, trauma, lupus erythematosus, nevus

sebaceous, sarcoidosis, and melanoma.20 Metastasis in BCC is rare in all skin types.14

BCC in blacks Although quite rare, BCC has been reported in the

black population. In a report from Howard University (Washington, DC) from 1960 through 1986, most BCCs were seen in blacks of fairer skin complexion in comparison with those with darker complexions.19 From this, one may conclude that the incidence of BCC may correlate directly with the degree of skin pigmentation, as it is most frequently diagnosed in whites of fairer complexions, and more rarely diagnosed in blacks. A study of skin cancer prevalence was conducted by Asuquo et al21 in a Nigerian teaching hospital between the years of 2000 and 2004. Of 63 cases of skin cancer, BCC was diagnosed in 8% (n = 5) of the cases; 66.7% of the BCC were on the head and neck, and 33.3% on the upper limb. All of these lesions were nodular. BCC was diagnosed only in albinos in this study.21 In a review of 128 black patients with 148 BCCs, Mora and Burris3 (New Orleans, LA) found that the average age of examination (not necessarily onset) was 59 years, with lesions most commonly located on head and neck. Only 2 of these patients had albinism.

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 751

The incidence of BCC in non-sun-exposed skin is equal between whites and blacks.22 Diverse pre- sentations and locations of BCCs have been found in blacks, ranging from superficial BCC to perianal BCC.3,11 BCCs in blacks are often pigmented, and there are reports of BCCs that have arisen in scars, which rarely proceeded to metastasize.3,4,23

BCC in Hispanics One of the most common neoplasms diagnosed in

Hispanics is pigmented BCC.16 Hispanics studied demonstrated significantly lower incidence rates of BCC than non-Hispanic whites regardless of gender.24 Still, a high index of suspicion should be maintained in evaluating pigmented lesions in Hispanics, as BCCs have a propensity to be pig- mented in Hispanic populations and may be mis- diagnosed as melanomas.16 In a study performed by Bigler et al16 (Albuquerque, NM), the incidence of pigmented BCC in Hispanics was found to be twice that of white patients.

Compared with whites, Hispanics with NMSC were shown to have fewer tumors per individual, and fewer Hispanics had more than 1 tumor.24 A registry of skin cancers in New Mexico between the years of 1964 and 1992 showed an average of 1.8 tumors per individual with NMSC among Hispanics, compared with 2.2 tumors per individual with NMSC in whites. Of these, BCC was more common than SCC by 6.6-fold in both Hispanics and whites.24

BCC in Asians Although NMSC is not common in Asians, it is not

extremely rare. In a study by Cheng et al25 studying incidence of NMSC between 1990 and 1999 in Hong Kong, China, the incidence of BCC was 0.32 and 0.92 per 100,000 population. Pigmented BCC was the most common NMSC diagnosed, found in approxi- mately 60% of Chinese patients with skin cancer in the study.25 Multiple or subsequent skin cancers and subtypes of new cancers were seen less often in the Chinese group when compared with the white group.25 Similarly, Sng et al26 reported an increase of skin cancers including BCC, SCC, and MM, in Singapore between the years of 1998 and 2006. The extremities were the most common sites affected by Bowen disease (SCC in situ).27 There is an increased incidence of NMSC in Japanese living in Kauai, Hawaii, which may be secondary to heightened intensity of year-round UV radiation and popularity of outdoor activities, as reviewed by Lee and Lim.28

SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA SCC comprises approximately 20% of all skin

cancers. With MM excluded, approximately 75% of

all deaths from skin cancers are caused by SCC. 29

In blacks and Asian Indians, SCC is the most commonly diagnosed skin cancer. It is the second most commonly diagnosed skin cancer in Hispanics, East Asians (including Japanese and Chinese patients), and whites.5,30 Although actinic keratoses are most commonly diagnosed in white and Japanese pa- tients,31 they are very rare in blacks.32

Riskfactorsfor SCCinPOCincludechronicscarring and inflammatory processes including hidradenitis suppurativa, lupus erythematosus, scars caused by chemical and thermal burns, skin ulcers, and sites of previous radiation.33,34 Immunocompromised pa- tients, including organ transplant recipients, also demonstrate a heightened risk for SCC.35 Among blacks, the greatest predisposing factors for devel- oping SCC include chronic scarring and/or inflamma- tory processes that are observed in 20% to 40% of reported cases.4 In addition, the human papilloma- virus has been linked to the development of SCC, particularly in immunocompromised patients.36 One retrospective study detected human papillomavirus DNA in skin samples of 4.7% of controls, 90.5% of benign warts, 60.4% of precancerous lesions, 59.7% of SCC, and 27.8% of BCC, suggesting a link between viral infection and the development of NMSC.37

Definitive studies have not been performed on the relationship between human papillomavirus infection and NMSC in POC.

SCCs are characteristically firm, superficial, well- demarcated papules or plaques that emerge from a rounded, indurated, and elevated base.29 In POC, SCC is most commonly found in areas that are not typically exposed to the sun, such as the lower extremities and anus. In fact, lower extremity and anogenital SCCs were seen in 15% of SCCs in blacks in a study conducted by Halder and Bang19 in Washington, DC. This is a sharp contrast to the white population, in whom SCCs are characteristically seen in chronically sun-exposed skin.19

SCC in blacks Among black patients given the diagnosis of

SCC, the peak incidence was shown to be in the fifth decade on the lower limbs, followed by the head and neck and then the genitals. The scalp and lip are more often implicated in black women than in men.38 Chronic trauma, ulcers, and scars are the most significant predisposing factors for SCCs in the lower limb and on the scalp, as reported by Amir et al38 (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania) in a study of SCC in Tanzanian patients, where UV radiation was found to be the primary factor predisposing pa- tients to increased risk of SCC in the head and neck. In a study done in Tanzania, smegma of the

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

752 Agbai et al

uncircumcised penis was also reported as a risk factor for the majority of cases of SCC developing on the penis in blacks.38 The majority of SCC on the penis were found to be SCC in situ upon histologic analysis in a study performed by Hubbell et al39

(New Orleans, LA). SCC was the most common skin cancer reported

in a Nigerian teaching hospital between 2000 and 2004 by Asuquo et al,

21 where the lower limb was

the most commonly affected anatomic site. SCC manifesting as Marjolin ulcer associated with trau- matic injury of the limb was diagnosed in 7 patients, and associated with a history of burn in 1 patient. SCC involved the external genitalia in 9 patients, 3 of whom had genital warts. The anus was affected in 4 female cases. There were no lesions involving the head and neck regions, and all patients in this study presented with chronic ulcers.21

Several cases of the emergence of SCC within scars of chronic discoid lupus erythematosus in black patients have been reported. Caruso et al40 reported a heightened propensity for SCC to metastasize in black Canadian patients with discoid lupus erythe- matosus. Sun exposure of hypopigmented lesions of discoid lupus erythematosus may have been a predisposing factor.

In blacks, Bowen disease (SCC in situ) typically presents as scaly hyperkeratotic pigmented pla- ques, and may be misdiagnosed as MM. In contrast, Bowen disease lesions are rarely pigmented outside of the groin in whites.41 Black women are affected twice as often as black men, and most frequently in skin that is not sun exposed.19 In a study performed by Mora et al42 in New Orleans, LA, evolution to SCC was noted in 5 of 19 black patients with Bowen disease, leading to death in 3 of these patients. The most common area affected was the lower extremity.42 Mortality of SCC in blacks is as high as 29%, secondary not only to delays in diagnosis and treatment, but also to more aggressive biologic behavior of SCC in this popu- lation.41,43 In blacks, SCC that develops within a chronic scarring process tends to be more aggres- sive and is associated with a 20% to 40% risk of metastasis. In contrast, the rate of metastatic trans- formation of sun-induced SCC in blacks is approx- imately 1% to 4%.4 In a case series on SCC in blacks performed by Mora and Perniciaro

33 (New Orleans,

LA), the highest mortality was observed in cases of perianal SCC. Although most patients with primary SCC have a very good prognosis, the 10-year survival is less than 20% in patients with regional lymph node metastasis, and less than 10% in patients with distant metastasis.29

SCC in Asians Bowen disease and pigmented BCCs are not

uncommonly diagnosed in Asians. Because of their pigmented appearance, as in blacks, these may be misdiagnosed as MM.25 Although NMSC is uncom- mon, it is not rare in the Chinese population in Hong Kong. Cheng et al25 (Hong Kong, China) reported that the incidence of SCC in 1990 was 0.16 per 100,000 population, and in 1999, 0.34. Similarly, in a case-control study performed by Chen et al44 in Taiwan evaluating the association between UV radi- ation exposure from the sun and risk for develop- ment of SCC by gender, exposure at a young age (15-24 years) and cumulative sun exposure were significantly associated with heightened risk of SCC in a dose-related pattern. Cumulative sun exposure was found to be more closely related to increased risk of SCC in women, whereas sun exposure at an early age showed more relevance to SCC risk in men.44 Skin reactions such as redness, burn, and suntan after 2 hours of sun exposure in childhood and adolescence were not associated with increased risk for SCC.44

In a study on skin cancer incidence between 1986 and 1997 among Asians living in Singapore, 2650 BCCs were reported. There was a general increase in skin cancer incidence from 6 per 100,000 person- years (from 1968-1972) to 8.9 per 100,000 person- years (1993-1997). The incidence of BCC increased approximately 3% yearly. Age-standardized inci- dence rates for BCC were greatest in fair-skinned Chinese, followed by Malays and Indians. This trend was also noted for SCC and cutaneous MM.

45

MALIGNANT MELANOMA MM is the deadliest type of skin cancer found

across all races and ethnicities. Many melanoma cases are diagnosed in nonhospital settings and thus may be underreported to central cancer registries, which traditionally collect the majority of cases from hospi- tals.46 This could lead to significant underreporting of MM and resultant underestimation of the incidence of melanoma.47 The National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch (Bethesda, MD) reports that the incidence of cutaneous MM increased by approximately 6% yearly in the 1970s, slowed to a 3% yearly increase between 1981 and 2000, and has since stabilized.48

Since the late 1980s, the incidence of MM has increased significantly among Hispanics in California, increasing an average of 1.8% yearly in male Hispanics between 1988 and 2001, and 7.3% average yearly between 1996 and 2001.49 In a study conducted by Bergfelt et al,50 the incidence of MM

Fig 2. Melanomas in people of color. A, Lentigo maligna in middle-aged Hispanic woman (vermilion upper and lower lips). Melanoma in middle-aged black woman (right fourth toe) (B); Hispanic woman (left fifth toe) (C); middle-aged Hispanic man (left plantar foot) (D); elderly Hispanic man (right cheek) (E); and Asian woman (side of left leg) (F).

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 753

among Hispanics in Puerto Rico and New Mexico (race not specified) was greater than in US blacks by 1.6- to 3.7-fold. There was a close correlation in anatomic distribution of MM among whites and Hispanics in New Mexico in both men and women. The most common MM distribution in Hispanics from Puerto Rico was the leg, as was seen in black Americans.50 In another study, Vazquez-Botet et al51

reported that nearly half of MM in Hispanic patients in Puerto Rico were found on the extremities, especially the feet, similar to black and Japanese patients. Superficial spreading melanoma was the most com- mon histologic type, followed by acral lentiginous, nodular, and lentigo maligna melanomas.51 More recently, Wu et al52 (New Orleans, LA) reported that incidence rates of MM in the United States were notably higher in females than males in white and Hispanic populations younger than 50 years, and in Asian/Pacific Islanders younger than 40 years. The median age of white and black patients was greater (59-63 years) when compared with Hispanics, Asian/ Pacific Islanders, and American Indians/Alaskan Natives (52-56 years).52 Histologically, acral lentigi- nous melanoma was the most common subtype in blacks, whereas superficial spreading melanoma was most commonly diagnosed in all other ethnic groups studied.52 Incidence rates of acral lentiginous

melanoma were, however, highest in Hispanics. Non-whites demonstrated an increased propensity to present with more advanced MM when compared with whites.52

Typically, MM presents as a dark macule or patch and may have a history of rapid spreading. Suspicion for subungual melanomas is raised when a pig- mented band wider than 3 mm is observed on the nail, extension of pigment to proximal nail fold (Hutchinson sign) and there is pigment variation, rapid growth in size, and the observation of solitary lesions.4 Subungual melanoma is most common on the thumb and first toe. In populations of color, the plantar foot is most commonly affected (Fig 2),53 as it is implicated in 30% to 40% of cases.54 Melanomas found in the oral cavity comprise approximately 7.5% of all melanomas in Asians, where approximately 60% of these develop from lesions of oral melanosis.

The greatest risk factors for the development of MM in whites include periods of high intermittent sunlight exposure (as in sunbathing and indoor tanning), and large cumulative doses of UV radiation from chronic exposure (as seen in outdoor workers).55 Factors in the host that may increase susceptibility to develop- ment of melanoma include a large number of nevi, the presence of dysplastic nevi, freckles, fair complexion, red or blonde hair, and family history of MM.55

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

754 Agbai et al

Contrarily, in blacks and Asians, UVradiation does not appear to be a major risk factor, as the majority of melanomas are found in skin that is not typically sun exposed, including palmar, plantar, and subungual skin, and mucous membranes.56 In POC, the risk factors for MM have not been identified, but may be unrelated to sun exposure.57 Specifically, as acral melanomas are identified with similar rates at different latitudes and in varying racial groups, and as they tend to be diagnosed in anatomic sites that are not typically sun exposed, their origin may be unrelated to sun exposure.28

MM in blacks In black Americans, acral lentiginous melanoma is

the most common and deadly form of MM.56,58 Not uncommonly it is misdiagnosed and managed as a tinea nigra, or even talon noir. In a retrospective study performed at Tulane University School of Medicine (New Orleans, LA)58 from 1958 to 1990, 82 patients (including 27 white men, 29 white women, 18 black men, and 8 black women) with a diagnosis of acral lentiginous melanoma were fol- lowed up, and the study showed a trend toward reduced survival in black men. A direct correlation between decreased survival and increased Clark level was also observed. As previously mentioned, the overall incidence of melanoma in the black population is lower than that of whites. Additional types of melanoma found in black Americans include superficial spreading and nodular types.

13

Acral lentiginous melanoma has a poor prognosis secondary to its propensity for deep invasion at presentation, with 5-year survival lower than 50%.59

In a study of skin cancers in a teaching hospital in Nigeria between 2000 and 2004, MM of the skin represented 8% (n = 5) of the 63 histologically diagnosed cutaneous malignancies. All of these MMs were plantar. Three of the 5 cases were clinically advanced nodular melanomas, whereas 2 were ulcerated superficial spreading melanomas.21

MM in Hispanics Pipitone et al60 (Maywood, IL) proposed that

Hispanics had a propensity to present with more advanced disease secondary to the combination of a belief that they are not at risk to sunburn and/or develop skin cancer. Skin cancer prevention mea- sures are typically directed toward non-Hispanic whites, where skin self-examination and sun protec- tion are emphasized.13 Feun et al61 (Miami, FL) reviewed 54 melanoma cases in Hispanic patients; the majority of melanomas were located on the trunk, arm, shoulder, leg, and hip. Although 70% of these patients presented with local disease, 26%

presented with regional and distant lesions. In this study, Hispanics given the diagnosis of melanomas had better treatment outcomes and survival than non-Hispanics.61 This contradicts a handful of other studies that have demonstrated poorer survival in Hispanic populations.57,62,63

MM in Asians In Asian populations, the sole of the foot is the

most common site for MM.28 This is typically acral lentiginous melanoma.28 As in blacks and Hispanics, MMs in Asians have a propensity to be diagnosed at a late stage in comparison with whites.57 In a study done in Taiwan, factors such as age over 55 years, male gender, tumor thickness, and tumor ulceration were generally predictive of a poorer prognosis.64 In a study done in Japan, loss of the p53 gene though deletion mutation was associated with more aggres- sive subtypes of MM.65

Although in whites, number of melanocytic nevi is directly proportional to risk of developing MM,66 this may not be the case in POC. The density of melanocytic nevi is significantly lower in POC than in whites.66 Gallagher et al66 (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) found that nevus density in Asians was unrelated to skin color or tendency to burn. These findings may indicate a lack of correla- tion between nevi density and MM in POC; however, further research is needed to clarify this point.

Survival in MM across ethnicities The 5-year survival for melanoma in Hispanic and

black populations has been shown to be consistently lower than in whites.6,53,67 When compared with whites, black and Hispanic populations have a pro- pensity to present with thicker tumors that are more advanced, therefore leading to a worse prognosis. In reviewing several melanoma cases in California, Cockburn et al49 demonstrated that diagnosis of tumors with a thickness greater than 1.5 mm upon presentation increased at 11.6% yearly and 8.9% yearly in Hispanic males and females, respectively. Hu et al62 performed a retrospective analysis of case series in the Florida Cancer Data System, showing that late-stage melanomas were most commonly diagnosed in black and Hispanic patients, at rates of 52% and 26%, respectively. In contrast, late-stage MM was diagnosed at a rate of 16% in white populations.62 In reviewing MM cases in California, blacks are have a higher rate of death in comparison with their white counterparts after adjusting for sex, age, stage, histology, anatomic site, socioeconomic status, and treatment.68 Therefore, the lower survival for blacks with MM is not fully accounted for by discrepancies in socioeconomic standing or access to

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 755

adequate medical care. This leads to a conclusion that more aggressive primary and secondary preven- tion measures are needed for the diagnosis and control of MM across all races, including groups that have a lower risk of developing MM.69

MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES Mycosis fungoides (MF) is more commonly diag-

nosed in whites than in POC. However, incidence and prognosis vary significantly based on race. Weinstock and Gardstein70 used the US Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program of the National Cancer Institute to study the incidence of MF in blacks, whites, and Asians in the United States from 1973 to 1992. After adjusting for age, blacks had a higher incidence of MF than whites, with an incidence rate ratio of 1.6. The incidence of MF in Asians was lower than that of whites, with an incidence rate ratio of 0.6. Furthermore, blacks with MF had a worse prognosis than whites, with a mortality ratio of 2.4 compared with whites. In contrast, the mortality ratio of Asians compared with whites was 0.5. The cause for these differences in incidence and mortality are unknown.70 In a more recent study, Criscione and Weinstock71 used the SEER database to study incidence of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in whites and blacks between 1973 and 2002. The incidence was 9.0 per 1 million person- years in blacks, whereas incidence of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma was 6.1 per 1 million person-years in whites.

MF typically presents as erythematous or hyperpigmented patches in individuals of darker complexion.13 Hypopigmented MF is diagnosed almost exclusively in POC. It typically presents as poorly defined hypopigmented patches (Fig 1).20,72,73 Distribution is typically more central than acral, and mild pruritus is often present.13

Differential diagnosis includes pityriasis alba, tinea versicolor, vitiligo, postinflammatory hypopigmenta- tion, and tinea corporis. Biopsy should be done in cases unresponsive to treatment for the aforemen- tioned conditions, or in patients who exhibit wors- ened disease despite treatment. Multiple biopsy specimens are often needed to confirm the diag- nosis.20 Immunohistochemical analysis often reveals a relative loss of the CD7 antigen.

74

OTHER SKIN CANCERS There is limited information on other skin cancers

diagnosed in POC. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuber- ans (DFSP) is a slow-growing spindled cell neoplasm located in the dermis or subcutaneous tissue. It can present as a rare pigmented form that comprises up to 5% of DFSP. The pigmented variant occurs primarily

in blacks. DFSP most commonly presents on the trunk, followed by the upper and lower extremities and the head and neck. Clinically it may resemble a keloid, raising suspicion for keloidlike lesions in blacks that have no clear history of trauma.41 One study conducted in Nigeria reported 5 DFSP in 63 skin cancers diagnosed between 2000 and 2004. Three of these presented with recurrent lesions, and positive margin in 1 patient after initial excision.

21 Pigmented

DFSP may be histologically distinguished from the common variant through the presence of a dendritic cells containing melanin. DFSP tend to have a high local recurrence rate, though there have been reports of distant metastases. Wide excision and close clinical follow-up are indicated.13

Merkel cell carcinoma occurs at a rate of 0.2 and 0.01 per 100,000 in whites and blacks, respectively. Increased sun exposure corresponds with increased incidence, as the face is the most commonly affected site.75 Merkel cell carcinoma is rarely seen in Asians, though there have been case reports associating Merkel cell carcinoma with other skin cancers such as Bowen disease.76

PHOTOAGING AND UV-RELATED DYSPIGMENTATION IN POC

Although skin cancers pose the greatest mortality risk when discussing the need for photoprotection in POC, additional adverse effects of UVexposure, such as photoaging and UV-related exacerbation of pigmentation disorders, must be considered. Up to 95% of the visible signs of aging are a result of exposure to the sun, which starts in childhood and persists throughout life. Clinical signs of photoaging apparent in white skin may be less noticeable in POC of comparable age groups, implying a role of skin color in photoprotection.77 Despite the protective effects of darker skin on photoaging, signs of pho- toaging are still prevalent in POC. Dyspigmentation is more commonly seen in POC, whereas wrinkling is more prevalent in whites. As pigmentation disor- ders such as postinflammatory hyperpigmentation and melasma are generally more prevalent in POC, photoprotection may prevent worsening and recur- rence of these conditions.77

Kotrajaras and Kligman78 (Bangkok, Thailand) reported that significant photodamage manifested as dermal collagen and elastin damage, epidermal atypia and atrophy, and disorders of pigmentation are not uncommonly seen in POC. Similarly, other studies have observed that pigmentary changes may be more common than skin wrinkling with regards to photoaging among Asians.79,80 Chan et al81 (Hong Kong, China) observed that moderate to severe wrinkling becomes evident at around 50 years in

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

756 Agbai et al

Asians, 1 or 2 decades later than in age-matched whites.

Chung et al82 (Seoul, South Korea) performed a study evaluating the type and severity of photo- damage in Koreans and observed that women had a propensity to have more wrinkles than men. Seborrheic keratosis was the major pigmentary lesion observed in sun-exposed skin of men, whereas hyperpigmented macules were more often seen in women. Although cigarette smoking was found to be an independent risk factor for wrinkles, this was not so for dyspigmentation.82 There was no correlation between constitutive skin color and development of wrinkles or dyspigmentation. The authors concluded that wrinkling and pigmentary changes are significant manifestations of photoaging in Koreans.

82

Additional cutaneous manifestations of photoag- ing in ethnic skin include development of benign lesions such as solar lentigines and dermatosis papulosa nigra.81,83

SUN-PROTECTION BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN POC

Although POC are most commonly categorized into skin phototypes IV to VI, it should be noted that ethnic skin colors can span the entire spectrum of skin phototypes.84 Skin examination and photo- protection practices differ between ethnic groups as whites and Hispanics have a greater propensity to use sunscreen than blacks.69 In addition, whites are more likely to perform skin self-examinations than Hispanics. Although blacks and Hispanics show similar practices in performance of skin self- examinations, blacks tend to follow up with derma- tologists less frequently.13 One survey study showed that blacks who self-reported experiencing severe sunburns were 7 times less likely to use sunscreen than their white counterparts who reported experi- encing severe sunburns. Among those surveyed who had severe sunburns in other ethnic groups (eg, Mexican American, other Hispanic, and other races), there was no such difference in sunscreen use.85

Although UV radiation exposure continues to become a more significant causative factor for skin cancer in blacks, discussion of their UV radiation- protection practices remains inadequate. Hall and Rogers86 (Atlanta, GA) analyzed the National Health Interview Survey performed in 1992 (n = 1583), in which approximately 6% of blacks reported marked sensitivity to sunlight with occurrence of severe sunburn, whereas 9% reported mild burning. Of the subjects studied, 53% self-reported a high likeli- hood of wearing protective clothing, sunscreens, or seeking shade. Factors such as educational

background, age, and sunburn history contributed to a tendency toward better photoprotection habits with sunscreens.86 Similarly, Buster et al87

(Birmingham, AL) evaluated a cross-sectional survey data from the National Cancer Institute to evaluate cancer-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. There were 1246 respondents, including whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Blacks perceived their likeli- hood of developing skin cancer in the future as low, and were less likely than whites to recognize that behavior and lifestyle influence the risk of devel- oping skin cancer. Furthermore, blacks and Hispanics were more likely to believe that skin cancer is associated with pain or another symptom. Blacks less frequently viewed regular skin examina- tions as necessary for early detection of skin cancer, and both blacks and Hispanics were more likely to believe that little can be done to decrease the risk of developing skin cancer.87

In a survey performed by the Skin of Color Center in New York, NY, blacks and Hispanics self-reported low sunscreen use, secondary to misconceptions that it is unnecessary to use sun protection to prevent photoaging or skin cancers.77 If used at all, sun- screens were generally insufficiently applied and not reapplied frequently enough. Sanclemente et al88

(Medellin, Colombia) performed a study evaluating sun-protection behavior, skin phenotype, and min- imal erythema dose (MED) in 911 high school students in Colombia. There was significant vari- ability in MEDs among the different phototypes represented in the population, as individuals with fairer skin appeared to respond to UV radiation similar to their darker-skinned colleagues, and some students with darker skin responded similar to what would be expected from someone of lighter skin. This suggested a lack of predictability of MEDs based on skin phototype. In this population, only 10% of students who completed the associated questionnaire reported use of sunscreens or prac- ticed photoprotection.

88

Studies have shown that educational intervention may be helpful in improving photoprotection prac- tices. In a study performed by Kundu et al89

(Chicago, IL), POC (n = 93) were given instruction on how to identify potentially abnormal moles in cutaneous self-examination. Races represented in the study included Asian/Pacific Islander (21.5%), black American (59.1%), Hispanic (15.1%), and multiracial or ‘‘mixed’’ (4.3%). The investigators used self-report questionnaires evaluating attitudes, practices, and beliefs before, immediately after, and 3 months after the educational intervention.89 In all, 21% self-reported a skin phenotype that sometimes burns, and 32% reported at least 1 blistering sunburn

Table I. Recommendations for photoprotection and early detection of skin cancer in people of color

n Seek shade whenever possible.

n Wear sun-protective clothing. n Wear a wide-brimmed hat to shade the face and neck, and shoes that cover the entire foot. n Wear sunglasses with ultraviolet-absorbing lenses. n Apply broad-spectrum sunscreen with a sun-protection factor of 30 or greater. Sunscreens without inorganic filters (titanium dioxide and zinc oxide) are generally better accepted by people of color because of their better cosmesis on dark skin.

n Apply sunscreen to dry skin 15 to 30 minutes before going outdoors. When outdoors, reapply every 2 hours to all exposed skin, and after perspiring or swimming.

n Avoid exposure to indoor tanning beds/lamps. n Take vitamin D supplement. n Perform monthly self-skin examinations, paying close attention to subungual skin, palms, soles, mucous membranes, groin. and perianal area.

Table II. Recommendations for physicians for people of color

n Educate patients:

People of color are at risk for developing skin cancer. Practice sun-protective behaviors. Perform monthly self-skin examinations for those with multiple nevi, or history of skin cancers. Avoid tanning salons. Obtain regular skin examination by a dermatologist.

n Perform a thorough skin examination including areas infrequently exposed to the sun, such as palms, soles, oral mucosa, groin, and perianal area. Regularly ask patients to remove shoes and socks for skin examination.

n Monitor changes in pigmented lesions, including those of mucosal, palmar, plantar, interdigital spaces, and subungual surfaces.

n Advise vitamin D supplementation as indicated. n Refer to dermatologists: Changing pigmented lesions. Nonhealing ulcers. Hyperkeratotic or poorly healing lesions in chronic lesions such as those of discoid lupus erythematosus, or in scars. Atypical appearing keloidal plaques, or those with growth/development with no history of trauma.

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 757

in the past. Of the original 93 subjects, 71 returned for follow-up evaluation after 3 months. Improved knowledge of MM as a skin cancer, and of concern- ing signs for melanoma was observed after the educational intervention. Furthermore, awareness of MM risk was shown to improve and was main- tained at 3 months. Practices such as performance of monthly self-skin checks, particularly of palms, soles, and periungual skin, dramatically improved after the intervention.89

VITAMIN D AND PHOTOPROTECTION Vitamin D has been shown to be beneficial for

bone health, and has been reported to have other potential health effects, including reduction of colo- rectal cancer, and reduction in cardiovascular dis- ease.90 Therefore, the question of whether or not rigorous photoprotection increases the risk of vitamin D deficiency is an important one.

Individual variables such as amount of skin pigmen- tation play a role in determining vitamin D produc- tion. There has been an emergence of vitamin D deficiency and rickets in dark-skinned patients in northern latitudes of the United States and United Kingdom. Meanwhile, similar populations in their countries of origin did not have this problem, which has led to suspicion that increased skin pigmentation may predispose dark-skinned patients to have vitamin D deficiency in certain geographic loca- tions.91 Because POC, especially those of darker skin, may have a higher risk for vitamin D insuffi- ciency secondary to higher skin melanin content,92

vitamin D supplementation should be recommen- ded as part of a photoprotection regimen for POC. Although there have been studies demonstrating decreased serum vitamin D levels in patients with photosensitivity practicing rigorous photoprotec- tion,93-95 regular use of sunscreens did not result in inadequate serum vitamin D level.95-97 It should be

Table III. Melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and Bowen disease in people of color

Skin cancer Pertinent demographics Physical presentation Differential diagnosis in POC Anatomic distribution Major risk factors in POC

Melanoma Median age of diagnosis in all races ranges from 52-63 y

Skin: Dark macules or patches with history of rapid spreading

Nail: Pigmented band [3 mm on the nail

Oral mucosa: Oral melanomas can rise from lesions of oral melanosis

Tinea nigra palmaris, talon noir, pigmented BCC

Commonly in lower extremities and plantar feet

UV radiation NOT a major risk factor

Risk factors for melanoma in POC unknown

BCC Most prevalent skin cancer in Hispanics14; second most common in blacks (in whom SCC is the most common)4,5

Typical: Asymptomatic solitary translucent nodules with pearly borders, rolled borders, and telangiectasia14

POC: Pigmentation in over half of cases; brown/black papules can also present as nodules, plaques, and ulcers

4,16,18

Seborrheic keratosis, blue nevus, trauma, lupus erythematosus, nevus sebaceous, sarcoidosis, and melanoma5,18

Head and neck most common in both whites and POC

15,19

Family history of skin cancer, Fitzpatrick skin type I, and the presence of actinic keratoses, solar lentigines, leukoderma, and elastosis rhomboidalis nuchae, UV radiation

SCC Most common skin cancer in blacks and Asian Indians; second most common in Hispanics, East Asians, and whites (second to BCC); in blacks: peak incidence in forties

Range between well- demarcated scaling pink plaques; firm, superficial, well-demarcated papules/ nodules emerging from round, indurated elevated base; granulomatous or verrucous lesions; and nonhealing ulcers

Lesions can be hypopigmented or hyperpigmented

Actinic keratosis, nummular eczema, inflamed seborrheic keratosis, verruca vulgaris

Typically on the face in white skin; in POC, not uncommon in areas not typically exposed to the sun, including lower extremities and anus

Lower limb/scalp SCC: Chronic scarring and inflammatory processes including hydradenitis suppurativa, lupus erythematosus, chemical/ thermal burns, chronic skin ulcers, chronic trauma sites of previous radiation; immunocompromised patients also at risk

Head/neck SCC: UV radiation Bowen disease Black women affected twice

as often as black men Scaly hyperkeratotic pigmented plaques resembling seborrheic keratoses

Seborrheic keratoses, pigmented BCC, superficial BCC, malignant melanoma, or nonspecific pigmented hyperkeratotic lesions

Areas not typically exposed to the sun: including groin and extremities

See SCC

BCC, Basal cell carcinoma; POC, people of color; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma; UV, ultraviolet.

J A M

A C A D D

E R M

A T O L

A P R IL

2 0 14

7 5 8

A g b a i et

a l

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 759

noted that most of the vitamin D photoprotection studies were done in predominantly white popula- tion, raising a question to their applicability to the broader population. A guideline to follow would be Institute of Medicine recommendations of 400 IU of vitamin D daily for infants up to 1 year old, 600 IU for individuals between 1 and 70 years old, and 800 IU for those older than 70 years.98 The National Institutes of Health provided a listing of food sources of vitamin D, including but not limited to cod liver oil, salmon, tuna, swordfish, and vitamin Defortified dairy products.99

THE SPF AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE

A recent survey performed by Pourciau et al100

demonstrated a general belief among leaders in photodermatology that photoprotection counseling is warranted in POC. Still, there is a general lack of strong data supporting recommendations on SPF requirements for specific skin phototypes. It is known that a given sunscreen may demonstrate different SPF value in varying skin colors, as demon- strated by Damian et al101 (Sydney, Australia) in 1999. Using a xenon arc lamp with an emission spectrum simulating the UVA and UVB wavelengths of natural sunlight, the investigators found testing a sunscreen product in fair-skinned individuals (who had low MED) yielded higher SPF values compared with testing the same product in dark-skinned sub- jects (with higher MEDs). Because commercial testing of SPF is mandated to be done in fair- skinned individuals,102 SPF values of sunscreens on dark skin therefore may be lower that the SPF values stated in the label.101

Similar to the message on photoprotection for the general population, POC should also be advised to use a daily broad-spectrum sunscreen of at least SPF 30, and practice sun-protective behavior such as seeking shade and use of protective clothing, wide- brimmed hat, and sunglasses (Table I). Sunscreens should be applied liberally and reapplied every 2 hours while outdoors. Furthermore, patients should be advised to avoid tanning salons and intentional tanning with natural sunlight. A thorough skin examination, including examination of nails, oral cavity, gums, palms, soles, groin, and perianal area should be performed regularly by a dermatologist; for those older than 50 years, yearly examination is appropriate. Pigmented lesions on gums and streaks in nails are normal in POC, but should be monitored regularly for changes as malignant transformation can occur. For patients with history of skin NMSC or melanoma, or multiple nevi, monthly self-skin ex- amination is appropriate. Primary care physicians

should be educated on high-risk sites for MM, such as palms and soles (Tables II and III). Efforts are needed to take the diversity in culture, beliefs, and language across ethnicities into account so that photoprotec- tion education can reach the target population of color.

Wendy E. Roberts, MD, serves as a consultant for Allergan Medical, L’Oreal, La Roche-Posay, and NeoStrata, for which she receives honoraria. She also sits on the advisory board and consults for SkinMedica, for which she receives honoraria. She receives stock options from TopMD. She consults for Theraplex, for which she receives no compensation.

In 2013, Susan Taylor, MD, held seats on the advisory boards of Allergan, Beiersdorf, Inc, Excaliard Pharmaceuticals, and Unilever, for which she receives honoraria. She serves as a consultant for Curel Skincare, Pfizer, Schlesinger Associates, and Viviscal. Dr Taylor founded T2 Skincare for which she receives other financial benefit and serves in other roles. She receives grants as an investigator for Hisamitsu Pharmaceutical, Medicis Pharmaceuticals, Noven Pharmaceuticals, and Pfizer. Dr Taylor has received honoraria as a speaker from Allergan, Johnson & Johnson, Kao USA, Merz Pharmaceuticals, and Neostrata.

2012 found Dr Taylor serving as a consultant for Schlesinger Associates and Pfizer for which she received honoraria. She sat on the advisory board for Allergan, Beiersdorf and Excaliard Pharmaceuticals, for which she received honoraria. Dr Taylor founded T2 Skincare for which she received other financial benefit and served in other roles. She is an investigator for Pfizer, Medicis, Noven, and Hisamitsu, for which she receives honoraria. She contracted for Medscape/ WebMD for which she received honoraria. She served as a speaker for Merz Pharmaceuticals and Allergan for which she received honoraria. She receives no compen- sation for her role at the Philadelphia Life Sciences Institute.

In 2011, Dr Taylor was awarded grants as an investigator for Medicis and Noven Pharmaceuticals. She received honoraria for speaking from Elsevier and Johnson & Johnson. Dr Taylor sat on the advisory board for Merz Pharmaceuticals and Beiersdorf and received honoraria for her support. She served as a consultant and received a consulting fee from Tria Beauty and Johnson & Johnson Dr. Taylor has received honoraria as researcher from Johnson & Johnson and Beiersdorf.

Henry W. Lim, MD, serves as a consultant for Ferndale and La Roche-Posay for which he receives honoraria.

Roopal V. Kundu, MD, had no relevant conflict of interest to disclose. Her department receives compensa- tion for pharmaceutical sponsored research that does not benefit her directly.

Oma N. Agbai, MD, Kesha Buster, MD, Miguel Sanchez, MD, Claudia Hernandez, MD, Melvin Chiu, MD, FAAD, Zoe D. Draelos, MD, and Reva Bhushan, PhD, had no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose.

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

760 Agbai et al

REFERENCES

1. US Census Bureau. 2010 Census. Available from: URL:http://

www.census.gov. Accessed April 5, 2012.

2. Ridky TW. Nonmelanoma skin cancer. J Am Acad Dermatol

2007;57:484-501.

3. Mora RG, Burris R. Cancer of the skin in blacks: a review of

128 patients with basal-cell carcinoma. Cancer 1981;47:

1436-8.

4. Gloster HM Jr, Neal K. Skin cancer in skin of color. J Am Acad

Dermatol 2006;55:741-60;quiz 61-4.

5. Halder RM, Bridgeman-Shah S. Skin cancer in African

Americans. Cancer 1995;75:667-73.

6. Byrd KM, Wilson DC, Hoyler SS, Peck GL. Advanced presen-

tation of melanoma in African Americans. J Am Acad

Dermatol 2004;50:21-4;discussion 142-3.

7. Hu S, Parmet Y, Allen G, Parker DF, Ma F, Rouhani P, et al.

Disparity in melanoma: a trend analysis of melanoma

incidence and stage at diagnosis among whites, Hispanics,

and blacks in Florida. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:1369-74.

8. Cormier JN, Xing Y, Ding M, Lee JE, Mansfield PF, Gershen-

wald JE, et al. Ethnic differences among patients with

cutaneous melanoma. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1907-14.

9. Jimbow K, Quevedo WC Jr, Fitzpatrick TB, Szabo G. Some

aspects of melanin biology: 1950-1975. J Invest Dermatol

1976;67:72-89.

10. Montagna W, Carlisle K. The architecture of black and white

facial skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;24:929-37.

11. Kaidbey KH, Agin PP, Sayre RM, Kligman AM. Photoprotec-

tion by melaninea comparison of black and Caucasian skin.

J Am Acad Dermatol 1979;1:249-60.

12. Tadokoro T, Kobayashi N, Zmudzka BZ, Ito S, Wakamatsu K,

Yamaguchi Y, et al. UV-induced DNA damage and melanin

content in human skin differing in racial/ethnic origin. FASEB

J 2003;17:1177-9.

13. Halder RM, Ara CJ. Skin cancer and photoaging in ethnic skin.

Dermatol Clin 2003;21:725-32, x.

14. Rubin AI, Chen EH, Ratner D. Basal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J

Med 2005;353:2262-9.

15. Byrd-Miles K, Toombs EL, Peck GL. Skin cancer in individuals of

African, Asian, Latin-American, and American-Indian descent:

differences in incidence, clinical presentation, and survival

compared to Caucasians. J Drugs Dermatol 2007;6:10-6.

16. Bigler C, Feldman J, Hall E, Padilla RS. Pigmented basal cell

carcinoma in Hispanics. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996;34:751-2.

17. Kikuchi A, Shimizu H, Nishikawa T. Clinical histopathological

characteristics of basal cell carcinoma in Japanese patients.

Arch Dermatol 1996;132:320-4.

18. Bradford PT. Skin cancer in skin of color. Dermatol Nurs 2009;

21:170-7, 206; quiz 178.

19. Halder RM, Bang KM. Skin cancer in African Americans in the

United States. Dermatol Clin 1988;6:397-407.

20. Jackson BA. Nonmelanoma skin cancer in persons of color.

Semin Cutan Med Surg 2009;28:93-5.

21. Asuquo ME, Ngim O, Ugare G, Omotoso J, Ebughe G. Major

dermatologic malignancies encountered in a teaching hos-

pital surgical department in South Nigeria. Am J Clin

Dermatol 2008;9:383-7.

22. Chorun L, Norris JE, Gupta M. Basal cell carcinoma in blacks: a

report of 15 cases. Ann Plast Surg 1994;33:90-5.

23. Abreo F, Sanusi ID. Basal cell carcinoma in North American

blacks: clinical and histopathologic study of 26 patients. J Am

Acad Dermatol 1991;25:1005-11.

24. Hoy WE. Nonmelanoma skin carcinoma in Albuquerque, New

Mexico: experience of a major health care provider. Cancer

1996;77:2489-95.

25. Cheng SY, Luk NM, Chong LY. Special features of

non-melanoma skin cancer in Hong Kong Chinese patients:

10-year retrospective study. Hong Kong Med J 2001;7:22-8.

26. Sng J, Koh D, Siong WC, Choo TB. Skin cancer trends among

Asians living in Singapore from 1968 to 2006. J Am Acad

Dermatol 2009;61:426-32.

27. Chuang TY, Reizner GT, Elpern DJ, Stone JL, Farmer ER.

Nonmelanoma skin cancer in Japanese ethnic Hawaiians in

Kauai, Hawaii: an incidence report. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;

33:422-6.

28. Lee CS, Lim HW. Cutaneous diseases in Asians. Dermatol Clin

2003;21:669-77.

29. Alam M, Ratner D. Cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma. N

Engl J Med 2001;344:975-83.

30. Dhir A, Orengo I, Bruce S, Kolbusz RV, Alford E, Goldberg L.

Basal cell carcinoma on the scalp of an Indian patient.

Dermatol Surg 1995;21:247-50.

31. Suzuki T, Ueda M, Naruse K, Nagano T, Harada S, Imaizumi K,

et al. Incidence of actinic keratosis of Japanese in Kasai City,

Hyogo. J Dermatol Sci 1997;16:74-8.

32. Hale E. Current concepts in the management of actinic

keratoses. J Drugs Dermatol 2004;3(Suppl):S3-16.

33. Mora RG, Perniciaro C. Cancer of the skin in blacks, I: a review

of 163 black patients with cutaneous squamous cell carci-

noma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1981;5:535-43.

34. Copcu E, Aktas A, Sisman N, Oztan Y. Thirty-one cases of

Marjolin’s ulcer. Clin Exp Dermatol 2003;28:138-41.

35. Harwood CA, Surentheran T, McGregor JM, Spink PJ, Leigh IM,

Breuer J, et al. Human papillomavirus infection and

non-melanoma skin cancer in immunosuppressed and immu-

nocompetent individuals. J Med Virol 2000;61:289-97.

36. Karagas MR, Nelson HH, Sehr P, Waterboer T, Stukel TA,

Andrew A, et al. Human papillomavirus infection and

incidence of squamous cell and basal cell carcinomas of

the skin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:389-95.

37. Iftner A, Klug SJ, Garbe C, Blum A, Stancu A, Wilczynski SP,

et al. The prevalence of human papillomavirus genotypes in

nonmelanoma skin cancers of nonimmunosuppressed in-

dividuals identifies high-risk genital types as possible risk

factors. Cancer Res 2003;63:7515-9.

38. Amir H, Mbonde MP, Kitinya JN. Cutaneous squamous cell

carcinoma in Tanzania. Cent Afr J Med 1992;38:439-43.

39. Hubbell CR, Rabin VR, Mora RG. Cancer of the skin in blacks,

V: a review of 175 black patients with squamous cell

carcinoma of the penis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;18:292-8.

40. Caruso WR, Stewart ML, Nanda VK, Quismorio FP Jr.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in black patients with

discoid lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1987;14:156-9.

41. Johnson BL, Moy RL, White GM. Ethnic skin: medical and

surgical. Toronto (Ontario, Canada): Mosby; 1998.

42. Mora RG, Perniciaro C, Lee B. Cancer of the skin in blacks, III: a

review of nineteen black patients with Bowen’s disease. J Am

Acad Dermatol 1984;11:557-62.

43. Fleming ID, Barnawell JR, Burlison PE, Rankin JS. Skin cancer

in black patients. Cancer 1975;35:600-5.

44. Chen YC, Christiani DC, Su HJ, Hsueh YM, Smith TJ, Ryan LM,

etal.Early-lifeorlifetimesunexposure,sunreaction,andtherisk

of squamous cell carcinoma in an Asian population. Cancer

Causes Control 2010;21:771-6.

45. Koh D, Wang H, Lee J, Chia KS, Lee HP, Goh CL. Basal cell

carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma of the

skin: analysis of the Singapore cancer registry data 1968-97.

Br J Dermatol 2003;148:1161-6.

46. Watson M, Johnson CJ, Chen VW, Thomas CC, Weir HK,

Sherman R, et al. Melanoma surveillance in the United States:

J AM ACAD DERMATOL VOLUME 70, NUMBER 4

Agbai et al 761

overview of methods. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011;65(Suppl):

S6-16.

47. Cartee TV, Kini SP, Chen SC. Melanoma reporting to central

cancer registries by US dermatologists: an analysis of the

persistent knowledge and practice gap. J Am Acad Dermatol

2011;65(Suppl):S124-32.

48. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program:

SEER*Stat Database. National Cancer Institute, DCCPS,

Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch.

Available at: http://www.seer.cancer.gov. Accessed April 5,

2012.

49. Cockburn MG, Zadnick J, Deapen D. Developing epidemic of

melanoma in the Hispanic population of California. Cancer

2006;106:1162-8.

50. Bergfelt L, Newell GR, Sider JG, Kripke ML. Incidence and

anatomic distribution of cutaneous melanoma among

United States Hispanics. J Surg Oncol 1989;40:222-6.

51. Vazquez-Botet M, Latoni D, Sanchez JL. Malignant mela-

noma in Puerto Rico [in Spanish]. Bol Asoc Med P R 1990;

82:454-7.

52. Wu XC, Eide MJ, King J, Saraiya M, Huang Y, Wiggins C, et al.

Racial and ethnic variations in incidence and survival of

cutaneous melanoma in the United States, 1999-2006. J Am

Acad Dermatol 2011;65(Suppl):S26-37.

53. Rahman Z, Taylor SC. Malignant melanoma in African

Americans. Cutis 2001;67:403-6.

54. Collins RJ. Melanoma in the Chinese of Hong Kong: emphasis

on volar and subungual sites. Cancer 1984;54:1482-8.

55. Tucker MA, Goldstein AM. Melanoma etiology: where are we?

Oncogene 2003;22:3042-52.

56. Bradford PT, Goldstein AM, McMaster ML, Tucker MA. Acral

lentiginous melanoma: incidence and survival patterns in the

United States, 1986-2005. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:427-34.

57. Cress RD, Holly EA. Incidence of cutaneous melanoma among

non-Hispanic whites, Hispanics, Asians, and blacks: an

analysis of California cancer registry data, 1988-1993. Cancer

Causes Control 1997;8:246-52.

58. Sutherland CM, Mather FJ, Muchmore JH, Carter RD, Reed RJ,

Krementz ET. Acral lentiginous melanoma. Am J Surg 1993;

166:64-7.

59. Stevens NG, Liff JM, Weiss NS. Plantar melanoma: is the

incidence of melanoma of the sole of the foot really higher in

blacks than whites? Int J Cancer 1990;45:691-3.

60. Pipitone M, Robinson JK, Camara C, Chittineni B, Fisher SG.

Skin cancer awareness in suburban employees: a Hispanic

perspective. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:118-23.

61. Feun LG, Raub WA Jr, Duncan RC, Moffat F, Savaraj N,

Nemeth A, et al. Melanoma in a southeastern Hispanic

population. Cancer Detect Prev 1994;18:145-52.

62. Hu S, Soza-Vento RM, Parker DF, Kirsner RS. Comparison of

stage at diagnosis of melanoma among Hispanic, black, and

white patients in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Arch Dermatol

2006;142:704-8.

63. Black WC, Goldhahn RT Jr, Wiggins C. Melanoma within a

southwestern Hispanic population. Arch Dermatol 1987;123:

1331-4.

64. Chen YJ, Wu CY, Chen JT, Shen JL, Chen CC, Wang HC.

Clinicopathologic analysis of malignant melanoma in Taiwan.

J Am Acad Dermatol 1999;41:945-9.

65. Satoh S, Hashimoto-Tamaoki T, Furuyama J, Mihara K, Namba

M, Kitano Y. High frequency of tetraploidy detected in

malignant melanoma of Japanese patients by fluorescence

in situ hybridization. Int J Oncol 2000;17:707-15.

66. Gallagher RP, Rivers JK, Yang CP, McLean DI, Coldman AJ,

Silver HK. Melanocytic nevus density in Asian, Indo-Pakistani,

and white children: the Vancouver mole study. J Am Acad

Dermatol 1991;25:507-12.

67. Reintgen DS, McCarty KM Jr, Cox E, Seigler HF. Malignant

melanoma in black American and white American popula-

tions: a comparative review. JAMA 1982;248:1856-9.

68. Zell JA, Cinar P, Mobasher M, Ziogas A, Meyskens FL Jr,

Anton-Culver H. Survival for patients with invasive cutaneous

melanoma among ethnic groups: the effects of socioeco-

nomic status and treatment. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:66-75.

69. Friedman LC, Bruce S, Weinberg AD, Cooper HP, Yen AH, Hill

M. Early detection of skin cancer: racial/ethnic differences in

behaviors and attitudes. J Cancer Educ 1994;9:105-10.

70. Weinstock MA, Gardstein B. Twenty-year trends in the

reported incidence of mycosis fungoides and associated

mortality. Am J Public Health 1999;89:1240-4.

71. Criscione VD, Weinstock MA. Incidence of cutaneous T-cell

lymphoma in the United States, 1973-2002. Arch Dermatol

2007;143:854-9.

72. Di Landro A, Marchesi L, Naldi L, Motta T, Cainelli T. A case of

hypopigmented mycosis fungoides in a young Caucasian

boy. Pediatr Dermatol 1997;14:449-52.

73. Akaraphanth R, Douglass MC, Lim HW. Hypopigmented

mycosis fungoides: treatment and a 6(1/2)-year follow-up

of 9 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;42:33-9.

74. Whitmore SE, Simmons-O’Brien E, Rotter FS. Hypopigmented

mycosis fungoides. Arch Dermatol 1994;130:476-80.

75. Miller RW, Rabkin CS. Merkel cell carcinoma and melanoma:

etiological similarities and differences. Cancer Epidemiol

Biomarkers Prev 1999;8:153-8.

76. Anzai S, Sato T, Takayasu S, Asada Y, Terashi H, Takasaki S.

Postoperative hyponatremia in a patient with ACTH-producing

Merkel cell carcinoma. J Dermatol 2000;27:397-400.

77. Taylor SC. Enhancing the care and treatment of skin of color,

part 2: understanding skin physiology. Cutis 2005;76:302-6.

78. Kotrajaras R, Kligman AM. The effect of topical tretinoin on

photodamaged facial skin: the Thai experience. Br J Dermatol

1993;129:302-9.

79. Griffiths CE, Wang TS, Hamilton TA, Voorhees JJ, Ellis CN. A

photonumeric scale for the assessment of cutaneous photo-

damage. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:347-51.

80. Larnier C, Ortonne JP, Venot A, Faivre B, Beani JC, Thomas P,

et al. Evaluation of cutaneous photodamage using a photo-

graphic scale. Br J Dermatol 1994;130:167-73.

81. Chan HHL, Jackson B. Laser treatment on ethnic skin. In:

Lim HW, Hoenigsmann H, Hawk JLM, editors. Photoderma-

tology. New York: Informa Healthcare; 2007.

82. Chung JH, Lee SH, Youn CS, Park BJ, Kim KH, Park KC, et al.

Cutaneous photodamage in Koreans: influence of sex, sun

exposure, smoking, and skin color. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:

1043-51.

83. Chan HH, Manstein D, Yu CS, Shek S, Kono T, Wei WI.

The prevalence and risk factors of post-inflammatory hyper-

pigmentation after fractional resurfacing in Asians. Lasers

Surg Med 2007;39:381-5.

84. Kim M, Boone SL, West DP, Rademaker AW, Liu D, Kundu RV.

Perception of skin cancer risk by those with ethnic skin. Arch

Dermatol 2009;145:207-8.

85. Summers P, Bena J, Arrigain S, Alexis AF, Cooper K, Bordeaux JS.

Sunscreen use: non-Hispanic blacks compared with other racial

and/or ethnic groups. Arch Dermatol 2011;147:863-4.

86. Hall HI, Rogers JD. Sun protection behaviors among African

Americans. Ethn Dis 1999;9:126-31.

87. Buster KJ, You Z, Fouad M, Elmets C. Skin cancer risk

perceptions: a comparison across ethnicity, age, education,

gender, and income. J Am Acad Dermatol 2012;66:771-9.

J AM ACAD DERMATOL APRIL 2014

762 Agbai et al

88. Sanclemente G, Zapata JF, Garcia JJ, Gaviria A, Gomez LF,

Barrera M. Lack of correlation between minimal erythema

dose and skin phototype in a Colombian scholar population.

Skin Res Technol 2008;14:403-9.

89. Kundu RV, Kamaria M, Ortiz S, West DP, Rademaker AW,

Robinson JK. Effectiveness of a knowledge-based interven-

tion for melanoma among those with ethnic skin. J Am Acad

Dermatol 2010;62:777-84.

90. Vanchinathan V, Lim HW. A dermatologist’s perspective on

vitamin D. Mayo Clinic Proc 2012;87:372-80.

91. Diehl JW, Chiu MW. Effects of ambient sunlight and

photoprotection on vitamin D status. Dermatol Ther 2010;

23:48-60.

92. Nesby-O’Dell S, Scanlon KS, Cogswell ME, Gillespie C, Hollis BW,

Looker AC, et al. Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and de-

terminants among African American and white women of

reproductive age: third National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:

187-92.

93. Cusack C, Danby C, Fallon JC, Ho WL, Murray B, Brady J, et al.

Photoprotective behavior and sunscreen use: impact on

vitamin D levels in cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Photo-

dermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 2008;24:260-7.

94. Holme SA, Anstey AV, Badminton MN, Elder GH. Serum

25-hydroxyvitamin D in erythropoietic protoporphyria. Br J

Dermatol 2008;159:211-3.

95. Linos E, Keiser E, Kanzler M, Sainani KL, Lee W, Vittinghoff E,

et al. Sun protective behaviors and vitamin D levels in the US

population: NHANES 2003-2006. Cancer Causes Control 2012;

23:133-40.

96. Sollitto RB, Kraemer KH, DiGiovanna JJ. Normal vitamin D

levels can be maintained despite rigorous photoprotection:

six years’ experience with xeroderma pigmentosum. J Am

Acad Dermatol 1997;37:942-7.

97. Norval M, Wulf HC. Does chronic sunscreen use reduce

vitamin D production to insufficient levels? Br J Dermatol

2009;161:732-6.

98. Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, Aloia JF, Brannon PM, Clinton

SK, et al. The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for

calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what

clinicians need to know. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:53-8.

99. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.

Dietary supplement fact sheet: Vitamin D. Available at: http://

ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-QuickFacts/. Accessed

April 2, 2012.

100. Pourciau CY, Eide MJ, Mahan M, Lim HW. Photoprotection

counseling of non-white ethno-racial groups: a survey of the

practice of expert dermatologists. Photodermatol Photo-

immunol Photomed 2012;28:335-7.

101. Damian DL, Halliday GM, Stc Barnetson R. Sun protection

factor measurement of sunscreens is dependent on minimal

erythema dose. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:502-7.

102. Wang SQ, Lim HW. Current status of the sunscreen regulation

in the United States: 2011 Food and Drug Administration’s

final rule on labeling and effectiveness testing. J Am Acad

Dermatol 2011;65:863-9.

FALL 2018 1

FALL 2018

Advances in Engineering Education

Identifying as an Entrepreneur: A Social Identity Perspective of the Entrepreneurial Mindset

RUSSELL KORTE

The George Washington University

Washington, DC

ABSTRACT

An entrepreneurial mindset helps innovators find, interpret, evaluate, and pursue opportunities for

their innovations. It is a concept having multiple definitions and contradictions variously focused on

individual traits, behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs. Robinson claimed that across the various definitions

of an entrepreneurial mindset there was little theoretical grounding to be found. To address this

shortcoming, this essay describes Social Identity Theory, and its close cousin, Self-Categorization

Theory, which have gained significant traction in psychology and sociology, as theoretical founda-

tions for understanding and developing an entrepreneurial mindset. Social identity is a psychological

construct describing individuals’ perceptions and values of belonging to a particular social group—in

this case, affiliating with those identifying themselves as entrepreneurs. The argument put forth here

is that a crucial aspect of developing an entrepreneurial mindset in engineering students involves

helping them identify as entrepreneurs.

Key words: Engineering Profession, Identity, Entrepreneurship

INTRODUCTION

“When engineering is charged with identifying unmet needs in the marketplace and leveraging

disruptive or high-technology-based designs to fill those unmet needs, then engineering becomes

the crux of new market creation, and developing benefit-providing, customer-driven products and

processes moves into the fore of the new tools students need to add to their toolboxes” (Kriewall

and Mekemson 2010).

One of the new tools needed by engineering students for meeting the new engineering charge

described above is an entrepreneurial mindset. An entrepreneurial engineer is expected to have

1

THE ENTREPRENEURIAL

EDUCATOR

Robert J. Brown Jeffrey R. Cornwall

2

SCARECROW PRESS, INC.

P b i hed i he U i ed S a e f A e ica b Sca ec P e , I c.

4720 B Wa , La ha , Ma a d 20706 . ca ec e .c

4 P e de Ga de , F ke e Ke CT20 2DN, E g a d

C igh 2000 b R be J. B a d Jeff e R. C a

All rights reserved. N a f hi b ica i a be e d ced, ed i a e ie a e , a i ed i a f b a ea , e ec ic, echa ica ,

h c i g, ec di g, he i e, i h he i e i i f he b i he .

B i i h Lib a Ca a g i g i P b ica i I f a i A ai ab e

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

B , R be J. The e e e e ia ed ca / R be J. B , Jeff e R. C a . . c . I c de bib i g a hica efe e ce a d i de . ISBN: 978-0-8108-3899-4 ISBN: 0-8108-3899-0

a k. a e ) 1. Ed ca i U i ed S a e Fi a ce. 2. Ed ca i a eade hi U i ed

S a e . 3. E e e e hi U i ed S a e . I. C a , Jeff e R. II. Ti e. LB2825 .B72 2000

371.2'06 dc21 00-045022

The a e ed i hi b ica i ee he i i e i e e f A e ica Na i a S a da d f I f a i Scie ce Pe a e ce f Pa e f P i ed Lib a Ma e ia , ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Ma fac ed i he U i ed S a e f A e ica.

3

CONTENTS

F e d

PART I THE NEW REALITIES OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

1 H We G He e

2 The R e f E e e e hi i Ed ca i

3 The T adi i a e he E e e e ia Ed ca i a O ga i a i

4 C ea i g a E e e e ia C e

5 The Ed ca i a I a e e

6 P a i g a d I e e a i f he E e e e ia C i

PART II TOOLS AND TACTICS

7 Ma ke i g

8 Te i g Y S : Pe ce i Is Rea i

9 C ea i g Ed ca i a O i ie h gh Pa e hi

4

10 Seeki g a d Sec i g G a

11 L ca M e S ce

12 U e f I e ec a P e I de

Ab he A h

5

FOREWORD

E e e e c ea e e b i e e . Ca ee fe i a a age he ed ca i e ac A e ica. The cha ac e i ic a ib ed each

f he e fe i a e a ked diffe e a d he e i cha ce ha e d i ake abe a ca ee fe i a a e e e e . A

ea he e i cha ce ha i di id a i b i e d ake hi i ake beca e b i e d e c ide ed ca i a b i e . B b B a d Jeff C a begi hi b k b gge i g ha

b i e a be f ced ec ide i i i ed ca i if he e d a d i a i i g b ic ch ake a d e a d a

a ici a ed. Thi e d i d i e b e e e e b e ed i h he i de a e hei abi i be e ed ca e he c

chi d e . Thi b e i f b i e e c e ed ca i ha bee f e ed b Nation at Risk, a U.S. De a e f Ed ca i e

b i hed i he ea 1980 , hich ca f b d ac i a d he a i fai i g ch e .

Ch i Whi e, a cce f b i he , i a g d e a e f e e ed ake ac i b acce i g he cha e ge d ce a b d

e e. He a ched Cha e O e, b hi eff a bi e ed b a i a ed ca i ga i a i . The e c i ic , h e e , fai ed a e Whi e c i e , de e i a i , c ea i i , e f- e ia ce, a d

i a i e ce . I he e d, e a i e ed ca ed ca i eade ig i g he a i a ga i a i a d e b aci g Whi e, he i g hi

c ea e a cce f e ed ca i b i e . Whi e cce a ed he a f he ide f ed ca i , ch a S e e Wi , J h Ki ,

a d D g Becke , e hei b i e idea i ed ca i . The e

6

e c e a ac e e ca i a ed ca i , a d a he cceed he e e he a e a, c ea i g a e a ge ig e. I i he

e f he e b i e - ie ed e c e a d ha ca be ea ed f he ha a ea be he ea he a h ack ed hi

bjec . The de i g e i e f B a d C a b k ee be

ha he bad deci i i deci i . The a h c ec i ha he b ic de a d f g ea e acc abi i ega di g e f a ce a da d ca f b d e . If h e i ide he e

ca , i , a e ac , he i be ef behi d b he g i g be f ide h a e e ci ed b he cha e ge a d

i i g i k e a i a d e a f e hei abi i de a d a d add e i a b e i ed ca i . A f hi i a

c e a f a e k he a h e a a ba i f ide if i g e idea a d ac ice h f i i a i . I i hi e i i a i ha he h e

i i a e e e e c ea i f i hi he ed ca i e ab i h e .

O e ef e hi g a ec f hi b k i ha he di c i f gge ed idea a d ac ice a id he f da e a a ib i e f aci g

ch e ha i he cha ac e i ic f i di id a . I ha i does a d ha i is ha i i a . Pe e ch a Ch i Whi e a e e i a ha he i a i ha c ea e he . B b B a d Jeff C a igh f f c he i a i a d e e a f ce ha ca e beha i , a d e hi f c a a ba i f idi g he f gge i

ed ca . The c c de ha he i a i dic a e he eed f e e e e e ia beha i .

Wha e a e h gh hi b k i he a h ac ica e e ie ce, di ec a ach b e i g, a d c ce f he ed ca i e ab i h e . The k d e g if e a e e e e e . I i gge ha e beha i a e h e a i i g a d ib de i g if e a e cceed i b i di g effec i e ca ea i g c i ie .

D . J e h J. Sche e , ice e ide f Hif i , he fi ig ifica I e e e ice ide gea ed de , a e , a d eache Dr. Scherer has also been the associate executive director of The American Association of School Administrators, the executive director of the National School Public Relations Association, and director of Government Relations for the National PTA

7

Pa I

THE NEW REALITIES OF EDUCATIONAL

LEADERSHIP

8

HOW WE GOT HERE

Ed ca i i cha gi g a id , b ed ca i a eade hi ha ke ace. I he c ia e a a d i he ea ea f he U i ed S a e ,

ed ca i a ee a a fa i a d ch ch e ibi i . P i a ed ca i a ided i he h e i a ch , ica i h a i g e eache . A he a i e a ded e a d, c ch e e i a ed b he N h e O di a ce f 1787 a d cceedi g fede a

a ha ided a d g a f he f b ic ed ca i . Th gh he eff f H ace Ma a d he , he e c

ch e e e ged i ch e b he id- i e ee h ce . E ce f he e i e fe h d be g i g highe ed ca i , ec da ed ca i a a i f A e ica i af e he

Kalamazoo c ca e i 1876. Tha Michiga S e e C deci i c a ified ha i a ega i e a e b ic ec da ch . B he begi i g f he e ie h ce , b ic ed ca i a

i e a ffe ed, a h gh c e i f ec da ed ca i did bec e he i af e W d Wa II.

A ch e g e , did hei g e i g a d ad i i a i e e ibi i ie . C ch e e g e ed b ca b a d ha

hi ed he eache eache a d he ided he ge e a e igh f he ch . Wi h he de e e f a ge ch a d i e b i di g

di ic , he e i e de c a e ab i hed ide ge e a a age e a d eade hi f ch e . Beca e he f e e e

9

he e i a ch e i h a c ege deg ee, ea e i e de e e ee a hi he h ga e di ec i he e b i e f hei g ea ed ca i a backg d. Whe A e ica

b i e e e ed ha beca e k a he e a f efficie c , ch e i e de e e e ec ed ake he ch a i i a c .

Wi h he d a a ic g h f ch d i g he W d Wa II bab b e a, he e i e de c e ed i he e f a b a d chief e ec i e, i h e ibi i ie f i g ic i i ia i e a d

a agi g he e e i e. G h i he i e f ch b i di g ed he eed f de ig a ed

eade hi i e. I i ia hi ea he a i e f a eache i cha ge i ci a eache . E e a , a ad i i a i e d ie e a ded, he e f he b i di g i ci a a c ea ed. Thi ade

i ci a idd e a age i b ea c a ic ga i a i . Whi e he e be ed ca i a eade , e a d c e e i i b ce a

ffice e e i i ed he i ci a abi i i i ia e ac i . I ece ea e e ha e g a ch ad i i a .

Pa e , ed b ad cac g , a e de a di g e c e he ed ca i f hei chi d e . Si ce he 1970 he fede a a d a e

g e e ha e e i ed ha ch dea i h he g- eg ec ed eed f ecia ed ca i de . I addi i , ch

ide ecia acc da i f a ch a ge g f de de Sec i 504 f he Rehabi i a i Ac f 1973. L -i c e a d i i g fee ha hei ed ca i a eed a e bei g e . A

a id g i g a i f i i ed E g i h- eaki g de a eed be e ed.

E ec ed fficia e e f a i i h e cei ed b e i de achie e e de i e g- e i c ea e i ed ca i a

e e di e ha ace he a e f i f a i . Q e i a e ai ed ab he ack f acc abi i e ha e a e de cce .

Ta a e g a ha ch ecei e i c ea i g a e e e he he de ea e e c e e hei ed ca i a g a . Teache

ga i a i de a d be e a a d c e ki g c di i . Re di g he e e e , ic ake a d c ha e bee aki g cha ge i he ed ca i e . S e f he e ac i a e

d a a ica cha gi g he face f A e ica ed ca i a d i c de he f i g:

1. L f d e e e e a a f ed ca e a e e . Begi i g i h he high i ib e P i i 13 i

Ca if ia, a e ha e i ed ic i i he e f e

10

a e ch . The c , egi a e , a d ci i e efe e da ha e a a ed a e i i i i g he e f e a e . The e i i ed ce he a h i a d i f he ch b a d a d

ad i i a . 2. C ec e ba a f b c e ee . A he a e i e a

i c e ce a e bei g c ai ed, ad i i a i e a h i e e e di e i bei g i i ed b ba gai i g ag ee e . Ma e c ac a ed ce ad i i a i e c e aff i i a i a d a ig e .

3. Ma e c b d a e a e d c e f acc ab . The Ke ck Ed ca i Ref Ac f 1990 a he fi f a ea e a ed b a e egi a e ha he d he b i di g

aff acc ab e f he cce f de . The e ac ed ce he a h i f he ch di ic ce a ffice a d i c ea e he e ibi i ie f he b i di g ad i i a .

4. C ea c e e b c c d c . Mag e ch , igi a ee a a f de eg ega i , a e bec i g e

a a ea f cha e gi g ch be e ee he eed f hei c ie . Sch di ic a e c ea i g a e a i e ch , a ic a a he ec da e e , a a acce e a i g ace. I Mi e a, f e a e, he be f de e ed i a e a i e ch i c ea ed f

4,000 80,000 (ab 10 e ce f he b ic ch e e i he a e) i e ea . 5. E a d a e a . I di id a a e ca a a

ig ifica e i he ed ca i a ace e f he chi d. Ad ca e ha e ake he e a e a igh , hich e e c a ified b ecia ed ca i c deci i a d a i he 1970 , a d ed he a he ba i f a ch ice g a .

6. C e f de e ca c d c . D i g he 1990 , h ee ef ha e c ea ed e c e i i f he adi i a

b ic a d i a e ch . Postsecondary educational options a de e i c ege hi e c e i g high ch , he c ege

c e bei g aid b a e aid ha d ha e g e he ch di ic (a h gh e a e a f a e b h he c ege a d he ch di ic ). Open enrollment a de a e d a b ic ch di ic i he a e ega d e f he e he i e. Charter schools

a e b ic ch ha a e f eed f a f he e g e i g he b ic ch . S e f he e e d a e c adic . The e hi g he ha e i

c i i c ea ed e e he ed ca i a eade d e i h

11

fe e e ce a d ed ced a h i . The e d a d g ea e acc abi i c i e g . The

de a d f c e i i i i c ea i g i h e e egi a i e e i a d e e ce e f ed ca i a di . De a d f che a d a c edi , he g h f h e ch i g, he e a i f i a e

ed ca i , a d he de e e f f - fi ch a e c ea i g e c e i i f b ic ch .

Beca e f he e cha ge a d e d , he e f ed ca i a eade cha ge if he a e g i g f c i effec i e . C ic a d

i c i i c i e be he i a f c . H e e , effec i e eade dea i h ec i i g de , ac i i g e ce , b i di g

i e a a d e e a c i , ge i g e ba g f he b ck, a d e hi ki g he e defi i i f a ch . M di i c i be ee he e f b ic ch , i a e ch , a d ie a ch eade i di a ea .

The e f hi b k i he he ed ca i a eade e hi k, edefi e, a d e a d hi he e ee he cha e ge f he

ed ca i a a ke ace. The e fi e cha e i a 1 ake he eade h gh he e eeded b i d a e e e e ia ed ca i

c i . Thi i be d e b defi i g e e e e hi i ed ca i , c a i g he e f he adi i a eade i h he ed ca i a e e e e , gge i g h c ea e a e e e e ia c e a d f e e e e e ia hi ki g, a d a i g he i e e a i f he e e e e ia ed ca i c i .

Pa 2 i e f a ki f he e e e e ia ed ca . I ide ecific i f a i , ki de e e idea , e a e , a d

e i ha i g ide ch i c e i g i he ed ca i a ke ace. A he e d f each cha e i a i f gge ed ac i i ie

ha igh be ied a d a i f e ce f h e h a a e i - de h k edge f he bjec .

Re e be , hi b k i not a e c ic he i e a a age e f he ch i e e . I i a ed ha he eade ,

ike a e be f he ch eade hi ea , ha he a ia e backg d a d k edge i h e a ea . Wi h ha de a di g, hi b k ca be ed i a a . A e e e e a i g a e ch

aki g e a he eade f a e i i g i i i ca e he b k a a check i f begi i g he c a e a i . The ac ici g ad i i a h eed he i h a ecific b e i dea i g i h he c e i i e e i e f de ed ca i ca e he b k a a efe e ce f a ic a c ce a he a i e. C ege ca e he b k

12

a a e i a i ci a hi c a i a e i a ed ca i a cha ge a c a ecifica e e e e ia ed ca i .

13

THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN EDUCATION

T a , he i f a i g e e e e ia i ci e ch i ci a i a a ge idea i deed. Sch ad i i a ha e bee , a d

c i e be, ai ed a age i a e a i e cha gi g d. The a age b dge , i e e ic a d ced e, a d a age c ic a.

Cha ge, if i e i , i i c e e a . A a di c ed i he cha e 1, he ad i i a d i ge ab e b , a he , i f f a id a d

b e cha ge. T ada , he ch ad i i a f da bec e a eade h ca a iga e h gh cha ge ha a i e he

e c e f h ed ca i i be de i e ed i he f e. The e -k b i e a age e g Pe e D cke ha

c a ed he d f ed ca i da i h ha f hea h ca e i he ea 1980 . A ha i e, hea h ca e a i g f a e ab e

e i d e f f da e a cha ge. Ma aged ca e, e e e gi g a i a f - fi c a ie , a d a id i i g c f e e cha ged

hea h ca e. The ica hea h ca e ad i i a f ha da a ai ed i a a i i a da ch ad i i a . H e e , a he cha ge f he 1980 bega ake ace, hea h ca e ad i i a had

ea a h e e e f ki dea i h ch e e gi g fac a e c e i i , cha gi g c e e ec a i , e f di g echa i , a d cha gi g de f hea h ca e de i e . The a a e ed ca i da a e i deed e a kab e. Whe e de c ibed he

14

c e f hi b k a e i ed ch ad i i a , hi e e a , I g ad I e i ed he I did. Ye hea h ca e ha i ed, a d a f he ad i i a i hea h ca e ea ed ada hei e

e i e . Sch eade e ha e a ked a ha he de a d ha hei e eed f da e a cha ge effec i e add e he cha ge i

ed ca i . H e e , a a e a a a h acc i h ch a a i i a d ecifica h i i i ac h he d hei j b . A

c he e a f he hea e a d e i ha he ha e bec e e e e e e ia . B j ha d e ha ea ?

WHAT IS ENTREPRENEURSHIP?

Hi ica , e e e e e e h gh be b , ade. The d entrepreneur a ed b a de c ibe a e a i e. E e e e e e ie ed a high e h d i k e e hi g a hi . E e e e e e ee a aki g a d i g f e e a d

e i h each e dea . The h i ha cce f e e e e a e de i k ake h e e i e i ie i h a c ea a .

Ma f c b i di g g- e ec ic ec i f hei fa i ie a d hei e ee .

E e e e ha e a bee ie ed a e a ge . E e e e e e h gh be ab e a d i i g de ega e a c

a h i . The e e ee a he a i he i a ea a e . The h i ha cce f e e e e a e h e h de a d he i a ce f

de e i g a g ea . M ch ai i g f e e e e i de ed he i g he ea h e a a e ha eed be fi ed b hei ea a d h b i d ha ea .

The ica e e e e ha a bee a ed a a e e e e e a d j a i e bi c a . The h i ha e e e e c e i a e a i e , a d e ha e be e cce f ha a he . E e e e a ge f i e e e , f

cia ki ed cia - h bic , f age j ai di a . The e a ic d f e e e e hi ha de a ed ha

e e e e hi i a a f a agi g ha ca be ea ed b a age a d ad i i a . Tha i , e e e e hi i ha e e

d e , ha he a e ike ba ed e edi ed e f e a i cha ac e i ic . E e e e hi i he ce f cce f aki g ad a age f i ie f he be efi f he akeh de f a

15

ga i a i . The e ce e ca be ea ed b a a e e ie ced a age ad i i a . S cce f e e e e a e a ba ic e f

ki ha i c de he f i g: 1. Rec c a e a d e e a d ea c ea e .

S cce f e e e e kee a ha e e hei e i e . The k f e d , di i i he a , i a i ha ca

c ea e e i ie . Sch eade h d a c e a e i b ade e d , i c di g h e e a ed i a e ch , I e e ed ca i , h e ch i g, cha e ch , ed ca i egi a i , a d cha ge i a e a e ec a i . The h d a a a e i cha ge i hei i edia e e i e i he e a e a ea . We di c hi f he i he e h ee cha e .

2. Reac ac e a e a eac e . E e e e ea eac ac i e a he ha eac i e cha ge i hei e i e .

E e e e ea e cha ge a he ea ha cha ge i he e gi e f e idea a d i ie . F e a e, a he ha a i e ai

f he e a i f h e ch i g e e a ha e a ig ifica ega i e i ac e e a d f di g, a e e e e ia ch eade d he e d ea a d fi d a c ea e a ad a age

f hi he ch f hi e e gi g e d. We e e hi ki i e de ai i he e cha e .

3. Ha e e c ea e e a . Reac i g cha ge i he d a d e i e c ea i e i . A f ha e c ea i e

e ia , b a f d e e ci e i e gh. Thi i a ic a e f h e i adi i a ad i i a i e e h e ca ee a e b i hei abi i a age ede e i ed b dge a d e e ha icie a d ced e a e adhe ed . H e e , cha ge c ea e

i a i ha e i e ch eade ad i i a e e a d c ea i e b e e e. Sch eade ea effec i e ec g i e a d c ea defi e e b e a d e ech i e ch a

b ai i g ge e a e e ia i . The ea hi k ide he adi i a b da ie f hei ad i i a i e e.

4. U de a d e d ffe e ce be ee a dea a d a . E e e e ake ad a age f cha ge i hei e i e . Th gh he cce f a ica i f he e i h ee ki , a idea i

begi face. A hi i , i bec e c i ica ea de a d he diffe e ce be ee ha a face a e ee be a g d idea a d ha i a g d i . I he e a market f he idea he

ha e de e ed? I he e a margin i hei idea? Tha i , i i fi a cia ib e a d ai ab e? Fi a , i i c i e i h he i i f he

16

ga i a i ? Effec i e fea ibi i a a i , hich e a ica a e he e e i , i he i c ea e he babi i f cce f a e e dea b fi di g e i b e a d f a before ig ifica e ce a e e e ded. Faced i h he e i e a e f

e a di g h e ch i g, he ch eade a c e i h a i e e i g idea add e he e d. O e f he e a be iab e

a egie f a gi e ch di ic . Thi ic i e a i ed f he i cha e 5.

5. De e effec e ac a . E e e e a e e a a e f he i a ce f a e -c c ed b i e a . Sch eade

i i e a i i a a ach h gh he de e e f ac i a f e i i ia i e . Thi i a aj ic f cha e 6.

6. U de a d e d ffe e ce be ee f eca a d b d e . B dge a e fi a cia ha a e ba ed ha i k f he

a . F eca e i e a diffe e e f fi a cia ki , a he a e c c ed f e idea ha ike ha e hi d a . The e ki e a e a e a i ed i e de ai i cha e 6.

FORMS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

A individual entrepreneur i e h a a e e e, be i a f - fi b i e a fi e. The e i di id a fi d a eed i he

a ke ace, de e a a h ake ad a age f ha eed, ge he he ece a e ce , a d a a e i de e de e e.

F e a e, i ed ca i he i di id a e e e e c d be he ie f a f - fi ed ca i a age e c a . I c d a

be he f de f a fi cha e ch . The i di id a e e e e i ha e e hi k f he he

hea he e entrepreneurship. H e e , he ce f e e e e hi a ake ace i hi e i i g ga i a i , a d i i e e e e hi i hi e i i g ed ca i a ga i a i , ch a

b ic ch e adi i a i a e ch , ha hi b k f c e .

E e e e hi ca ake f i e i i g ga i a i : i a e e hi a d e e e e ia ga i a i . Giff d Pi ch III (1985) defi e a intrapreneur i a i di id a i hi a a ge

ga i a i h ac ike a i di id a e e e e . The i a e e i d ce e d c e ice ha e ab e a ga i a i ada

cha ge a d g . F e a e, he i a e e c d be he

17

e e i g ad ca e i hi a b ic ch e ha ie gai f he de e e f a i a i e a e a i e ch f

de i h e e e beha i a di de ha a ha e bee adi i a e ed i hi he ch di ic . T i a i ab i a e e eed be ade a hi i . Fi , he ce ha he i a e e f i i e diffe e

ha he e f ed b he adi i a i di id a e e e e di c ed e i . Pi ch de c ibe he i a e e a a he ic i di id a h , de i e a dd , i ab e figh he a a d b ea c ac f he a ge ga i a i a d cha i he e d c

e ice h gh he c a e ga e . The i di id a e e e e e a e i he b ade a d e f e ib e ec ic a ke ace. Each

c e c ea e i e ad a age a d di ad a age . Sec d, i a e e hi f e ake ace i ga i a i ha if e

e e e e ia ac i i . The e ga i a i fai c ea e a e i e ha e e e e ia beha i . I a e e fi d a cceed a g e e h a e ab e e e i i g he he cceed; , a i f e he ca e, he decide ea e he

ga i a i i f a i a d de e hei idea e he e e e. I he e i e a e, he i a e e igh eek a fi f -

fi e i ha i i i g he i he ide ified e e beha i a di de ed chi d e .

H e e , ga i a i ca c ea e e i e ha a e e a i e i e f e e e e hi i a a . A g i g b d f he

a d e ea ch h ha a ge ga i a i , e c age, a d f e e e e e hi be cce f e he g e i ada i g a cha gi g e i e . A ga i a i ha c ea e ch a i e a e i e i ha C a a d Pe a (1990) defi e a a entrepreneurial organization. I i i a ake c ea ha he

e e ce f i a e e i a ga i a i a be a ef ec i f h e e e e ia he ga i a i i a a h e. Wi h , i a e e i , e i e, ea e f ga i a i ha ffe a e e e e ia c e i hich he ca e ea i a d effec i e

e i ie ha he ide if i he a ke . The e e e e ia ga i a i i ead , i i g, a d ab e ada

a cha gi g e i e . C ea i g a e e e e ia ga i a i , e ecia i hi he ed ca i a a e a, i a i e ce . I e i e a e i he e i e ga i a i , g a d ea i hi he ga i a i , a d he i a e e he e e . I e i e a i g

e a e i he f e ha he a . I agi e i g d i e a ca

18

hi e ki g i he ea - ie i . The fi c e i he ad d ce ai e di a e . Ye ha i e ac ha e d he

e ake deci i he f e f ed ca i a e ba ed e h e ha e adi i a d e hi g i he a .

ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND RISK

E e e e hi i a cia ed i h aki g i k, a d aki g i k i a a f a deci i aki g d e i ch . The deci i b i d e

faci i ie , ffe e c e , cha ge he ca e da c e f he ch da i e aki g i k. The e f i k ha hi b k

f c e i ha i k i he e i he e e e e ia ce . The ag i de f hi e f i k aki g ca be ch g ea e i e f

b h gai a d e . I a b ic ch e , i i diffic e ec ad i i a ake e e e e ia i k i h ig ifica cha ge i h he e e a e . T adi i a , he e i i e e a d f aki g e e e e ia i k a d cceedi g, hi e he e i ig ifica e a a d fe i a c a cia ed i h aki g ch i k a d fai i g. A , ad i i a fee i - e a ed f i g i k e dea .

H e e , i i e f b e a d a id cha ge, i i c i ica e e be ha he e a e e f e e e e ia i k. The fi e f i k i e i g a e d c e ice a d ha i g i fai .

Dick a d Gig ie a (1986) efe hi a sinking-the-boat risk. Thi i he e f i k ha ge e a c e i d he hi ki g ab e e e e hi . The i -fa ed ag ee e be ee Ed ca i A e a i e , I c., a d he Ba i e Ci P b ic Sch i a e a e

f a i a i e i i ia i e ha fai ed. Fai e i hi ca e e ed e f he a i f he i a d e f i i e e a i a d e ec i . H e e , ch a fai e ca c ea e a chi e he ch e ha a e c ide i g ei he i e e i g i a i e

i e i g b e i g i ie c ea ed b cha ge.

Sch e , a ic a b ic ch , ha e be e i i e i ki g- he-b a i k. Fai ed i k aki g ca b i g i e e c i b a a e a d he edia. E e h gh i k aki g i ece a f a ch e ada cha ge, edia e e ca bec e i e e.

U f a e he e a d e e e he a e age a a e a ha e a h - e ie ha d e e c a he eed ake i k i

19

he face f aj cha ge a d c e i i c ea ed b e ed ca i a e i ie .

Si ki g he b a i a aj i k f ch e c ide . H e e , i i ha f he ic e he ki g a a ed ca i a

ga i a i a d he e e e e ia i k ha i a e . Missing-the-boat i k i he ec d e f i k. Thi i he i k ha

defi e a ac i e i ie ha ha e bee e ked, di i ed, f d a e. F e a e, e e a ea ag he S a e f Mi e a f ded he Mi e a Ed ca i C i g C i de e ed ca i a f a e. Mi e a decided i hi jec ff beca e i did ee fi i h he a e adi i a ed ca i a i i a d beca e he a e a i i g i e he e i eeded g a d de e e d c . The c i e bec e he

igi a ide f f a e f A e c e , hich i e d i a e ch a i ide. C ea he Mi e a De a e f

Ed ca i i ed hi b a . O ga i a i f a e e d i he b a f ea . Fi ,

he fai ide if e i ie . Sca i g he e i e f i ie i f e e ec ed f a age a d ad i i a i

hei j b . I i a a ki i hich he ha e bee ai ed. Sec d, i ie a e i ed beca e a h gh he e e ide ified b he

ga i a i , i did ha e ce e i ace e he i . E e e e ia i k h d be ie ed a a ba a ce f b h i ki g-

he-b a a d i i g- he-b a i k . Ig i g ei he e f i k ca e i he he e f i k c ea i g di a e f a ga i a i .

Sch e ha eek ed ce he i k f i g e i ie ( i ki g he b a ) i c ea e he i k f i ie

( i i g he b a ). Ed ca i a ga i a i ha a ea be c e a i e i k a ide ea i e ig ifica i k b i i g

e ia i a i ie . I i e f a id cha ge i h ed ca i i bei g de i e ed, hi c d ha e a ig ifica ega i e i ac he fi a cia e -bei g f h e ga i a i . C e e ,

ga i a i ha ig e he i ki g- he-b a i k e i e bec e ca e e a d i k fi a cia i . The e i a c a ade- ff be ee he

e f i k. Si ki g- he-b a i k i ef ec ed i a i i h - e e f a ce.

B dge a e ec ed, a d e ake d e fe i a i k. H e e , b i c ea i g he i i g- he-b a i k, ed ca i a

ga i a i a ega i e i ac hei i e edia e a d g- e e f a ce. The i k bei g ab e ada cha ge a ha d a d a

20

e e i k i i g e he g e . F e a e, a i i i f highe ed ca i a e i e i g i I e e -ba ed di a ce ea i g, hi e

e a e . I e e i ech g ha a ee e e b dge i he h ike i e e e dic a e i a e he g

f he e i i i .

INDIVIDUAL RISK AND CAREER ISSUES

I a i a i , he i di id a ad i i a i ed i e e e e ia ac i i ie i ake ig ifica i k he e e . Of c e, hi i he i k f ca i a i e e ha a i di id a e e e e face . I he ca e f he ga i a i a e e e e , ed ca i a ad i i a i k hei e a i a d, i e ca e , hei ca ee he e i i ia i e he a e a e i g de e . I ch

e ha ffe i e , hi e a i k i e e e ha ad i i a a e ge e a i i g de ake e e e e ia i k. The babi i f d ide i k f he e ad i i a i g ea (i.e., ca ee a h dead e d) a d he babi i f ide i k a (i.e., ec g i i f cce , e a d , a d i ). Thi i a i ead e e h ha e i a i e idea f ig ifica e i i ia i e e ice ei he f ge he e he hei ide he

ed ca i a e ha e he . J a a e a e ade ed ce he ce ai f a ed ca i a ga i a i , ad i i a a e ed ce hei e a ce ai a d a e he i k f bei g e e e e i hi he ga i a i . The ga i a i ca ed ce he ce ai f

ad i i a b idi g a gib e a d b a i g i ake . The c e f ad i i a aki g ch i k a cia ed i h bei g e e e e ia ca be e f . O e f he c c i g

echa i f hi e f i a i i a ida ce. Si , ad i i a a id e jec a d i i ia i e a id he e he

igh e c e . H e e , ad i i a h ca ake ea ab e i k i h a c a fea f hei ca ee ( e ed e ) i d ce

a d e e e idea f hei ga i a i . If ad i i a face ch e a ce ai b bei g e e e e ia , he e e f

i i g- he-b a i k i g ig ifica f he ch e a fe e e i i ia i e a d i a i e jec a e ed.

Of c e, a ch e ca a e i i a e he i k faced b a i di id a ad i i a , a d ad i i a be he d acc ab e

21

f hei e f a ce i e i i ia i e . A h gh e egg be b ke ake a e e , c ea i e e be e ab i hed e a a e g e , a d he deg ee f fai e ha i c ide ed ea ab e a d e ab e f a gi e e i i ia i e be c ea de d.

E e e e ia i i ia i e h d be e e ed f ad i i a h a ea e i c i ed i k aki g. S die f e e e e ia

ac i i i f - fi c a i ha e f d diffe e ce i he e i f i k aki g be ee e e e e ia a age a d

a age i ed i e e e e ia e e . Gi e he igh i a d he igh ci c a ce , ad i i a ca bec e

i ed i e e e e ia ac i i ie i hi hei ed ca i a e . I d e ake a i di id a h i e i i g ake cha ce . I fac , a ad i i a h i i i g ake cha ce a d i c ea e i ki g- he-b a i k f hi he e e .

The e f cha e e e he e e e e ia ed ca i ga i a i i e de ai . Cha e 3 c a e he e i e i a adi i a ch e ha f a e e e e ia e . Cha e 4

di c e he cha ac e i ic f a e e e e ia c e i a ga i a i a d he ce eeded c ea e ha c e. Cha e 5

di c e e e e e ia hi ki g, a d cha e 6 e a i e he ce f i g e e e e ia i e i i ac i .

REFERENCES

C a , J., a d Pe a , B. (1990). Organizational entrepreneurship. H e d, I .: I i .

Dick , P., a d Gig ie a , J. (1986). Mi i g he b a a d i ki g he b a : A c ce a de f e e e e ia i k. Journal of Marketing 50:58 70.

Pi ch , G., III. (1985). Intrapreneuring. Ne Y k: Ha e & R . Ti , J. (1994). New venture creation. 4 h ed. B : I i McG a -Hi .

22

THE TRADITIONAL VERSUS THE ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATIONAL

ORGANIZATION

The e i cha e e ed h he c ce f e e e e hi a ie ed ca i a ga i a i . Thi cha e e a i e hi f he b e e i g a c a i f he adi i a ed ca i a ga i a i a d he e e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i . Thi c a i i ifie ha i i ea i a ch e c e e f i e .

H e e , i i ea ide a e ie f he ge e a cha ge ha ed ca i a ga i a i c ide if he a e cce f f e e e e e ia ac i i b hei ad i i a a d a age e e e ha hei ed ca i a e i ada he a id cha gi g e i e faci g ed ca i da . I i i a e i if he dich ha ab e 3.1 ee gge . I ead, he cha ac e i ic

i he ab e e e e e d i f c i . Each ed ca i a e i faci g a i e e f ci c a ce ha e i e ca ef c ide a i

f he a ia e a ach f a gi e e i e . F e a e, e egi a d c i ie ha e e ac i e

de e e f cha e ch , i a e ch , h e ch i g, a d f h. Sch a d ch di ic i he e ge g a hic a ea d be efi f bec i g e ike he e e e e e ia ga i a i . I e egi , de e e i e i i ed, a d e cha ge i he e ga i a i a cha ac e i ic a be ece a .

23

Table 3.1 Comparison of Traditional and Entrepreneurial Educational Organi ation

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING

Ed ca i a ga i a i faced i h he a e e i e f e eac he a e i f a i i e diffe e . Ad i i a i diffe e ga i a i ca hei e e a e i e f i f a i i

diffe e a . Sch eade hi i faced i h a e he i g a a f i f a i . A deci i ake de e ac ic f e ec i g ha i f a i eed be a e ded . Deci i ake i diffe i g ch

e i e ec diffe e i f a i f aki g deci i a d ca f e i e e he a e i f a i i diffe e a . O e ch

e a ie he e d a d h e ch i g a a a a ce,

24

hi e he e a ee i a a ce f i ada i e i ab e cha ge.

T adi i a ed ca i a ga i a i e d be b e f c ed. The ie hei ch e f a e a a d adi i a

e ec i e. The ef e, he d a a e i i f a i ha i di ec e a ed hei a defi i i f hei ch e a d

ha i d e f hei akeh de . A a e , i ie f e i i ia i e ( , f ha a e , ea f aba d i g d a f

e a i g) a be e ked. Addi i a , he e a age e f he ch e ga he f he i f a i ha i ed i deci i

aki g. Va ab e i f a i ab e d a d i ie b e ed b he i he ga i a i i ig ed.

A a ie f i f a i i he e e a e i e ca e f a ad i i a ai i g a d e e ie ce. U i e i g a i ed ca i a ad i i a i ica d ai hei de i he

a age ia ki e i ed dea effec i e i h a id cha ge. The e g a , j a a ee i hea h ca e ad i i a i g a a

decade ag , i eed ake f da e a cha ge i c ic a. O e effec i e a eg i be a e i h b i e ch . Highe - ed ca i g a i hea h ca e e e e e b ace cha ge. A a e , he a e ia de MBA ( a e f b i e ad i i a i ) g a ha e e be e ab e e a e hea h ca e ad i i a f he cha ge cc i g i hei i d . E e a , g ad a e g a i hea h ca e ad i i a i ea i ed ha he

e a e hei g ad a e f he e d f hea h ca e a d a f ed he e e . Hea h ca e ga i a i a bega ea i e ha he eeded ec i a age f a ch b ade a a f backg d ,

i c di g h e ai ed i a ke i g, fi a ce, a d e e e e hi , e e ha hei ga i a i c d ide if a d eac cha ge i he

a ke . I i ike ha g a i ed ca i ad i i a i i eed i e e he a e e f cha ge i hei ai i g g a . If he d ac i e , he ca a id e f he b e e e ie ced i hea h ca e ad i i a i ai i g.

The e e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i , he he ha d, e d be i ie ed. Leade i he e ga i a i a e a ch

b ade a a f i f a i f he e e a e i e . I f a i i ga he ed f a a ie f ce ha i c de b h he

ac e i e a d he c e i i e e i e .

25

Macroenvironment

The ac e i e i c de cia , ec ic, i ica , a d ech gica f ce f cha ge. The ed ca i ec i he U i ed

S a e a d he ch e e a i g i hi e i e face a ide a a f cha ge i hi he ac e i e .

1. S c e a f ce . S cia cha ge ca be b h e i a a d e i a . De g a hic cha ge a e he ea ie ide if a d a f . Bab b ge a d b ca be ee ea i ad a ce. I c e a d ge g a hic e d a ake ea f d. S e ed ca i a e ha e d e a g d j b i ide if i g a d a i g f he e e d . O he , a ee i e he di ic eac i ig a i

a e f h h a i g i he 1970 a d 1980 , ha e bee a ac i e i hei a i g. S b e cha ge i ife e a d

a e ca be e diffic ide if a d a f . The hif - i c e h eh d a d he i c ea e i i g e- a e fa i ie ca gh

a ch b i e. O he a he e cha ge a d eac ed agg e i e b i g ick i e e bef e- a d af e - ch

g a be e ee he eed f he e e fa i c e . I i i a ide if cia e d ea . The e ge ce f i a e ch i a c i ie i he e f hei bei g ch icke

add e he cha gi g eed f fa i ie i ce he 1980 . 2. Ec c f ce . O e f he ig ifica e e f he 1990

a i ai ed ec ic e i . D i g hi i e, a fa i ie beca e ch e c ce ed ab e a i g hei chi d e

a ici a e i he g d ec ic i e . I e ch di ic , he i a ce f he e de e e e e e ked, a d a i a e a d cha e ch k ad a age f hi b ffe i g a a a f

g a gea ed j a d ba ic ed ca i b a e a e de f he e e e a di g a d a id g ba i i g ec .

P g a i h b i e c e a d a g age i e i ha e bec e e e e a . H e e , a ec ic e i d e e a c e a e d, a d he e e e e ia ch ad i i a i a c e a e i ec ic cha ge a d he e i g cha ge i ed ca i ha i be eeded add e he e e ec .

3. P ca f ce . The i ica e i e f ed ca i ha had aj h b i e e he a e e a ea . Fi , f di g f

ed ca i c i e i deba e a a e e f g e e a d b ic ic aki g. A a ie f f di g i e face d i g i ica

26

deba e, i c di g he e e f f di g, che f i a e ch , a d f di g f cha e ch . The a ia e c f g e e c

f ed ca i ha bec e he ec d, f e high i ici ed, i ica i e. I i i a e e be ha e e a he ac i ica e e , i e ebb a d f . I e ch a b i g, de c e a e e , a d Ti e IX ha e had a aj i ac ed ca i e he a e

ea . O a e ba ic e e , ge e a cha ge i i ica a i de ca ha e a i ac ed ca i a e . Ce ai , ed ca i fee he effec f he e cha ge . H e e , a e e e e i he i a e ec ha e ea ed, i ie a e i i ee i g ega i e i ica i e . Th e e a d i i i ha a e ab e effec i e a d

i i e add e he i ica c ce bei g ai ed ca a i e eade hi e a d f e ea he be efi f he e cha gi g a i de .

Sch e ha f d c ea i e a d i i e i ch i eg a i i he 1960 a d 1970 beca e a i a de a d e e a g e i a e a d gai ed a g hei ca ed ca i a ee a d ca i icia .

4. Tec ca f ce . I i ike ha he f ce i he ac e i e f ed ca i i ha e a g ea e i ac ha

ech g e he e fe decade . I f a i ech g i e i g a id ha i i diffic acc a e a e he eed a d di ec i i i ake e he c i g ea e e h . The i c ea i g eed a hich i f a i i ab e be ce ed, he c e ge ce f a i ech gica de ice , a d he c ea i f e e

a e i f a i ce i c ea e a di i g ace f cha ge ha i i ac h e c ica e a d h e ea . The i eg a i f

ce a h e a d he I e e a d f c e , e e i i , a d e e h e i e de a . The cha e ge ch i be

effec i e a f he e cha ge a he affec de a d a e e ec a i . Ye i a e i d ha f d ha kee i g i h ech g ca bec e hibi i e e e i e. Addi i a , he i e f i f a i ha e a d ha e i bec e a e e g ea e

c ce i cie . Ed ca i i i e i ab be e ec ed he c ea e i f hi di a i .

Competitive Environment

C e i i i a fac ha ed ca i ad i i a hi k f a dai ba i . Hi ica , c e i i ha bee a a cca i a

27

c ide a i ha e a ed ai i a e ch e a i g i hi hei di ic . H e e , a c e i i bec e a e ig ifica f ce i ed ca i , ad i i a i eg a e a c ide a i f c e i i i e a ec f hei deci i aki g. A e e e e i he

i a e ec ca a e , each a d e e deci i ca c ea e a c e i i e ad a age di ad a age i he a ke ace. The ef e, e e e e ea e a a e each deci i h gh he e f c e i i .

A e e f he c e i i e e i e h d be ade i h i f a a ie f i e a e ec i e . I h d i c de i f e ec ed ad i i a , eache , a d a e h a e ac i e i he ch e . A c ehe i e a e e h d be e f ed a he e e f b h he i di id a ch a d he ch e .

A e e f he c e i i e e i e h d i c de he f i g e :

1. Identify all factors that are important to the customers. I i diffic f ad i i a hi k f he fa i ie he e e a c e , b i ce fa i ie ha e i c ea i g ed ca i a ch ice f hei chi d e , ha i e ac ha he ha e bec e. I i i a eg a a e c e e e ha he i f fac i ha i

c e i a i hei deci i h ed ca e hei chi d e .

2. Identify all competitors for students in the market. I i i a kee i i d ha di ic i e f he b ic ch e ge e a d defi e he a ke . P i a e ch f e d a de f e e a b ic ch di ic . A , if h e ch i g i a a a

fac i hi he di ic , i h d be i c ded i he i f c e i . A e c e i he h i , ch a a ed cha e ch e i a e ch de de e e , h d a be i c ded.

3. Create a matrix that uses columns for each of the factors important to customers and rows for each of the competitors. A i c de c f a de c i i f each c e i , i ba ic i i , a d i e a i e a ke ha e. Ma ke ha e h d e e e he be e i a e f he e ce age f he a de a i ha hi c e i e e i hi i defi ed a ke . F e a e, if a cha e ch e e K 6, i ha e f he a ke h d be

28

ba ed he e ce age f a K 6 de i he a ke ha i e e .

4. Make a realistic evaluation of each competitor for each competitive factor. I i c i ica be h e a d acc a e i hi a e e . I i i a e - de e i a e a c e i bei g a e ed.

5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of competitors. Ke deci i ake i each ch a d i he ch e h d he ac i e

di c he e a i e e g h a d eak e e f he c e i h i he c e i i e a e e .

6. Identify trends in the competitive environment. Wh a e ce ai c e i ge i g ge ? Wha a e he ke fac ha a e de e i i g h c e a e ch i g he e c e i ? A e ce ai c e i bec i g e ab e?

7. Reevaluate the competitive matrix.

A e e f he e i e h d be a g i g ce a d a e i dic e e . The ef e, he c e i i e a i h d be ee a a ed a ea ce a ea . E e e e ia ch ad i i a ea ide if a d i e d i hei c e i i e e i e a g i h a f a ea f hei ac e i e . The i eg a e hi i f a i

de e a c i e ie f he c e i hich hei ch ch e i be e a i g. Thi i f a i i he ed a i a

i i he de e e f he a egic a d g- e a e ab i hed f hei ch e . De e i g a e e e e ia

a egic a ach i he ic f he e ec i .

STRATEGY

O ce ad i i a ga he i f a i ab he e e a e i e , ac i ha i f a i a e c ea ed h gh hei a egie . I a

adi i a ed ca i a ga i a i , i f a i i ed ed ce ce ai ie a d h ea i c e g a . Whe a a e i ade e ab i h a cha e ch i hi a a ic a ch di ic , ch

ch a be ie ed b adi i a ad i i a a a h ea hei g a beca e f he di ec i ac f di g ha he a ha e.

Cha e ch a e ie ed a a di ec h ea de head c i he di ic , hich i ed ce a e f di g. Defe i e a egie ike

i be ch e b a ad i i a i a adi i a ch e . Thi

29

c d i c de di ec a e b ck he cha e ch a d i di ec a e b ck he ch h gh i ica c ac b a i g eache a d e e a e e he e ch .

The b e i h defe i e a egie ha a e ed add e aj cha ge i he ed ca i a e , ch a he g h i cha e ch , i ha he ica ide h - e e ief f he effec f he cha ge a ha d. The ch e a be cce f i i g he fi cha e ch ha ie e i hi he di ic a d a be e e he ec d. H e e , a e d, gi e e gh e , i e i ab i

. The ge he e d b i d e , he e e g h i i ha e. I hi e a e, he , he ge he ch e figh he e d, he e ike i i ha he ch e ca ake he e e a

i d c i f a cha e ch i he ch di ic i a i i e c e f he di ic .

A e e e e ia ch e ake a e ac i e a egic a ach e d b e ed i he e e a e i e . Cha ge a d c e i i a e ee a ce f i ie f e i i ia i e ,

g a , faci i ie , a d e ice . Tha i , he e e e e ia ch ad i i a bec e a ec ac i e eeki g e i ie . I f a i f he e e a e i e bec e he a a e ia he de e he i i a d a egie f he e e e e ia ed ca i a

ga i a i . I he e i e a e, he e e e e ia ad i i a d

ide if he e d a d e cha e ch a d begi c af a egie i hich cha e ch ca be a be efi he ch e .

Ra he ha figh he ide f cha ge, hi ad i i a a e ide he cha ge he e i i ike g i g a d ada he cha ge i

c ea e . F e a e, a a cha e ch i Mi e a e e a ed a a eac i he e d a d he c ida i f a

ch . Pa e beca e di a i fied i h g b ide f hei chi d e c i ie a i e f hei h e a d i h he

f c i c ec i ha e ed f c ida i . H e e , ch di ic did a a e i g i g a e c ce . Pa e fi a decided e cha e ch a a ehic e e-c ea e ca ch i hei h e c i ie . The ica a eg

b ch ad i i a ha bee figh he e eff . The e e e e ia ad i i a d i ead a a e i g i g

a e c ce a d fi d a k i h he ee b h he c ce f a e a d he ch eed ai ai e e . P a i g a ac i e e a he ha a ad e a ia e i he cha e ch

30

ce igh ead a a eg ha a ea kee he e fa i ie a ia c ec ed he ch di ic .

Pe e D cke ha ide ified f ba ic c e i i e a egie ed b e e e e ia ga i a i ha a ed ca i ga i a i a

e . The e a egie a e ac i e a d a e de ig ed ee he cha gi g eed f he c e a he ha bei g defe i e a d i c e e ade b c e i :

1. F e e M e . Wi h hi a eg , he ga i a i a e be he fi e a e i e e gi g i he

a ke ace. The g a i be he fi a d c i e gh e ce d i a e he a ke . A e C e ed hi a eg i he

ed ca i a a ke i he 1980 . B gi i g c e a a ch , he c a i e ded ee a he c e i a d bec e he

ig ifica fi i he ed ca i a e a c e a ke . F e i h he M e i a a eg ha i high i k . S ecifica ,

a ga i a i g ea i c ea e i i ki g- he-b a i k di c ed i cha e 2. D cke c a e hi a eg a h . I ake a h ge c i e f e ce , a d e e i e i j dg e ca c ea e ca a hic e . The ef e, i i ec e ded ha hi a eg be

ed i i he a i a i a d af e ca ef a d h gh e a a i .

2. H T e W e e T e A . D cke de c ibe he Hi The Whe e The Ai a eg , b hich a ga i a i b e e a he a e a a e i i ia i e a d he e he i f a i i

b e e d he a e i i ia i e, be e . The ga i a i i ab e ea f he i ake , h ed ci g i k a d a - c . The

ga i a i ca gai k edge ab he e i i ia i e f ga i a i b h i ide a d ide i a ke . Ma f he i ee i g

eff i e ab i hi g cha e ch ha e ake ace i Mi e a. I a e ca be ea ed b b e i g ha he e ea a - did e a d ha he c d ha e d e be e . The e e ca e e

he e cha e ch i Mi e a b ac he c a e .

3. T e a e c e. Ma e e e e ha e di c e ed he ig ifica ad a age gai i g c f a a , f e di c e ed

de e ed eg e ( iche) i he a ke . The i a e g a f he a ke iche a eg i be iced, he ef e a ac i g

c e i i . F e a e, a a i a e age c i he S hea a ab e ide if a de e ed a i , a e , chi d e i h d a diag ed e e e beha i a di de a d i d de e e a

31

di abi i ie . The age c de e ed a g a i e f i faci i ie e e he e chi d e . Thi e e e ed a fai a be f chi d e ,

b e gh ake he g a ai ab e. The e chi d e e e i eed f e effec i e ed ca i c bi ed i h ecia i ed ea e .

The g a ed be fi a cia cce f a d a afe iche i h e i e c e i i .

4. C a a e a d c a ac e c . The fi a e e e e ia a eg ide ified b D cke ha he e e e e ea chi g f a ake a d e ice ha e e a e he c e . F e a e, a

ch ge defi e he e e i a adi i a ch b a a ce f c bi ed chi d ca e a d ed ca i f fa i ie i h

a e a h e d i g he kda . Addi g bef e- a d af e - ch g a a d e i g b eakfa a f ed he e ch i a a ha

ided ig ifica e a e hei c e .

CONTROL SYSTEMS

T adi i a ed ca i a ga i a i c he ga i a i a d i a e he effec i e e f hei ch a d he ad i i a h he , i a i h gh b dge a a age e a d i e e a i f

e ab i hed icie a d ced e . E a a i a d c a e ba ed c a i a e f a ce a d hi ica fi ca da a. A di c ed e i , a h gh i a , hi i c i g h - e e f a ce. B dge a a e e a a f he f he

ga i a i e f a ce. The fai e a a e e e e e ia cce e ha a e a e e ide i a gi e b dge c c e b ha ike i de e i e he abi i f he ga i a i ada cha ge a d, i

e ca e , e e i e. E e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i de e e c i e ia

f hei c e ha a e e e e e ia effec i e e . The g a i a e he a ia e e f he ga i a i e e e e ia

a egie a d he cce f i i e e a i . I he h a d i e edia e e , i i ib e a e ac i i ie ha ead e e e e ia i i ia i e . O he e e e e ia beha i f ad i i a a d he aff ca be b e ed. S ecifica , a e e e e ia ga i a i h d ha e aff ge e a i g a d i g

a e idea . The e h d a be echa i a d e i ace effec i e e a a e e idea de e i e he he he a e

i ie . Pe i dic e i ai e a d di ec b e a i ca be ed

32

ea e he a e f idea ge e a i b he aff. The e ie ce f ed idea h d a be e a a ed f i e i e e e ha i i effec i e c ee i g idea a d i i i i e i h he

ga i a i a egic a ach. The g- e effec i e e f a e e e e ia ga i a i i

ba ed i abi i ada a d i e cha ge. H e e , a ch e ca ai i hi ica da a a e a ai ab e e a a e he e

c i e ia, a b he i i be a e. T e a a e g e , ad i i a eed jec he i ac f e i i ia i e a e he ike i ac he i ha e ada a i a d i a . Thi i c ea

e a a ha a cie ce. The ad i i a gai a e e f h e i i ia i e i i he ga i a i f e d i he e e a

e i e . Thi i e be a i g a ge ha i e i e eadj e a eg a e i f a i i ga he ed ab he

cha gi g e i e . D i g i e f a id a d f da e a cha ge, he e e e e ia ga i a i ee c a ei e i e f hi e i h di g e i a e a d c e i i . Cha e 6 e a i e hi

ce i e de ai i i di c i f i e e a i a d a i g.

STRUCTURE

S c e i a he ga i a i a cha ac e i ic i hich he e a e diffe e ce be ee adi i a a d e e e e ia ga i a i . High ce a i ed a h i a d deci i aki g cha ac e i e he c e i

adi i a ga i a i . The c e i a high f a i ed a d i g e ed b f a e a d ced e . A e -f c i i g b ea c ac i h high ecia i ed e e i ica f a adi i a

ga i a i . If he ga i a i i e a i g i a e a i e ab e e i e , a a he ca e i ed ca i f e e a decade , he e

f c e f d i a adi i a ga i a i i i fac efe ab e. Thi e f c e e ha ce he efficie c a d effec i e e f he

ga i a i i i edic ab e a d cha gi g a ke ace. H e e , he c e e i e f cha ge a d c e i i i ed ca i d e

fa ga i a i ha ai ai hei adi i a ga i a i a c e . Reac i g cha ge e i e bei g f e ib e a d i b e, hich

i diffic a be i h a adi i a ga i a i a c e. E e e e ia ga i a i e d ha e e ce a i ed a h i

a d deci i aki g a d he ef e eek e e hei e ee . A a e , he e d ha e fe e a e i hei ga i a i a

33

hie a chie . C e a i a d ea e d cha ac e i e he e ga i a i . J b a e ch e ecia i ed, a d hi e i ch

g ea e f e ibi i , a i g ad i i a eac cha ge i a i e , effec i e a e .

Tea a e c i hi he c e f e e e e ia ga i a i . Tea b i g ge he a a ie f e e f a i

a f he ga i a i a d f e f e e a diffe e e e f he hie a ch k a a ic a jec e i i ia i e. De e di g he ag i de f he jec , i di id a a be a ig ed ei he a

f i e a ea . Se i ad i i a f e ake he e f ad i e he e ea , idi g eeded e ce a d i f a i b a i g

f he ac a k f he ea . E e e f e ee i a he c c a

cha ac e i ic f e e e e ia ed ca i ga i a i . E e e begi i h he ac i e de ega i f a h i a d e h gh he

ga i a i h e h eed i e effec i e d hei j b . E e e ec g i e ha eade hi eed e e ge h gh he

ga i a i . The ce f e e e a a f fai e. E e e a e ha i di id a a d ea i be a ed ake ca ef a ed i k a d ha , b aki g i k , he e i be e

fai e . The ke i i he eac i fai e. If he e ee ea de a e ha i ea f he fai e a d e ha k edge he i e f a d he ga i a i e f be e i he f e, he ha fai e i ie ed a bei g a ega i e c e. E e e e i e ha a e ee ake hei a h i e i a d ha he a e a i a e ab a d c i ed he ga i a i a d i g a .

E e e d e ea a ack f e ibi i acc abi i . I fac , e e e i he ga i a i bec e e e ib e a d acc ab e f ha he d b a f ee ac ha he k

eed be acc i hed. O e f he h ab e e e a d de ega i i ha a

e ee a e j ai i g f he cha ce be e e ed. I fac , e e i g e ee ca be a diffic ce . A ick a a h i i de ega ed, i ca ee b ce igh back he ad i i a . The e a e a a ie f ea ha ca e e ee ac a e i e e ejec bei g e e ed. Fi a d f e i

. E ee ha e ad i i a i a d i i e i bef e he i e e c ide be e e ed. If e ee d hei

e i , e e e a be ie ed a j addi g e k e e a e i g e e fai he ca be i hed

34

e i a ed. E e i ga i a i he e e e a e ge e a high, e e a be hi ed f he ga i a i he e e i e e

ed, a d he i b i g hi e id a i i h he . U f a e , he e a e i a ce he e i bad da aged a d ca be e ed.

Fi a , i a e a c cha ac e i ic f ed ca i a e da . The a i i f a adi i a a e e e e ia ga i a i a c e a d he e e e ha g e i h i ca be

diffic i a high i i ed e i e . H e e , he i a e ec ha de a ed ha i i ib e gai he ece a f e ibi i

e e e e e ia ac i i i a i i ed ga i a i . I e i e e c ica i a d ed ca i ab he e i e ce .

Wha a e he cha ge i he e e a e i e ha e i e bec i g e e e e e ia ? H i e e e e ia ac i i f e ed a d

ed i a ga i a i ? H ca he aj c ce f i a d hei e be c i e be add e ed i hi e a f e a i g?

The e he e e i be ee he i a d a age e , he e i e i i ake c ea e he e i ed c f e e i he i .

H e e , e e he high i i ed a i d ha bee ab e b i g i i i he ce f a f i g c e a f e f e ibi i i h de i i g he e a d f c i he i a i ha i d .

COMMUNICATION

I he adi i a ga i a i , c ica i e d be d a d f a . C ica i i a i a c a d c di a e ac i i ie . I i a ea f eg a i g he e a d kee i g i a a

ead a e. M c ica i g e h gh f a i e ha i he i e f a h i i he ga i a i .

C ica i i he e e e e ia ga i a i e d f a a ie f a h , i c di g h i a a d diag a e , h gh he ga i a i . I e e f f ee f he b f he ga i a i

he . I f a i f di ec h e e eed i . The ad e f e- ai ha c ib ed e faci i a i g e

c ica i ha ha a he ece de e e . H e e , b i di g e i e face- -face c ica i . The ef e, e- ai h d e ace he f f c ica i , e ecia f

35

ga i a i ha a e aki g he a i i bec i g e e e e e ia .

CREATIVITY

F e e e, he c ea i e ce ee c e ea i . Ne idea ee f f ee . H e e , a e e ha e c ea i e e ia , a d he

e e e e ia ga i a i fi d a f e e e e c ea i e e ia . M ch f he ce a ead de c ibed i hi cha e a d i

cha e 2 ca he ck he c ea i e e ia . O e i g e e ce i ab b e d a d cha ge i he e e a e i e ead a e idea bei g c ea ed. C ea i i i e ha ced a h gh e e e . The c ea i e ce i c de e i hich

idea a e e a a ed a d e ed. Thi a de c ibed a a c i ica a f he ce f e e e e hi i cha e 2. Effec i e c ea i i i c de

feedback h gh hich idea a e c i a efi ed he ba i f e i f a i . Thi i c i e i h he ada i e a age e ki de c ibed e i i hi cha e . The e e e e ia ed ca i a

ga i a i f e c ea i i e e he e a d i e e e.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

The a e f he ga i a i a c e i he fi a cha ac e i ic i hich adi i a a d e e e e ia ga i a i diffe . C ea i g a

e e e e ia c e i a e e ia e a d f e i g e e e e ia ac i i i hi a ga i a i . Cha e 4 e a i e

ga i a i a c e i de ai a d h h i ca be cha ged bec e a e e e e ia c e.

REFERENCES

C a , J., a d Pe a , B. (1990). Organizational entrepreneurship. H e d, I .: I i .

D cke , P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship. Ne Y k: Ha e & R . Ti , J. (1994). New venture creation. 4 h h ed. B : I i McG a -Hi .

36

CREATING AN ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE

Cha e 3 e a i ed e e a ga i a i a cha ac e i ic ha diffe be ee adi i a a d e e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i . Thi cha e i de ed e i g he diffe e ce i he fi a aj cha ac e i ic: ga i a i a c e. I a a , c e e e e h a he he cha ac e i ic de c ibed i he e i cha e c e

ge he a d i e ac . C e i a ke f ce b h f e a d ai e e e e hi i hi a ga i a i . The di c i begi i h a e a i a i f ga i a i a c e a d he e i a i ha i g

e e ac i . Ne , a e e e e ia ga i a i a c e i de c ibed. Fi a , a i ech i e a d a egie a e e e ed ha ca be ed cha ge a ga i a i c e.

THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

C e i c de he ha ed be ief ab he ga i a i e a d h i e be h d beha e. The e f he d members i i e i a . Diffe e c e i defi e h i c ide ed a i ide ,

e be , i diffe e a . I i i a de a d h a ga i a i defi e a e a d h i defi e a he . S e

ch ake a e a defi i i f e be , i c di g ad i i a , eache , a d he aff. The e ch ie de a d

a e a c ie , ide , akeh de a d a e e be .

37

O he ch a d a a e ha ide ci c e b a c ide i g de a e be . Ye he ch ake a e e ide ie f

e be , e e di g hei defi i i f e be hi he ide ca c i . I i i a ake c ea ha e be hi g e e be d e e he ic. I i e gh i a e ha a e a d

de a e a f he ch c e. C e i defi ed b h e be ac , j i ha he a . Whe i g f ch ch , i bec e e ide h diffe e

c e ca be e e i hi a i g e ch di ic . S aff a d de h e a e ch ick ea i e h hi g a e d e a d

he e. T fi i he e c e a d bec e a e e be , he e c e i eed ada hi he ac i a d e e a hi he

be ief a d a e . O e f he bigge cha e ge faci g a ad i i a i g a e ch di ic i ea i g he e c e. The e a e

ce ai ab i a ha ha e bec e e e e i a he e be f he ga i a i . Bei g ig ed b he e ad i i a ca

g ea de a e e ec de he e be abi i ead effec i e . I i ib e f he e ad i i a cha ge c e, b , a i be ee a e i hi cha e , cha gi g c e i a aj cha e ge.

C e i b e ed h gh he ac i f i e be . C e defi e h ga i a i a e be h d ac a d e a he a d h he h d ac a d e e a akeh de . The e ac i ca be

de d h gh he ga i a i a e , , a d e deg ee i e . W i e de c i i f ha a ga i a i i a ab a

ef ec ha i ea g i g . W i e d c e a de c i i f he ea i g e i e f a ch a ha e i e i c i h he ac a a e i hich he ch e a e a da -

-da ba i . Sch ha e ha i e he i a ce f e ec i hei i e a e ia a ac a de a e e i e e ec i h

e be ac a d e a he . Wha he ga i a i a e c ide i a , ha i e f ce , a d ha e i adhe e a e ha ea ha e he ac i f e be .

A ece i i a j i high ch ide a e a e. The ch e e ha i i a c i ha i c de aff, de , a d a e . I b ic i d c i e a e , he i a ce f a e a i e e i he ch i de c ibed a a f da e a a ec f ha he ch i a ab . B ch e a d he a e ia a e ha i i a ch f e ed b a e a ee i . H e e , a e e a

diffe e . The e ha he he a i e a he f ffice e f ee ac i i ie , he a e ea ed i h i diffe e ce a e

38

e e ig ed b he aff. Whe a e fi a ake hei a he c a , a f he eache h i e g a i de a d e e

a gi a i e he a e a ee . C ea , ha he i ci a de c ibe a he ch c e a d ha i fac ca be b e ed ab he c e h gh he ac i f i e be a e i a k c a . I i ac i ,

d a e , ha defi e c e. Wh d ga i a i a c e k diffe e ? Q i e i , i i

beca e diffe e g f e be ha e ha ed he e diffe e c e e i e. Ad i i a , eache , b a d e be , de , a e ,

a d aff a e i a d f a ch e i e. Each ca a a a a i ha i g he c e a i e e . The ef e, e e

h gh ch a e a i e a a , he a ha e di i c diffe e c e beca e f he diffe e e e h ha e a ed h gh hei d e i e. O he he ha d, ha i e a kab e i

h ch ch c e f da e a ha e i c , e e he c a i g ch f diffe e a f he c . Thi i

beca e e be c e f c fe i a b die ( eache a d ad i i a ) a d a c cie a c e (A e ica ) ha ide a c f da i f ch c e .

The fi e i c ea i g a de i ed c e i a ga i a i i gai a f de a di g f he c e c e. A e i g a c e i a e ac cie ce; a he , i e i e ca ef b e a i f a a ie f fac . The f i g i ca he g ide he ce f a e i g a d

de a di g a ga i a i c e: 1. Ob e e a fac f c e. A ifac a e b f c e.

A ifac f c e ca be f d i e be e e da ac i a d i he h ica k ace i e f. F e a e, a ch i hich de

ca be ee i g f ee i a d f eache ffice h gh he da a d i hich a e ca be b e ed e- ai i g eache eg a f c a ac i i ie f hei chi d e e ch ab he

e e f he c e i ha ch . If i ha a e ch eache ca be ee i g i a d f e a he ffice a d ad i i a

ffice f i f a di c i h gh he da , he e d be f he e ide ce f he e e ha e i i hi he c e f ha ch .

N i agi e a ec d ch he e de a e d c a e eg a b d ee a k i h eache ide f c a . Teache ick hei ffice . The e ac i d be a ifac ha i dica e a a he

i e a a d c ed c e i hi he ch .

39

A e a e f h ica ace a a a ifac f c e igh i c de he e e ce ab e ce f di a h i g acc i h e f he ch a d i de . E ab a e di a ha c ea h ide ead

de a d aff i e e igh be a ifac ha i dica e a c e i hich e be a e high c i ed a d d f hei e be hi . 2. R a a d ce e e . Ri a a d ce e ie ca de a e

ha he ga i a i c ide i a . F e a e, ch ha e ce e ie ec g i e de cce i acade ic a d a i e ac ic a ac i i ie . H e e , he e e f a ici a i i he i a

ce e he de a e he e a e aced he f c f he ec g i i b he c e. If de , eache , a d a e a e d

ce e ie ec g i e acade ic achie e e i a ge be , i h ha i he c e f he ch acade ic achie e e i a ed.

3. Dec a . B h he ce a d he c f deci i aki g he e de a d a ga i a i c e. Wh ake he aj deci i ? Wh ide i i h e deci i ? I he ce

f deci i aki g e ? H effec i e i he f - h gh deci i ha ha e bee ade? The e a e he e f e i ha ca ead de a di g he c e f deci i aki g i he ga i a i .

Whe e a d h deci i a e ade, a ee i cha e 3, ca ha e a i ac he e e f e e e e ia ac i i i a ch e .

4. Affec . The e a d e g h f he e i f he e be f he ga i a i a e a ke a f c e. E i ca i dica e he

deg ee f c i e a d igidi f he c e. Me be a eac a i a e a a e cha ge he c e. S g i i e

fee i g a d he ch , a d e e a e e f f a cia ed i h k, ca ead e effec i e c e . Me be i eac

a i a e a d e h ia ica h e hi g ha a e a ed i he c e f he ga i a i . Pa i i a ke i g edie f

e e e e ia ac i . 5. S e . S ie a e d i hi a ga i a i . Of e , he e ie

c ica e e age a ha a e a f he ga i a i c e. I fac , ie ha e bee a f eachi g i hi c e f h a d f ea . S ie ha a e d i e a d agai , e ecia h e

d e c e he ga i a i , he ai a ic e f ha e , a e , a d a e i a . S ie i f e be d ab e e h did fi i f aj b de ha i a ed a ed a ed

f beha i . The e ie a he e f idi g a c ea a i g f ha i e ec ed bec e a f e be f he c e.

40

F e a e, he e age f a c d be ha e a e e a ed ha high e f a ce i e ec ed f e e e. The e ie ca be

e f ha e he beha i f e e be . 6. He e . C e ca a be ef ec ed i hich e e a e ch e

be he e . Whi e e ie a e f e d a ha d , he e a e c ea ed b a c e e if he be f ha i a e . I a ch , i a be a eache aff e be h e ac i e a be d e ec a i ha hich he ga i a i a e . F e a e, i a be a eache h i d e f e a h he a kid h i he b i k f ge i g ff ack. O he he ha d, if a eache h chea he e fi d c ea i e a ge b e e

a he , hi d ce ai be a c ea i dica i f a fai ega i e c e. Wh he ga i a i a e be c ide be a he h d be c e e a i ed, a i i gi e a c ea i d i i c e.

7. E c . A i a f c i f c e i c ica e ha i c ide ed igh a d g. S e e hica a da d a e i e d i e hica c de , hi e he a e i e ha a e ea ed e i e. A he e hica a da d , b h h e i e a d h e de d h gh adi i , he defi e he c e a e f he ga i a i a

c e. A e i g a ga i a i c e i a a ifiab e e e ci e,

a he ea . I e i e a ie b e a i a d a e i d. Th gh a i a i e, bia ed a e e f he e i i ed i e , a ic e

f a ga i a i c e h d a e e ge. The f i g di c i f c e he ecific cha ac e i ic f a e e e e ia

ga i a i a c e.

AN ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE

A e e e e ia c e i e ha he e e e e ia ac i i ie f i e be . I g e be d i e a i g i a i a d e e e e hi , a d i e e g e be d e e e c agi g ch ac i . A e e e e ia c e i e ha ac i e f e , , a d e ec e e e e ia ac i i . The e i i g e de c i i ha ca e a ga i a i ha ha e a e e e e ia c e. Beca e c e de e h gh he hi a d a ici a i f i e be , e e e e e e ia c e ca k diffe e f each he i ce ai a a d i be a i e i h e e e e ia ac i i . H e e ,

41

he e a e ce ai b ad c a cha ac e i ic ha e e e e ia ga i a i e d ha e i c . The e i c de he f i g: 1. Pa . Me be f e e e e ia ga i a i ha e a a i

f ha he d . The a ach cha ge a d he i ie i c ea e i h e h ia a d d i e. Cha ge i ie ed ega i e b a a ea i e e . Pa i i c ica ed e a d

e h ia ica . W k i f . 2. V . D i g i e f a i i a d cha ge, ga i a i a e be eed a ha ed de a di g f he e he ga i a i i

headed a d ha i i k ike he i ge he e. Thi i i i . Vi i i c de a de a di g f ha he i i a d f c f he

ga i a i i a d ha i i bec e. Vi i h d be g ided b he c e a e ha ake he c e. Bec i g e e e e e ia

d e ea ha he c e a e be adica cha ged aba d ed. If a ch ha had a c i e e ce e ce i ed ca i a d a e e i h i e a e , he e a e ca a d h d c i e

be a f da e a a ec f he c e, e e a e e e e ia ac i i ie he a f h he ch i e ac i h i cha gi g e i e . A effec i e a e e f i i h d be c ea , c e i g, a d e d i g. Vi i a defi e h he ga i a i

ea e ee a d akeh de . I ide c e f deci i aki g. 3. R . Taki g cha ce , i a i , a d e idea a e ed

h gh he ga i a i . I i de d ha a e i i ia i e a k a h ed f b ha i ake ch i k aki g achie e cce e . P de i k aki g ha i ca ef i e e ed i ce eb a ed

a d e a ded he he i cceed . I adi i a ch c e , i k aki g i e cei ed a ha i g i i ed ide e a d a d

i i ed d ide e a i k f he e ee. I a e e e e ia c e, he e ee k h e a a e a idea a d h ake i k effec i e . I i a c e f fea f fai e b e f e ee ha e ca ge d e. The c e ake he de i k ake fee afe

a d ec e i hi he ac i . 4. E e e . I a e e e e ia c e, e be

k ha eed cha ge ha i ie eed be ed b a e e e ed ac hi k edge. I fac , he de a d ha i i hei e ibi i ac . The fee eed ai f e i i .

5. C ea . E e e e ia c e bec e idea achi e . Me be fee f ee e e idea i h fea ha he i be idic ed ie ed a dd. C ea i i i i ed a d ca be f d i a

42

f he ie i he ga i a i . Cha ge i de d a he ce f e i ie a d bec e he f c f e idea .

6. Ob e ed cce . E e e e ia c e a e cha ac e i ed b e be h a e e e a i fied i h g d e gh b i e f e ce e ce i e e a ec f he ga i a i . S cce i ea ed

i ha e d da b a i h e e a e f .

CHANGING CULTURE

A e ha he eade hi f a ed ca i a ga i a i ha de e i ed ha hei c e eed be cha ged c ea e a e i e f e e e e ia ac i i . H d he g ab cha gi g c e? C ea , c e ca i be cha ged b i i g a e di ec i e b e i g ai i g e i . O e ca de e ee

bec e e e e e ia h gh a e e- ai . H e e , e e a a ge b i e ga i a i , he decidi g ha he eed

bec e e e e e e ia , i ake ake he e e f a ache .

Cha gi g c e i a diffic a d g- e ce . F - fi b i e e ha e bee i g ake he a i i a e e e e e ia c e i h i ed e . Th e c a ie ha ha e c i e f he e f he ga i a i a d a e i i g i e he i e a d a e i eeded c ea e ea cha ge ha e bee

cce f . Thi i a cha ge ha ca be de ega ed, a c e a a he f he ga i a i .

Cha gi g c e e i e a c ea a d h e de a di g f he e he c e i igh . A h gh a e e f he c e c e i he c i ica fi e i cha gi g c e. I i a i a

de a d h he c e e ed bec e he a i i . Thi i c de ge i g k he gh f a ad i i a a d i f a eade h he ed ha e he c e. Cha gi g c e a e i e a e c ea i i ha he cha ged c e h d k ike.

S cce i cha gi g a e e e e e ia c e e i e he de e e f a c ehe i e a . Thi a h d be a i e

e ha i i a d a e ga he d a he f; a he , i h d be a c i e ac i . A a f c a cha ge h d i c de he f i g e e e :

1. Leade . The eade hi f he ch h d ha e a e e e f c he i i f he e he ch h d be headed a d ha

43

c e i eeded ge he e. Leade h d ide i i a i f he ch a d be c ea hei ie f i e ia . Leade a be e a ed e e a e i a h ck ab be f he di e ca ed

b cha ge. E e he e h ia ic e ee ca bec e di hea e ed a i e a d e f c . The eade hi e ai

a d i i e a d c i ed, e ecia he hi g ge ea gh. Leade ai ai hi a d c fide ce e e d i g

e i d he he a e e e ie ci g hei d b . E e e e ia eade ea ada e ec ed cha ge a d ea f fai e . The

c ea e c ea bjec i e a d i e e he e be a e g e . Fi a , he ead b e a e e e hica a da d a d e ec a i .

2. C ca . The eade hi h d ide c i e a d f e e c ica i ab he i i f he e he ga i a i i headed a d ha he c e bec e ge he e. I fac , hi i i h d be e i a ig ifica c ica i . S cce age f ga i a i a cha ge e e i a i e i d e ee f he e he ga i a i i headed. The a a fi d a a a k ab

he i i he a e i g e i a d i i g e icie . The i i h d be c ica ed e a d ec i e e ee

d i g ec i e a d ie a i . A a e e f he i i h d be di a ed i e , e e h g he a . I h d be i eg a ed i ha db k a d e e a a a d a ked ab i a

ga i a i a c ica i . 3. Re a d . Re a d ca ei he f e e i a i a d

e e e e ia ac i i . T be effec i e, e a d h d c ea e he ide f ad i i a i i g ake ca c a ed i k ha a

ed ca i a ga i a i ack. The c i e ia f e a a i g e f a ce h d be e a ded be d he ica ea e ed i ch e .

I a i h d a be e a a ed. I a i ca be e a a ed he ba i f hei di ec a d hei i di ec be efi he ga i a i .

Di ec be efi f i a i i c de b h fi a cia a d fi a cia c e . Fi a cia be efi f i a i e ac i i ie ca i c de c e ha e ha ce he ch e e e ba e. The a i c de

i i ia i e ha c ea e e a e, ch a i ed e a ded e ice f he a e e e fe e b dge d a . N fi a cia c e i c de i i ia i e ha e i i ed e a i h e ha e a e f cha ge ha i ike i ac he ch e i he f e. M

f he e c e ike i ake i e be ea i ed a d b e ed, a e g a a d i i ia i e ge e a d each hei f e ia i hi he fi ea .

44

I di ec be efi f i a i bec e e diffic a e b a e a i a ec g i e a d e a d. F e a e, e e h gh e i i ia i e a fai , he a be j dged a h hi e if he i i ia i e

i ike e i f e i i ia i e ha i cceed beca e f ha i ea ed f he fai e. A he i di ec be efi ha ca a i e f

fai e i he he i di id a i he ea c ea ea ki ha i i e hei e f a ce i f e i a i . Ve fe ed ca a e

ai ed e gage i e e e e ia ac i i ie . S e i a i i be b eak h gh ha a e i e. The ef e, e ea i g b d i g

be e ec ed, ed, a d e c aged. A e a d e ha i c de ec g i i f e e e e ia ac i i

h d d he f i g:

C ea e a c ea de a di g ha i a i i i a P ide a ea f f e e c ica i ega di g e f a ce f he e ac i i ie

I c de a ea f e a a i g b h h - a d g- e be efi f i a i

P ide a a ie f i ce i e ha ca be ai ed he i di id a Be ad i i e ed i ch a a a be e cei ed a fai

Whe c a ed f - fi b i e e , b ic ch e a e e i i ed i ha ca be ed e a d i a i . E e h gh ch

ica ca e a ge b e ai e a e a d , he d ha e a i ha ca be i e e f . F e a e, ad i i a

ca i i e a i f hei di c e i a e e di e , ch a e a f c fe e ce a e da ce, e a d i a i e ac i i ie .

E a a i c i e ia f i a d e i a ca a be e a ded i c de i a i a d e e e e ia beha i . Fi a , e e

de e i a e he e f b ic ec g i i . A a d ca be c ea ed ec g i e he E e e e ia S aff Me be f he Se e e .

O e i e, a effec i e e a d e i he a ac e i a i e aff e be . I i a he e ai ed ca i a e e e e a ead i he ch e b aki g he fee a ed a d hei c ib i a ecia ed. B h f he e c e i he he

ga i a i i i a i i a e e e e e ia c e. 4. C e a f ec e . Ma ga i a i ai g

add e e f he e i a ea f cha gi g c e: ec i e . M ch e ha e c ea defi ed e f

45

ec i e . Rec i e e a i c de ecific c i e ia e a a e e hi e . The e c i e ia ha e bee ha ed b he d c e. If he ga i a i c i e b i g i e e be ha fi he d

c e, he d c e i cha ge. T he he ce f cha gi g c e, e ec i c i e ia h d be dified i c ea e he be f e ee ha fi i i h he de i ed e , e e e e e ia c e. C i e ia h d be de e ed a e e ia e ee hei abi i a d e e ie ce i i g e i i ia i e a d/ c ea i g a e i e he i d i g . P e ia aff h d a be e a a ed hei c ea i i , hei k edge f c e e d i he

e a ed ca i e , a d hei i i g e ake ca c a ed i k. 5. S c e. Cha e 3 e e ed a de c i i f ga i a i a

c e i a e e e e ia ga i a i . Cha gi g c e e c e e e b e a e e e e ia ga i a i i a he he

ce f cha gi g he c e. S c e he ha e h aff e be i e ac i h e a he . H aff i e ac he defi e he

a d a e ha defi e c e. The ef e, i g a c e ha ha fe e ad i i a i e a e , e e ea , ha e

ecia i a i , a d a e de ega i f b h e ibi i a d a h i he e i i eeded i he ce f cha gi g c e.

6. C a e ca a fac f d c e . Re ea ch ha c ea de a ed, i e a d i e agai a d i e c e , ha beha i ca e a i de e ha a i de ca e beha i . The ef e, cha gi g h e be f a ch e beha e a d e a he ca affec h he hi k ab e a he a d h cha ge he c e. I he e a e de c ibi g a ifac ea ie i hi cha e , he ec d ch a de c ibed a a ch he e de a e d c a e b d ee a k i h eache ide f c a a d he e eache ick

hei ffice . The e ac i e e de c ibed a a ifac ha i dica e a a he i e a a d c ed c e i hi he ch . A e ha he g a i cha ge he c e i hi ch ha i e e b e he c e

f he fi ch i e a e. I hi ch , de e e ee i g f ee i a d f eache ffice h gh he da , a e

e e b e ed e- ai i g eache eg a f c a ac i i ie f hei chi d e , a d eache e e ee i g i a d f

e a he ffice a d ad i i a ffice f i f a di c i . I a de c ibed a a e e c e, a d c ea i d be e ha d a d f e e e e e ia ac i i . The eade

f he ch i h he c ed c e c d ha e beha i ake i

46

k e e h gh e a di g eache , aff, a d ad i i a h i e ac e e . O e i e, he a e behi d he e beha i i bec e a f he c e a d i bec e a e f-

ai i g a f he c e. C ea , cha gi g c e hi a e i e de ibe a e a d c i e a e i e a e i d f i e a d ca be effec i e.

Cha gi g c e e i e de ibe a e ac i a d ake i e. Ye a ch e ake ig ifica cha ge i hei c e ha e

a h e f f e i g e e e e ia ac i i ha i ai i e f e i e. Ma ga i a i fai ake he i e a d eff ece a

cha ge hei c e. The e i e i g e cha ge i e e i ha i cha ge ga i a i a c e, a hi e i e a e i a a ie f fac a d ca c e ch f a eade i e.

The e cha e hif f c f he ga i a i a e e , hich ha bee he f c f he a h ee cha e , he e e f he i di id a i a e e . The cha e e e h he i di id a i a e e hi k a d ha e ha d be effec i e.

REFERENCES

C a , J., a d Pe a , B. (1990). Organizational entrepreneurship. H e d, I .: I i .

Dea , T., a d Ke ed , A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Readi g, Ma .: Addi -We e .

47

THE EDUCATIONAL INTRAPRENEUR

E e e e ia c e f a ed ca i a ga i a i de e d a e e e e ia c e b a i di id a h a e

i i g e i ie f he g d f he ga i a i . Cha e 2 i d ced he c ce f he e e e e i hi a e i i g, f e a ge ga i a i k a a i a e e . N ha e ha e he a

c ea e a e e e e ia ga i a i , f c hif he i di id a i a e e i hi ha e i e . Re e be ha e e i he e e e e ia c e, he e e e e ia ce e i e

ha d k a d dedica i . A h gh a e e i a ga i a i ca bec e i a e e ,

Pi ch (1985) ide ified a e f ki a d a ib e c he cce f i a e e . Thi ec i i e he e ki a d

a ib e a d a ie he ed ca i a i a e e : 1. Pa a d c e . S cce f i a e e ha e a g

e i a c i e he i . A i a e e i a k ab he i a if i e e hi he b i e . Thi c i e i be e e ge f h e i a e e h a e e ib e f ec g i i g he i i he fi ace. The ca e

i h he idea, e a a ed i de a e ha i a a i , a d ad ca ed i i ide hei ga i a i . The c i a g ea dea f i e, e e g , a d i e a i ica ca i a e he idea ahead. The ef e, a ga i a i h d a id i a ig i g a

48

ad i i a a e e e e ia jec a d ace he igi a cha i i cha ge f he a - ce .

F e a e, a ch e i de e i g a e , i a i e de ch i he di ic . A ig i g a ad i i a he ba i f adi i a c i e ia, ch a e i i , i be a effec i e a aci g

he igi a cha i f he jec i cha ge f he a - . If ha e e ib e, f ha e e ea , he ch e d be be

e ed b fi di g a eade i h a e a i f he de bei g ed i he ch . Pa i f he idea h d i e e e ie ce he

ch i g a eade f a e jec . 2. Se e e f a d a a . E e i a e e e e ia ch

e , he e i be f ic i be ee he ga i a i a d i i a e e . Tha i beca e cce f i a e e de e a d a

a . A h gh he a e c i ed he ch e a d i g a a d de a d ha he a e i g hei jec f he g d f he ch e i hich he k, he a e a i c edib a hei

jec . A e i he e i e a e ha he ch e decided ha he e de ch a ib e beca e f b dge a

c ai . I i a i hi i a i ee he i a e e fi d e he ea e he idea. The i a e e igh e he a e de ch a a cha e ch ib a a i a e ch .

I a e e f e c e i i h he ga i a i i a de ica e ba a ce. The ga i a i ec g i e hi a d de a d ha he e i be i e he he i a e e ch e e f-i e e e ga i a i a

i e e . S ch a ch ice h d be ie ed ega i e . I i i a i e i ab e b - d c f a e e e e ia e i e .

3. Tea b d . S cce f i a e e ge e a ha e he abi i b i d g ea a d k e i h a a ie f e e i ide a d

ide f he ga i a i . A di c ed ea ie , i i a h ha e e e e i a e e a e e .

4. Leade . S cce f i a e e b i d g ea b a ha e he abi i i i e hei ea a d c ea e i hi he ea he a e a i a d c i e f he jec ha he ha e.

S cce f i a e e ec g i e ha he a e g d a , a d i i f e a i g a e jec a he ha a agi g i ce i i

e a i a . The ef e, he ea i e ha e e he g- e iabi i f hei jec , he begi a fe c a d e ibi i a ea ha ca ad i i e he jec . Ma cce f i a e e a e

e ia e e e e h e f a - a - . The ch e h d ec g i e hi a d ck hi e f i a e e

49

i a i g e jec e he g e . I ead, hi i a e e h d be ie ed a a ca a f g i g i a i .

5. L - e e ec e. S cce f i a e e a e a ie . The de a d ha i a ake a g i e bef e hei idea e e begi

bec e acce ed b he ga i a i . H e e , he a e d gged e i e . O ce he ga i a i c i he i , i ake i e b i g he idea f i i . B dge c c e a d c e i g

ga i a i de a d i f e d he a - ce , a d, ce e a i g, i f e ake i e bef e he a ici a ed c e a e

ea i ed a d he jec bec e cce f . J a he i di id a e e e e a ea i e fi f e e a h e e a fe

ea , he i a e e a ai f e ec ed be efi he ga i a i be ea i ed i h hei jec . A i i e, i a ie

e e e e i a e cce f a a i a e e beca e i e bec e hi he e e .

6. P b e e . Si ce he f e k i h a g ea dea f a , i a e e be g d b e e . The a e he

i a e e e f hei jec . Wi h a f a , he be ab e ec g i e a d c ea defi e each b e he face, ga he he i f a i he eed, a d i e e a i . I a - ,

a ici a ed b e a e he , he e ce i . The i a e e be e a ed a fi e a d e e a a

fi e a ib e. The e i be a i ake a d e back a g he a . I a e e de a d h ea f he e i ake i hei

b e i g. The i a e e be ab e he ada a i i ia i e if he igi a a e i e ig ifica cha ge. I e

de ch e a e, he i a e e ike i face b e i h f di g, c c i , affi g, ice i g, ie , c i g , a d f h. S cce f i a e e k he e he a e headed a d d ha i eeded ake ca e f a ba ie ha ge i he a . The a de a d ha a diffe e e he de i a i a be e i ed.

7. Ma a e e . I a e e be ab e b i g ge he he e ce , , a d i f a i eeded cce f i e e hei jec . I a e e a e f e a age ia ge e a i a d ha e

a b ad a a f ki , i c di g fi a cia , ga i a i a , a d a age ia (cha e 6 e a i e he ecific fi a cia ki e i ed b

e e e e ia a age ). I a e e a ha e g a ke i g ki , hich i hi c e ea ha he de a d hei a ke

a d hei c e . S cce f e e e e i a e i g ea h

50

hi k ike hei c e . Cha e 6 di c e e e e e ia a ke i g ki i e de ai . 8. C ca . S cce f i a e e a e ge e a

e ce e c ica . If he i a e e i he igi a f he e i i ia i e, he i a e e be ab e c ica e he i i he eade hi f he ch e . I a e e be ab e

c ica e he i i ea e be a d he akeh de (b h i ide a d ide f he ch e ) h e i c i ica a

cce f a - . Thi f e e i e he abi i a a e idea i a g age ha he e diffe e akeh de i de a d. I he e

de ch e a e, e ca ee h b dge ad i i a a e i e a e diffe e de c i i f he e jec ha ec i e a e . H e e , he c i e f b h i c i ica .

9. T e a e a d ce a . Bei g a i a e e , e e i he e e e e ia ch e , ha i k . The ef e, i i i a

fi d i a e e h ca a ea e a e a de a e a f i k a d h i e i . I a e e a be ab e e a e ce ai a d a big i . Ne jec , a ic a e i a i e e , i ha e a g ea dea f ce ai a cia ed i h each e . Thi i c ea e ch a big i f he i a e e i a a ec f a agi g he

a - . Of c e, e i di id a a e be e ha he a e i ha d i g ce ai a d a big i .

10. Dec a e . I a e e be g d deci i ake . Thi ca be a ic a cha e gi g i ce deci i f e be ade

i h c e e i f a i . Ed ca i a i a e e be ab e ake deci i , a ea i a , he ba i f i i i a d e e ie ce.

Thi ca be diffic f e ed ca i a eade h a e e c f ab e aki g deci i he ba i f e ab i hed icie a d

ced e . The ecedi g i ca be ed he ide if ed ca i a eade

h ha e he e ia be cce f i a e e . I i i a kee i i d ha e e cce f ad i i a i bec e a

cce f i a e e . Ca e be ake ide if h e ad i i a h d be c f ab e i h he j b de c i i ca ied b a i a e e .

The i de c ibi g cce f i a e e ca a be ed ide if ai i g eed i c ea e he cha ce f cce f i a e e a d hei jec . F e a e, if a ad i i a e e c e f a d i h he i a i e ch i he e i e a e, a c i ica

e e d be c d c a ca ef a e e f ha ad i i a

51

i g he e c i e ia i he i . If e e c i e ia e e de e i ed be a eak e f he ad i i a , ch a b e i g a d

deci i aki g, i d be i a de e a ai i g a ha d he add e he ecific deficie cie . S e deficie cie a

be e edied h gh ai i g. I ha ca e, i d be i a add he ea de e i g he e idea a e be h c e e a deficie a ea fi d a he e e e a he eade i cha ge f i e e i g he e jec .

STAGES IN THE INTRAPRENEURIAL PROCESS

The i a e e ica g e h gh f age i de e i g a e idea a d i g i a he a h gh i e e a i (Ka e , 1983; C a a d Pe a , 1990): (1) defi i g a i , (2) c a i i b i di g, (3) bi i a i a d i e e a i , a d (4) a i i

cce . The ki a d a ib e di c ed i he e i ec i i be e i ed cce f e a e jec h gh each f he e f age f he i a e e ia ce . The ef e, i i i a

a each e i i ia i e ca ef , aki g e ha e e e i ed f de a d ha i be e i ed cce f e he jec f begi i g h gh i e e a i a d ib be d.

Le k a each e i de ai : 1. Def a . Thi fi age i e hi ki g ike a

e e e e . If he i a e e i he ce f a e idea, he he h d e d i e da d ea i g a d fac fi di g ake e ha he a i ha i de e i g f he e idea i e f ded. A i a

fi e i e a a i g he idea i ga he a ch i f a i a ib e. Thi i f a i ica c e f a ki g i f a ab

he idea i h e e b h i ide a d ide f he ga i a i . I f a i h d a be ga he ed f c edib e ec da ce . Si ce he idea i e f i f e e , i g ec da da a a c e f adi i a ce . F e a e, i ce he e e ge ce f f -

fi ed ca i a ie ed b i e e , ch ha bee i e ab he f e f ed ca i i a i fi a cia b ica i . The e b ica i

a ide e diffe e i igh ha ca be f d i adi i a ed ca i b ica i .

D i g hi age, he i a e e i ake i e de e a ecific de c i i f he i . E e e e i he i a e ec ea he i a ce f de e i g a c ck ai a de c i i f hei

52

e e. A c ck ai a de c i i i e ha i ab e -fi e d e . Whe de c ibi g he idea i a akeh de , he

e e e e a ha e hi ec d ge e e a e i . The ef e, a c ci e de c i i f he idea i c i ica . The de c i i

be c ea a d c e i g. I ea e d b a he a e f he idea a d h i i a i .

T be a e i , a idea ha e a market, ide a ade a e e a i g margin, a d be c i e i h he ch e mission. The i a e e de a e he fea ibi i f he idea b

aki g a ca e i a h ee f he e a ea . De a i g ha a a ke e i f he idea ea ha he i a e e ha ga he ed da a ha i dica e ha de a d i e i f he e idea. S ch da a a be

e ha a ecd a a hi age, b i i be c e i g. Ha i g e ide ce f e ia g f a e i i ia i e f i f a

e i e ie c bi ed i h i g de g a hic da a f e i e gh a hi i . M e e e i e a ke e ea ch i be c d c ed h gh he ac i a ( ee cha e 6).

The i a e e i a begi de e he c e i i e a eg f he i d i g hi i i ia age. A e, a c bi a i , f he c e i i e a egie di c ed i cha e 3 h d be de e ed f he i de c ide a i . The c e i i e

a eg i a be de e ed f he i he ac i a . 2. C a b d . I a e e f e eed b i d a g

c a i i f e e he cce f i e e a i f hei jec . Thi i a ic a e i a ge ch e . C a i i

b i di g g e e be d he de e e f he jec ea . The i a e e i eed he c e a i a d/ b e i g f a diffe e a ie .

I i a i e e ch e a e, he i a e e i eed he b e i g f a i e i i he ch e . I a e i e e e a

e e a i ec e hei . Effec i e c ica i i be e i ed ai ai f - e e ad i i a i h gh he de e e f he jec . The i a e e i e ib e f

kee i g ad i i a i i f ed. The i a e e i a eed c e a i f a i f c i a

a ea i he ch e , i c di g ace a e , b dge ad i i a , a d c ic aff, a e a fe . If he ch a d a f a a ie f di ic , he e a a be he eed gai he

f he a a i aff. The e e h ia ic he e e e a e, he be e , a he i a e e a eed e e e a f

53

d i g b i e ake he idea k. The e e e e e ia he ga i a i i , he ea ie i i b i d c a i i . H e e , i i

a a ake de ibe a e ac i he a f he i a e e b i d he c a i i a d kee he c a i i i ac . The e i be e back i a

e i i ia i e. A g, e -i f ed c a i i f i he kee a e back f bec i g di a f he jec .

3. M b a a d e e a . I hi age, he i a e e begi bi i e he ea , he c a i i f e , a d a he

ece a e ce achie e a cce f a ch f he e i i ia i e. M ch f he i e e a i f he e jec i be g ided b he ac i a ( ee cha e 6).

4. T a cce . F a e i i ia i e , he i a e e a be he e h ad i i e he jec e he ge e .

The ki ece a e he i a be he ki eeded ai ai a hea h e a i . S e i e he i a e e ec g i e hi ea a d e i e , hich ca ead a ai f

a d di i e a i i . Tha i h i i i a ha he a i i i eade hi be a ed f he e begi i g f a e i i ia i e.

S ch a i g f e ee e a e he i i c ea he he he e jec e e i be a ched , if i i , he he he jec i cceed. H e e , e e ie ce f die f i a e- ec

e e e e de c e he i a ce f b i di g a i i a igh i he i i ia ac i a f a e jec .

WHEN NEW INITIATIVES FAIL

N a e h ca ef a ga i a i a i e jec , e i i ia i e i fai . I he i a e ec , a 80 e ce cce a e f

e e e i c ide ed he e a . Fai e ca e f a dde cha ge i he e e a e i e f a ch e . The ed ca i a ec i he U i ed S a e i i a a e f f ha i a f a ea c e. S e i e e d ha c ea e i ie ca cha ge

d a a ica i h i e a i g. F e a e, f di g f cha e ch ca be a e ed dde f e b dge c c e he e ,

c ea i g ei he a dde i c ea e a dec ea e i a - , de e di g he a e f ch a cha ge. Fai e ca cc he he g deci i

a e ade h add e a i . S ch i i ia i e ha e ch e ai i g i cha ed a e . A di c ed i e i cha e ,

ch i he i k f e e e e ia a age e . S e fai e cc

54

beca e c e i i k i c e, a d he ga i a i i e f he e de i e i be eff . Fai e f a e e e i he i a e ec i ea ie ea e. If fi e ec a i a e achie ed, a i a e- ec e e ica

i be c ed d . I he b ic a d fi ec , fai e a be a ea i ec g i ed. The ef e, c ea a ge f e f a ce be e ab i hed f e jec . The e a ge ca i c de fi a cia

ea e , e e , de c e , he ecific c e he ch e i i g add e . E ec a i h d be e ab i hed f i e e a ge a g he a a e . Wha d e e ec ee af e

he fi ea ? Wha d e e ec ee af e h ee ea ? S ecific i e i e h d be e ab i hed i g e a g he a ee he

i a e e ec a i f he e i i ia i e. If he jec i e e e aggi g i e ec ed c e a d he c e

e d h ig f i g i a d, he ch e h d be e a ed ake he deci i e i a e a d di a e he jec .

O ce he deci i i ade e d a e e e e ia i i ia i e, he ch e h d e if a d deci i e . T f e b h he deci i

e i a e a d he ce f di a i g a e d agged g. Deci i e ac i i , e he g e , e ha ce c edibi i b h i ide a d ide f he ch e .

A e e e e ia ga i a i ake e ec he e e i ed i ch a fai e. The ea a e ed he ga i a i cha e ge be e e e e ia . If e e e i he ea did a he c d

i hi he b d f ha he c d c , he team h d be ie ed a a fai e. T c i e f e a e e e e ia c e, i i

i a ha he ea e be be ec g i ed f he eff he ade. H fai e i a aged, a ic a he fai e i ide he c

f he ea eadi g he e jec , i ake a c ea a e e he ea ha a e a ked ake ch i k beha f f he ga i a i .

A , he e i be he e i i ia i e ha he ch e i eed e. Beca e f hei e e ie ce, he ea e be i be a

i a e ce d a ead he e e i i ia i e . A aj cha e ge f a ed ca i a ga i a i i ha i k i bjec he b ic e e. P i a e- ec e e e e d face he

a e deg ee f c i a d e e e e ia ed ca . A h gh b ic c i i be a i e h gh he e e e e ia ce , i ca

bec e a c i i he , if, a fai e cc . Ma agi g he b ic e a i ide f fai e e i e ha e e a i e be ca ef

add e ed:

55

1. The school system s leadership should take pains to manage expectations from the very beginning. O e a eg ha i

i ake ed he b i d e h ia a d gai f f di g i e gage i h e b e ab a e i i ia i e. H e e , a e agge a i f e ia c e i c ea e a b ic e a i igh a e if he jec fai . Be c ea ab he be efi f he e i i ia i e, b be e a c ea ab he i k f i

e ia cce . The e i a d a i g i he d f e e e e : Bankers don t like surprises. The a e ca be aid f he b ic. D e e he be efi , a d d de e he i k he c ica i g he b ic.

2. It is critical to communicate with the public throughout each step of the development of a new project. A ica i ake i a he a ch f a jec a d f i h i f a i a he

jec i f di g. S ch da e ca he b i d c edibi i , de a di g, a d . The ca a e a e he b ic b

idi g ha d fac if a jec begi fai . 3. The leadership must be consistent in their message on what the

project is going to achieve and why. The e h d be c ea c ica i ab he e a a f he ch e a d h hi a ic a jec fi i . Ta k ab he i i ia i e a d h he i kage i h hi jec .

4. Keep the message about the purpose of the project clearly couched in terms of both fiscal responsibility and concern for student outcomes. Tha i ide a be ch a k h d fai e cc i h a ecific jec . The b ic i be e de a d ha a e ec ed, ha hi jec did ee e ec a i , a d ha he

igi a g a a e i i a a d i be add e ed i e fa hi .

5. Continue to emphasize confidence in the overall plan. Thi h d be d e, be i i he face f cce i he face f fai e.

6. Remember that the media will want to compartmentalize any situation and spin the story their own way. The edia a a a e i da e g e a g he a e e if c i e c ica i i ided he . Fi d he a ge he

e age e f. Ne e e , Web age , e- ai da e , c i a d eighb h d ee i g , a d PTA ee i g ca

ide a a f he ch e c ea e g i g c ica i ab e i i ia i e .

56

Thi cha e ha e a i ed he i di id a i a e e i hi a e e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i . The e cha e e e a

de g ide he de e e f a ac i a g ide b h he i a e e a d he ch e i he ce f a chi g e

jec .

REFERENCES

C a , J., a d Pe a , B. (1990). Organizational entrepreneurship. H e d, I .: I i .

D cke , P. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship. Ne Y k: Ha e & R . Ka , R. (1983). The change masters. Ne Y k: Si & Sch e . Pi ch , G., III. (1985). Intrapreneuring. Ne Y k: Ha e & R .

57

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ENTREPRENEURIAL COMMUNITY

The fi fi e cha e ha e de c ibed he c di i ha c ea e he c e eed f e e e e hi i ed ca i a ad i i a i , he cha ge ha ake ace i a ed ca i a e ga i a i bef e i ca cce f f e e e e e hi , a d ha i di id a i a e e face i hei e dea . Thi cha e e e a de f de e i g a ac i a ha i he g ide he a i g a d i e e a i f e e e e e ia ed ca i i i ia i e a d i e hei cha ce f cce .

De e i g a ac i a e e f i a e . Fi , i ide he de ai ed ad a f a e jec a d he e jec

ea . The e i e a - ea h d a ici a e i he de e e f he ac i a if a a ib e. Thi i e e ha he e i e ea ha e a e e f e hi . Sec d, he a ca e e a a ea f

c ica i ab he e jec c i e cie b h i ide a d ide f he jec ea . I i he b i d he c a i i di c ed i

he e i cha e . Thi d, he a ca be ed he ec i e e he jec ea . Fi a , i ca he i e i b e i h he

jec bef e a a ge a f e ce i c i ed. S e b e i he jec a ca be ac i e ed a d c ec ed i he

a i g age. O he a be fa a f a ha i dica e ha he jec

58

h d be e i a ed e e bef e i begi . E e e e ca hi ea i g fai a e . The ac i a i hi cha e c e a a e he b i e a ed

b i a e- ec e e e e . A gge ed i e f he ac i a i a f :

1. Executive summary. P ide a c e e i f he jec 2. Mission of the project. C ea a e he e f he jec ,

he e i i be de i e ed, a d h i i e e; a ide a i e f he de i ed ga i a i a c e

3. Rationale. P e e he e e a fac ha a e he ce f he i ; h d i c de e d , fac , a d da a ake f ca ,

egi a , a d a i a e ec i e 4. Marketing plan. I c de a a a i f he c e i i , he e

f a ke e ea ch, a de c i i f h he jec i fi i he a ke , a d a i a a

5. Operating plan. I c de c ide a i f ace a d affi g eed ; a e e ba ic i f a i h he jec i be a aged

6. The team. Sh d i k e be f he a - ea a d de c i i f he e f e e h i eed be added he ea

7. Financial plan. Di a fi a cia jec i a d he a i ed c ea e h e jec i

The f i g ec i e e he e i de e i g a ac i a . A i be ee , he a h d be de e ed i a de ha i diffe e f he de i i e e ed i he fi a d c e . U i g he e

i ed he e i he c ea e a ac i a ha i i e a c i e . If f da e a i c i e cie a i e, he jec h d be cha ged aba d ed, de e di g he a e f he i c i e c .

STEP 1: MISSION AND RATIONALE

The a i g ce h d begi i h a c ea a e e f e. Thi a e e f e i c e f he eade i i f he

jec . F he e f he ac i a , i h d be c ed a a i i a e e . The i i a e e h d (1) be a c ea a e e

f ha he ed ca i a e e i g i g be, (2) defi e h i i

59

i e ded e e, a d (3) ide if he e i i g i g e a e. The i i a e e ake he eade hi i i a d b i g i i he he e

a d . I g e be d he c ck ai a de c i i di c ed ea ie a d ide a e c ea defi ed a e e f he jec . A de c i i f he de i ed cha ac e i ic f he ga i a i a c e h d a be i ed.

A cha e ch bei g a ed i S . Pa , Mi e a, ide a g d e a e f a i i a e e :

ACADEMIA CESAR CHAVEZ i dedica ed idi g a a i ed ca i f Hi a ic h a d hei fa i ie i S . Pa ha e a e c i ica hi ki g,

cia c e e , a e d i e , a d c a a a e ea e b i i i g La i c a a e i a e i e f fa i ia a d c i .

The a i a e f a e jec de c ibe he ce f he i . I e e he e e a fac ha c ea ed he eed f he jec , i c di g e d , fac , a d da a ake f ca , egi a , a d a i a

e ec i e . Thi i f a i h d ha e bee de e ed d i g he fi age f he i a e e ia ce de c ibed i he e i cha e . I a e e h d be ai ed i edia e begi a e

he he hei idea a e i ie . Thi h d be acc a ied b ca i g f i f a i i g ha he e i de a d f hei idea.

I he e a e f he S . Pa cha e ch f Hi a ic h, i g a i a e ca e f a a ie f ce . A a e f he

i f a i ha ed he de e e f he ch i c ded a g h i he La i a i i S . Pa , ca a d a e f

e cha e ch , a i c ea i g be f i i g f cha e ch , a d g de a d f he ed ca i a e ice f c i g he La i c i i S . Pa .

A a f a c i ica i f a i h d be i c a ed b i d f he i . De e di g he a die ce, he a i a e

ec i f he a a ac a be fai h . If he a die ce i e fa i ia i h he a i a e f he e jec , a igh i e a

f age h d ffice. The i f a i h d i be i c ded, a i i e e a a e i de f he jec a i a e a d

e a i ed. The e ike i be a i e i he ea f e he he ea i eed be e i ded a h he a e a ki g ha d a d aki g i k . If he akeh de a e g i g ead he a ,

a e ha ge e i i h a i e e de ai e a a i d

60

be j ified. H e e , he e e a i h d i be ke e ha fi e age .

STEP 2: MARKETING PLAN

Marketing i a ega i e e e i he fie d f ed ca i . I c j e i age f ick e age ed a he e e e f he ac a

a i f ed ca i a e ice . T e, i e e e a chea e i g f ed ca i , i g a e a d chi d e i c e a d ed ca i i a c di .

H e e , a ke i g i i a , a d i i a ha i bei g ed effec i e b he g i g be f i a e a d e i b ic ed ca i a

e c e i g i h e a he a d i h b ic ch e f e e . C e i i a be a di a ef i a i b ic ed ca i , b i i i c ea i g a ea i . S cce f c e i g i ch a e i e e i e ha b ic a d adi i a i a e ch

e de e he ca aci e gage i a ke i g. Ma ke i g i ch e ha i ad e i i g. Ma ke i g i he

de e e f a c e i i e a eg i g ha i k a he F P :

1. P d c . Offe i g he igh e f ed ca i a e ice f he a ke ace i he g a f hi a f a ke i g. Th e ai ed i

ed ca i ica ie he defi i i f he d c he ffe i e a . I fac , d c i c de a ha i c a e he e e ie ce f

gai i g a ed ca i i a ch . Product f a ch e i c de c ic ffe i g b a a he he c i e ia ha a e

e i aki g a ch ice f ch . Thi ca i c de fac , e ac ic a i , e a i f ace e i highe ed ca i , afe , chi d ca e, f d e ice, faci i ie , a d f h.

2. P ce. I ed ca i , a e k a a e, hich i he a i f e cei ed a i e c . Pa e a e i i g a e f a

ed ca i if he e cei e ha i i f e i a i . A h gh b ic ch e ha e a i he e ice ad a age (i.e., b ic ed ca i i

f ee), a e i ch e a a highe ice if he e cei e he a i f i a e ed ca i be ig ifica be e , h ie di g a

g ea e a e. 3. P ace. Thi ea ag , he e place i ed ca i d i

efe he h ica ca i f a ch b i di g. A h gh he ca i f a ch b i di g i i i a i e f c e ie ce a d afe ,

61

i i ge he c ide a i . The i f ace i ed ca i a ce d he ch b i di g. H e ch i g, I e e ed ca i ,

a d e e ie ia ba ed i e hi g a a e j e e a e f e i f ha ca be c ide ed a c a .

4. P . Ad e i i g a d i a e ha e e hi k f a a ke i g. I deed, i i a ke a f a ke i g. H e e ,

a ca be ee i he e i i , i i e a f a effec i e a ke i g a . The g a f i i fi di g effec i e ea

c ica e i h c e a d e ia c e ab d c . The e age h d add e he c i e ia a e c ide

i a i aki g hei ch ice i ch . The e age h d be c ai ed i edia ha i each he effec i e .

The bjec i e f he a ke i g a i de e he a eg f add e i g each f he F P . The f da i f he a ke i g a

a aid d i g he fi age f he i a e e ia ce . The a k i g i ch e de ai i each a ea. A ica a ke i g

a i c de he f i g ec i : 1. C e e a a . The fi e i c ea i g a effec i e a ke i g a i a h gh de a di g f he c e i i . Thi e i c i ica de e i g a egie f d c , ici g, ace, a d

i . A c e e a a i f he c e i i e e i e e i e acc a e a ke e ea ch. T c e e effec i e , a ch e ha e acc a e da a ha c i e ia a e i a a e aki g a deci i he e e d hei chi d e ch . A a f he c e i i e a a i , a ke e ea ch h d be c d c ed h gh

e f c g i e ie a e ha c i e ia a e a e i g f hei ch ice i ch i hi he ch e a ke

a ea. Thi e ea ch h d a a e he a e e ce i f he a i f he b ic ch e a d he c e i f each f

he e c i e ia. F e a e, a ke e ea ch a fi d ha f idd e-c a a e i

he di ic , afe , c ege ad i i cce , a i f g a , a d acce ibi i f eache de a d a e a e he i a c i e ia i hei ch ice f ch . Each ch he ed ca i a a e a i e (e.g., h e ch i g) ha d a de i ha di ic h d be e a a ed he ba i f he i a c i e ia. The be a ga i e he e da a f he ac i a i b i g a c e i i e a a i a i , hich i h i fig e 6.1. O he ba i

f a bjec i e e a a i , each f he ch i he a i h d be e a a ed hei e ec i e a i i g each f he ide ified c i e ia.

62

C i e ia a be ee a e i hi he a e di ic , 100 e ce a ke ha e (i.e., a ib e de i he a ke ) i ea i ic.

H e e , i i i a ide if he a i di e e eg e f he ca a ke a d e f a c e i i e a a i f each. A e i a e f

he a i e f each a ke eg e ( a be f e ia de ) h d be de i ed f a ai ab e b ic da a ce . F hi , a ea i ic g a f a ke ha e ( e ce age f a a ke ) ca be

de e i ed. A f eca f e e i he ca c a ed b aki g a ke ha e i e a a ke f each eg e . I a a - , i i i e a e ha f e e i be a ai ed d i g he fi ea

e he e a e c e i g da a i dica e ha ch e e a e ib e. A h ee- ea a a i jec ed e e i

a ea i ic a i f g h.

Figure 6.1 Sample Competitive Analysis Matrix for a School District

2. Ma e . N e e ch ca e e e e fa i . The ef e, he ch e h d de e i e hich eg e , eg e , f he a ke i ca be e e gi e he c ai i face

(e.g., faci i ie , i i , b dge , a d a i i a i ). P b ic ch e ica ha e ied e e he a ke a if i i h ge e

i i eed . H e e , a ke a e di e e a d a e i e diffe e e ice f he diffe e eg e . The ac i a h d i c de a

acc a e a e e f he a i e f he a ke a d f each eg e i hi ha a ke . C ea , a f he cha e ch ha a e

e e gi g a e he e f eg e f he a i ha be ie e ha adi i a b ic ch , a he ha e bee hi ica e a ed, d ee he c i e ia ha a e i a f he e a e i hei ch

ch ice. O ce a deci i i ade ega di g he eg e f he a ke , c e i i e a egie h d be de e ed f each eg e ( ee cha e 3). A f hi h d he be i c ded i hi he ac i a .

63

3. P a a . M ch f ha d i e a c e i i e ed ca i a e i e i he i f a i ha a e ha e a hei di a . The ch e a d i c e i a e i a ba e d he e ce i f he a e i hi hi e i e . P b ic a d e ab i hed i a e ch ha e had ab i g ha i g d ab hei ch i he a . Wi h c e i i , a ha cha ge .

The c e i i e a a i a d a ke e ea ch ide a c ea ic e f ha i i a a e i hei ch ch ice. E ab i hed ch h d e ha he ha e ea ed f hi i f a i a d

fi d effec i e e h d c ica e ha ake hei ch be e . A d a ke i g adage i , Thi k ike he c e . The ch ea h he a e ga he i f a i ake hei deci i a d

ake e ha he i f a i he ch a c ica e i effec i e de i e ed i hi ha c e . A g d e a e ca be ee i highe ed ca i . O e he a fe ea , a e a d high ch

de ha e e ied e a d e he I e e ga he i f a i ab c ege . C ege ha ha e ec g i ed hi e d i h a e a d de ga he i f a i a d ha ha e f d effec i e a ge hei e age h gh hi e edi ca ha e a di i c c e i i e ad a age.

The ac i a h d i c de a e -de e ed i a a . The i a a h d ide if he e age ha eed be c ica ed, edia ha be de i e ha e age a e , a d a c ea b dge i e e ha a a d e e be , hi k ike a c e .

STEP 3: REVENUE PLAN

M ch f ha i k ab a ai ab e e e e f ea ea i de i ed f he adi i a b dge i g ce . H e e , b dge a e hi ica ba ed. A e i i ia i e a e de e ed i hi he ch

e , a a e a i e e h d f e i a i g e e e a be e i ed. (N e ha e e e a e de e ed i de ai i S e 5.) F e ed ca i a e e , e e e ca be de i ed f a ea fig e beca e if he e e e a a a ea , i a be a g d edic f hi ea beca e f c i ed g h cha ge i he c e i i e

a ke . Ma e e e e ( f a e ) ake a c i ica a d f e fa a i ake a hi i i hei a i g. O ai i g i adi i a

64

b dge i g eache e d f i e e i a i g e e e ha i be e i ed he ga i a i . I fac , i ha bee de a ed

ha ef hei , e e e e i e d a ea 80 e ce f he i e a agi g a d de i g he a i ca eg ie f e e e a d e ha 20 e ce f he i e e i a i g e e e . I fac , a

e e e e i i e i a e e e e he ba i f he e e e he a ici a e e di g. H e e , acc ac i e e e f eca i ha

e f e ake b eak a e e e e ia e e f a e. If e a e a e e f e e e ba ed e i e e a ic h gh

a d he ake c i e f e di g ba ed h e e e e jec i , di a e ca cc if h e e e e e i a e d

a e ia i e. C c i g e e e f eca f a e i i ia i e h d begi i h

he i f a i de e ed i he a ke i g a (S e 2). B ki g a he c e f he a ke , he a a ac eg e f he a ke he ch e a a f g a , a d ea ab e e i a e f

a ke ha e, a ea i ic e e e f eca ca be de e i ed. F eca h d be ade f e e a i e e i d i he f e (a ea h ee ea a d efe ab fi e) acc a e de a ici a ed g h i

e e e i e. T de e acc a e f eca f e e e , a e e e e fi d ha he e d 80 e ce f hei i e revenue estimates a d 20 e ce e i a i g e e e .

A he ke c e f f eca i g i c ea e a i e f he aj a i ed ake he e e e f eca . I e ab i hi g

f eca , a i i ha e be ade. Each i e a aj a i i ade, i h d be d c e ed. The i f a i

i he he e e a a c echa i a he i i ia i e de e . The eade h d f e e e he a i ha e e ade. If ke a i e e c ec , he f eca h d be i edia e adj ed de e i e he e ia fi a cia i ac ha a ece a c ec i e ac i ca be ade ick a d deci i e . F e a e, he

de a a e a ce ai e e f f di g e i a d a ce ai c a i e. If he f di g e e be e ha a ici a ed beca e f he a e e e cha gi g i ica c i a e, he e e e a eed be

adj ed ef ec he dec ea e i ac a e e e e h e f eca ed. O he he ha d, if he eade hi b e e ha he e i i ia i e ca a ge c a i e ha igi a a ed,

e i c e e e a be ab e be e ed beca e f highe e e e . Thi de a e h eadi g a a - ed ca i a e e e i e a a age e e ha i b h high f c ed (a igh a ch

65

he ke a i ) a d f e ib e ( eadi ada ab e cha gi g c di i ).

C e a i f he fi a cia a d acc i g i f he e i be ece a ge he eeded da a ack ke a i . Ne

be a be e i ed, a d he a be e i ed e f e ha he e i acc ed d ci g. Thi i he e he de e e b

he i a e e f ke i hi he ga i a i i c i ica , a a di c ed i cha e 5.

The fi a c e f he fi a cia a i he i f ke i e e a d ea e f cce d i g a - a d g h. F each ke

i e e, ch a e i g da e d f he fi e , ede e i ed ea e f cce ha i h d be e a a ed. I addi i

i i g a i , ea e f cce a ke i e e i be he he ke a f idc e c ec i f he jec .

STEP 4: OPERATING AND TEAM PLANS

M ch ad i i a a e e ai ed i he de e e f e a i g a , hich i he e e i he de e e f he ac i a . A de ai ed de c i i f a ace a d e ce eed h d be

i c ded. Re ce igh i c de ecia c e f a e a d ha d a e, ecia e i e , a d a ib a e ce , i addi i

a a da d e i e eed . Pa f he e a i g a i c de he de e e f icie a d ced e . Ce ai e ab i hed icie a d ced e f e i i g

ch i he e ca e e a a a i g i . H e e , hi i f he e a i g a h d be ai ed fi he ecific a e f a e i i ia i e a d, i a , he c e ha he eade hi i he i i i hi he e g a . The ef e, each ic a d ced e

h d be ca ef ea ed agai he i i a d de i ed c e f he e i i ia i e.

S ecific a f ga i a i a c e h d be i ed i hi i f he ac i a . A , a ecific g e a ce a h d be

de c ibed. S affi g a i eed be ca ef ied a ici a ed a e f

g h e ab i hed i he e e e f eca de a d he a ke i g a . S affi g a h d a ef ec he de i ed c e a d i i f he i i ia i e bei g a ed. G h i eachi g, , a d ad i i a i e

aff h d a be ied ecific e e e a d i e a ge . The e a ge

66

h d be i a hich i c ea ed e e e ca i fac c e he e aff e e e. C ica i f he affi g a i i a , a

e i i g aff a bec e e ha e ched i he e e e f aff i added. A a ce ha he i be i a a a ecific

j c e h d ed ce he di e ca ed b he e g i g ai . The ea a h d ha e ba ic c e . Fi , i h d

i c de a b ief de c i i f k ea e be , i c di g hei e a d a ifica i , a d a de c i i f a ecific ea e be h

i eed be added f he a - . Sec d, i h d i c de a ea de e e a . A di c ed i cha e 5, hi h d i c de a

a i i a a ici a ed f he eade hi f he e jec e i e.

STEP 5: EXPENSES PLAN

A hi i i he de e e f he ac i a , he eade hi h d e he fi a cia a de e he e e e i f hei

f eca i de ai . E e e h d be f eca f h ee fi e ea c e d he e e e f eca ha e e a ead e ab i hed i S e 3. The f de e ed a ke i g a d e a i g a ca ide ch

f he de ai . Reca ha a a ed e i : Y h d a ca e ab 20 e ce f i e de e i g he fi a cia f eca e e e . E e ie ced ed ca h d be ab e c ea e acc a e e e e f eca i a e a i e h a f i e. The e f eca h d not be ed f b dge a a age e . Ac a b dge i g h d

be a e a a e ce ied adi i a fi a cia c e . H e e , a - h d be igh a aged b each e e e ca eg e e i he b dge a e . B dge e ie h d ake i acc he ce ai f ch a jec a d a f f e ibi i i c ea i g a ba a ced b dge e a .

If he e e e f eca de e ed i S e 3 d e i a ba a ced b dge a hi i , he e e e h d be adj ed fi , he e e e f eca . D g he e e e f eca fi a ici a ed

e di g. If adj i g e e e d e achie e acce ab e fi a cia c e , he a a i h d be e ie ed ee he he he e

a e a adj e ha ca be ade i he ba ic f a e k f he g a i e f. F e a e, a i c a i e, a ifica i

e e f aff, defi i i f a ke , a d f h a eed be cha e ged ee he he cha ge ca e i a ba a ced b dge hi e

67

i ee i g he ba ic i i f he jec . Thi i i he a i g c ea e a c cia g / -g i . If he f eca ca he fi a cia iabi i f he i i ia i e, i a eed be aba d ed bef e a e e ce a e c i ed. If he e i a gi , he e i

i i , a d fai e a e i efe ab e he fai e f a d ed a - .

STEP 6: WRITING THE ACTION PLAN

A hi i , a he ga he ed i f a i ca be ed ge he i he ac i a . The ac i a h d f he ba ic i e e e ed a he begi i g f hi cha e . B f i g i de he e i fi e e , he a h d ha e g i e a c i e c a d i ide a

g e e a i hi e a e i g a a a ab e g ide f he a - ce . The i e i e e he i f a i i a de ha i

f e gica f he eade .

STEP 7: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The fi a e i de e i g he ac i a i i e a e ec i e a . The e ec i e a e e a a e ie f he e i e

a ha ca c ica e i e e ce i hi e , a , age . I i i a i d c i he ac i a ha g ab he eade a e i ha he ead he h e a . I ead, i h d ca e a he a ai i a d c c i i a i g e age. The e ec i e

a i e e a a i a c ica i f he i i ia i e i h i e a a d e e a c i e cie .

CONCLUSION

Pa 1 f hi b k e e ed a de f he de e e f a e e e e ia c e a d a age e e f e ab i hed ch

e . The cha e i a 2 e e ecific a d ech i e ha ca be ed i hi a e e e e ia ed ca i a ga i a i a da -

-da ba i .

68

REFERENCES

A e , K. (1999). Growing and managing an entrepreneurial business. B : H gh Miff i .

C a , J., a d Pe a , B. (1990). Organizational entrepreneurship. H e d, I .: I i .

Ti , J. (1994). New venture creation. 4 h ed. B : I i McG a -Hi .

69

Pa II

TOOLS AND TACTICS

70

MARKETING

The e a e di e i a ke i g ch . O e i fi d he h gh f he b ic i he ch a ke a ea, a d he he i

b i d a g a each h e e e. De e i i g b ic i i c ce i g a ch i c ide ed a a ke e ea ch ac i i . I b i e , e defi i i f a ke e ea ch

efe ac i i ie c d c ed e ab i h he e e a d ca i f he a ke ; ha i , he e ia f a e f he d c e ice f he

b i e . Ma ke e ea ch ca a be defi ed a he a a i f he c a d ce e a c a ed i h ha f a e a i e c e i .

Acc di g Webster s Collegiate Dictionary (10 h edi i ), a ke i g i he ac ce f e i g cha i g i a a ke . . . a agg ega e f f c i i ed i i g g d f

d ce c e . The ch i i he b i e e f e i g a d c , b i i

idi g a e ice. The a ke i g e i i , he , h ge he ch e ice he e c e . Thi a ea b i gi g he c e (i.e., he de ) he ch , a h gh cca i i i

a ia e b i g he ch e ice he de . A hi i , i i a ia e defi e public relations ( hich i

c e ed i he e cha e ) i ce i i e f he ed i a ke i g. P b ic e a i i he b i e f i d ci g he b ic ha e a be e

de a di g f a d g d i a d a i i i . A he defi i i

71

f he e i i g b i g ab a ha f de a di g be ee a i i i a d he b ic i e e a d h e g d i i de e d .

F e f hi di c i , he diffe e ia i be ee b ic e a i a d a ke i g i ed ca i i a f : P b ic e a i dea i h he c ica i be ee he ch e a d i b ic ab ha is; a ke i g dea i h he c ica i ab ha might be.

U i g hi di i c i , he a e ac i i ie (e.g., e e ea e i i ) a be ed f ei he b ic e a i a ke i g e .

MARKETING THE SCHOOL

The e i a a i g i i ic ha he e a e e i ge i g e ec ed ffice. The fi i ge k , a d he ec d i c i ce he b ic ha a e he be e he be ca dida e. The a e ca be aid ab

a ke i g a ed ca i a i i i a d i g a . The fi e i a ke i g he ch i ake he b ic a a e f

he e i e ce f he i i i a d i a i g a . The e e i c i ce he b ic f he a i f i g a e ade e ia de a d hei fa i ie ha hi d be he be i i i f

he . I a ca e , he ha a e ed c ea e b ic a a e e ca a be ha a e ed f e i g a i .

Bef e di c i g ech i e f a ke i g, i i ece a e a i e a egie f cce f a ke i g g a . Fi k a he i i i a i i . The a ke i g g a be de e ed be c i e i h

he be ief a e e , g a , a d i i f he ch . O he i i a ia e k a ecific a ke ha he ch i e d e e. He e a e e hi g c ide :

1. Examine the community s needs. A e he e e ech ica i d ie ha eed e e ai ed f he ? Wha a e he e ec a i f a ea

c ege a d i e i ie ? Wha g a a d a e a e e ec ed b he c i e e ?

2. Identify underserved populations. A e ca ch eg ec i g a i f ce ai eighb h d ? A e e e i h

di abi i ie , h e i h i i ed E g i h- eaki g abi i , he a i bei g ade a e e ed b e i i g ch ?

3. Determine the level of competition. I i de i ab e ake c e i head- -head? F e a e, if c e i ffe a

72

i e a i a bacca a ea e g a , d i be ece a ffe he a e? Sh d c e g a i g be c ide ed ffe

a e a i e c e i ? 4. Try to define specific niches by developing new courses or

programs, by refining existing programs, or by reinstituting ones that have been dropped. The a ke iche a be ba ed d a a ic eed , b i a a be ba ed ecific a e a d ki f he ch e ee a e a he e ce f he ch a d c i .

5. Do not ignore population trends when examining markets. I i i a k e e hi g ib e ab a i e d a d i e . I he be f bi h i c ea i g dec ea i g? I he e

e i - ig a i - ig a i f i a e ice a ea ? Ha he e bee a e d i he e e f de a a f

a d he ch a f i c e i i he a f a ke i g eff ?

6. Major concerns in developing a marketing program are the issues of transportation and communication. H ea i i f de ge a d f he ch ? A e he e a i c ce a i bei g e ed ha c d be e ed b idi g ade a e

a a i he ch b b i gi g ed ca i a g a he a i ce e ? I a ki g ade a e if i i ece a f ec da de , a d a e he e fficie adi g a d adi g

a ea f a e a i g de ch ? 7. What is the nature of the communication systems used by the

school? What are the plans for future development of the systems? W d i be ib e each de i e e ca i b i e ac i e e e i i ? Wha i he ibi i f de i e i g e

g a c e e e he I e e de i hei h e , ch a de h igh he i e be h e ch i g?

8. Are facilities adequate? If he e i a cce f a ke i g ca aig , i faci i ie be ade a e acc da e he be f de h a e a ac ed? W d i be ece a c ide ffe i g e

ed ca i a g a i e e a d/ adi i a ca i ? F e a e, c d c e be ffe ed i h i g ce e , c i ce e , e e i ch che i de each a i ha igh

he i e a ici a e i he ch ?

73

Add e i g he e i e i de e i e he ge e a di ec i a d e ha i f he a ke i g g a .

Ne , i i a ia e de e i e he ha i be ed. P i ha de e i a i , i i a g d idea a e b e akeh de f he ch a e hei e ce i f he e g h a d eak e e i he a ke ace. S cce f a ke i g i ba ed e ia e

ec g i i g a d e di g he e g h f he i i i . Wha d e ia de ide if a he e g h f he ch ? Li h e

e g h a d a k he i i i de . Ne , k a e cei ed eak e e . I d e a e he he he

eak e ac a e i he he i i i e cei ed a a eak e b e ia e . I a ca e, i i ece a ef ec ha d a ea be he eak e e f he ch i he e e f de ,

a e , a d h e h igh be hi i g g ad a e ad i i g he highe -ed ca i i i i . Of h e e cei ed eak e e , hich a ea be he e ha a e i a he c e ?

Af e e ie i g he e cei ed e g h a d eak e e , i i ece a de e a egie ha i c e he de i ed e age

ba ed he i i , g a , a d g a f he ch . The e a e a diffe e a ge he e age . The echa ic f di e i a i

i di c ed i cha e 8. He e i i a ia e gge e ecific ac i i ie ha ha e bee ed b ch a d he fi ga i a i i a ke i g g a : 1. C ea e a Web a e f e I e e . Whi e hi i ce ai a

ha i he f i a ke i g a ca a die ce, i a be e e e a ab e if a ch i e d e e d i each e ec ica . The e f

Web age i a e a e f h ick ech g ca cha ge he e i e i hich he ch e a e . Te ea ag , ch Web

age e e e i e , b he a e a ece i if he ch i be c e i i e i he a ke . The ch a i h k i h a I e e ide ch a Hif i , hich ca he i k he ch Web

age i h c e a d e ia de a d hei fa i ie . 2. Ma e e f a ea a d e ace e e

e e c e a e. T adi i a ki k ha ake a ai ab e i a e ia ha fi ha e a a bee f e a e, b c e -

ba ed ki k c ea e i ie f e e ea ab he ch h gh a interactive g a . Agai , a i h he I e e , he e

c e ki k ide a de a f a ke i g a d de a e ha he ch de a d a d ca e ech g effec i e .

74

3. U e a ed ca a We c e Wa . A ed ca i a We c e Wag i a ha ha g ea e ia f i i g e e e b

idi g a e ice ha i ef a d ha h he ch c ce f e e e he c i . The We c e Wag ech i e

e i e acce i f e e ide . The e i ca be b ai ed i a be f a , ch a b i g he ch ce , b ic ec d f

ea e a e a ac i , e egi a i i b c i i g ie f he ca e a e .

O ce he i a e b ai ed, he ch h d de e a c ec i f e c i g a e ia ha a ic a e a e ed ca i a d

c i e ice a ai ab e e ide . E a e f he e a e ia a e he ch ca e da a d egi a i i f a i , a i i g f ad ed ca i g a a ai ab e h gh ch , ch a h e ic e e a d c ce , a d efe e ce ecia he g a ha a e ided b he ch i e f h gh c e cia ga i a i ch a he S a

Lea i g Ce e Ka a . O he ef i f a i igh i c de he ca i a d h f ca

ib a ie , he add e e a d e e h e be f highe -ed ca i a i i i i hi c i g di a ce, a i f ch a hi

i ie a ai ab e e e f he c i h a e d ch , a d i f a i ab b ic adi , b ic e e i i , a d b ic

acce e e i i ha d be idi g g a f ed ca i a i e e c ce . If he e i g ea c fide ce i he a i f he ch e , he i igh e e i c de c e i ch i he

c i e he b ic k ha he e i a a e e f he i i i b ha he e i fea f c e i i .

If ib e, hi ed ca i a e c i g eff h d i c de he ch - e a ed a e ia ha a e f a e e ide , ch a h a d he e egi e e, he e a f d i e ice e , he e

ge ca e a i f a i , a d h c ac b ic i i ie . The i ha ca be i c ded i a ed ca i a We c e Wag e

f ffe i g i i i ed b e i agi a i . Thi e ice e e ide e ab e he ch e ab i h e a i hi i edia e a d

ca be e f he be e i g a . 4. E ab ad c ee f b c c a a d

c c a c ce f e c . S e e a e a e a ad i g e e addi i a fi e a i ie f he c i , a ad i c i ee e ab i h b i e ed ca i a e hi , a k f ce h e a e cha gi g de g a hic cha ac e i ic f he eighb h d a d/ cha gi g e e i ie i he

75

c i . Each ad i c i ee c ea e i ie f he ch each e e h igh he i e ha e a a a e a i hi i h he i i i . Thi he ake e e fee ha he

a e a a f ch i ge i ch b our ch . A d f ca i : Ad i c i ee h d be ed e

hei ad ice i be e i c ide ed. Thi d e ea ha e e hi g be d e a ad i c i ee ec e d, b i d e

ea ha he i i f ad i c i ee a d hei e be be e ec ed. I a ea ha i be e ha i ed a e e

i ha ad i g a e he fi a deci i ake . 5. E ab a c e e a e c a be f

c e ce, c e c a c b, e a a e e e e b e c . Thi ca be a ed i b j i i g he

ga i a i b eaki g a e f i ee i g . Cha e 9 di c e he e ab i h e f b i e ed ca i a e hi i de ai .

6. W e ea e a e d . I i a h hi e i e e f e ce e d i e i h ea e a e fe i a c i ce he f he a i f he ch a d b i d a e a i hi ha he

a ecia e ha he ch ha ffe . The fa a i g i ea e a e a e i ha h ee hi g a e : ca i , ca i , a d

ca i . O e f he ke e e e e a i g ca i i acce high- a i ed ca i a i i i . A d a c d c ed i e ba c i de e i e ha ake a ab e c i . Th ee fac e e ide ified: a afe

eighb h d, a c ea eighb h d, a d g d ch . G d ch b i a e i a fa i ie i h ch -age chi d e , b he

ca bec e a i a ke i g h e he beca e he he ai ai e a e . Rea e a e fe i a h a e c i ced

ha ch a e high a i a e e ike di ib e i f a i ab he ch i ee i g i h e ia c ie .

7. I e da ca e de a d a e ee e c e e . Thi ca be d e b g i g da ca e i e b i i i g e e he ch , hiche e i c e ie he . E ab i hi g

a e a i hi i h a e f e ch chi d e i ide a c e i i e ad a age a he i e he de a e ead e i ch . The ch h d e k i he ch ea

chi dh d a d fa i ed ca i g a he i g b i d e a i hi i h fa i ie f e ch e .

76

8. See c e a f a e a b e e a e e f e f ee ad e e de e f e a e a . Pa e i e

f a i fa -f d e a a a d g ce bag a e a ke f e e a e ade a ai ab e fi ga i a i f b ici . Thi i g d a i a i ce i i a a ge he ch a e bef e a a ge a die ce a c . Bi b a d a d

e ec ic ig igh be ed a e . If he e ai e i e c a ha e e hi g ha a ea be a ad

f e ch , hi ech i e a be dified e a ecific ac i i , ch a a ch ee g a A e ica Ed ca i Week, hich i he a e, add e , a d h e be f he ch bef e he b ic.

9. Ma e e a e e a e a e a a d b a d a a e a a a ab e a a e e a E . Ha e he e

a ai ab e f g ha a e e e e ed i b a ia be i he c i a d f g ha a e a b a ea be g i g. E e if he de he e e ha e E g i h a hei i a a g age,

a e a d g a d a e a i eak a he a g age i he h e. Ha i g a e ia i ed i he a g age ha he e ad ca de a d i a ig f e ec f he a d a i b i g

a e a d g a d a e a e a chi d e i a a e hi i h he ch .

10. P de c c e ce ec . S de ki g e i e a c ea , idi g e ice h -i , a d idi g chi d ca e f he i a e ed ca i g a a e e a e f he e ki d f jec . A e ice ea i g g a ca g ea e ha ce he ch i age h gh he e ice ac i i ie .

11. Se e a a ace f ca e ec . I i ge e a ec g i ed ha e e a e e ike ha e a i i e a i de ab he ch if he ha e e f i he b i di g f a ea d i g he ea . Ma e e f hei i i ab ca ch he ba i f he ega i e hi g he ee a d hea i he a i a e edia.

Offe i g he ch a a i g ace f ca e ec i c ea e a i f a e e h a e a cia ed i h he ch

c e i he b i di g a d ee i a i ea i . Ca ef a e i h d be gi e he di a i he ch a he i e f e ec i , a d

a e ia h d be a ai ab e ea he i g ace f e e i e e ed i i f a i ab he ch .

77

I a e he e i i ega , he ch ca c bi e e ice ac i i ie i h e ec i ac i i ie b ffe i g ide he f e e h d

ha e a a i f hei . 12. P de a f a a e a e de a d

a e . Whi e a f a a he j i ch a e a i g ha g e i a I di id a i ed Ed ca i P a f ecia ed ca i , he

ca ad i i a a d eache igh i d i h he ec i e de a d a e g e he i e e f he fa i , c

c ce ab he ed ca i f he chi d, a d he i ie i he ch .

Thi a ach f c e ed ca i a eed f he de , b i a e a i i e e f ch fa i e a i hi f he begi i g.

Thi i e ecia i a f a e h ha e had ega i e e e ie ce f hei beca e f ei he acade ic b e di ci i a i e he he e e i ch .

MARKET RESEARCH

Ma ke e ea ch i ed ca i ea i g ech i e a d ac i i ie f e a ica c ec i g, a a i g, a d i e e i g i f a i ha

ca a i ed ca i de e i i g he be a a ke hei g a .

Ma ke e ea ch i ed ca i dea i h a e ch a ac i i g da a e i i g a ke i g a i a i e a d a i a i e ech i e

i c ea e e e i he ch , de e i i g he eed f he c e ( de , a e , a d a a e ), de e i i g he a ke ha e f c e i , e i g g a i he a ke ace de e i e hei effec i e e , e i a i g e e , a d i a e de e i g

a i e e f he ch e . Ma ke e ea ch ca be a e hi ica ed a d c e bjec

h f a c ege aj . Thi cha e dea i h ac ica ech i e ha ca be ed b ac ici g ch ad i i a . The e h d be eed e d e e e . Pe e i hi he ch

be he ad i i a , eache , de , ee ca d e e hi g gge ed he e.

He e a e he fi e e e e f ba ic a ke e ea ch f ch : 1. C ec ba c fac a f a ab e c a d

c . I de de a d e ace i he a ke , i i i a ga he a ch ef i f a i a ib e. Sch

78

ec d , ch a he ch ce , e e fig e , d a e, a d a fe a e, a e i a i a e i g a ke i i . The U.S. Ce

B ea ha a b a ia a f i f a i a ai ab e he a a i b a b ke d b age, acia g , i c e e e ,

a e f h eh d, e ce age f he h eh d i h e e h e , a d f h. A hi i f a i i f a e he e h a e e he ace f he ch i he a ke . O he ce f i f a i ca be e ef . F e a e,

ici a fficia kee ack f h i g a b i di g e i g a ed. Thi ide a i de e i e he e ia g h i he c i . The a f i f a i c ec ed b a e age cie a d he i e a d hi ica i f he g e e c e he e he ch i ca ed a ha e a bea i g h ch f hi ef

de g a hic da a a e a ai ab e. A e e i he ch bec e e hi ica ed a c ec i g a d i i i g da a, i h d be ib e fi d addi i a ce ha i

e a d he abi i e hi i f a i i a c c i e a f he be efi f he ch .

2. C ec f a e f e e a . The ad a age f aki g a e i e g f e e a d e i g he a

ed a i g i ha he e i e a g e ab he a idi f he e a d he abi i f he ch ge acc a e i f a i . F

e a e, a ef a ke i g i he eg a f - d f he ch g ad a e . E ab i hi g f - die a eg a i e a ,

ch a e a d fi e ea af e g ad a i , a ie d a b a ia a f ef i f a i . The fi f - gi e he de i edia e i e i f he a e f hei ch e e ie ce a he e e highe ed ca i he ab a ke . The ec d f - e ab e he de h ha e c e ed hei ee e ed ca i h

ha e ked f e e a ea hei ed ca i i a e c e .

The e e ide a i de e i e he e e a ce f he g a he ece g ad a e . The e a gi e a

a e e f he a i f he ch g a i he ie f a i a a die ce: he a i.

I i f e e i a e he e e h ha e d ed . Wha i he ea f he d ? I a be fi a cia , a e a he ca i , e a i c f ic , a fee i g f ack f cce , a j b

i , a he hi g . The ch i g i g k e he de h d ed a e a ked. Thi e f e i

79

be d e i di id a i a e - - e i e ie ha he e i a i f i i ia e i a d k f ec da

hidde ea he ha he a ed e b ai ed f a a e -a d- e ci e .

Whi e a a e e a e i e a i ca ie d a ab e i f a i , he e ha ge he highe e ce age e e

b i a e f he g ea e a e. Ge i g b a ia e e i e a i e ea f he de h a e c e e ed i he

g a . I i e ha e diffic i h g ad a e d af e he ha e ef he e f a e g h e i d f i e.

O e a e f c ec i g hi ki d f da a i ha , if d e a eg a ba i , i i ib e a e gi di a e d . The e ide c e e a i g e cei ed cha ge i a i de ab he a i a d c e f he ed ca i a g a .

3. O da a c ec c c e c e a da - -da ac e . Thi i a e a i e ea a ge ch ef i f a i . S aff h d be gi e ice a ha ki d f i f a i h d be ke a d h ha i f a i h d be ec ded. F

e a e, a a a e c fe e ce da , i d be g d f each eache ake a b ief a f he ki d f c e a e ha e ade

ab he ch , i a ic a a b e i e ha he de ha e.

Te e h e g f i c i g ca h d be ke f he i ci a ffice (a d c a he e h e a e a ai ab e). A a i i , he e g d be ke de e i e he a e f he ca ( a i a e i , c ai , gge i , e e ?). I i ef kee a ec d

f ca ha a e c i e a ab he ch , aff, de , g a . Of e a a e, h e e , a e ca ha a ha e ecific

c ai . K i g he c ce f e e h a e i a ed e gh ca ca be e ef i dea i g i h he a ke i g f he ch . Of

c e, he e a e ce ai i di id a h a ake c a k ca a d di he i e i f he ch e i i ed h he ce f he c ai i .

A he i f a ech i e c ec i f a i a g i g ba i i i f a e . The e d a e be cie ific i hei a i g, a e he di ib ed a e i e a i ; a he , he a e i ade a ai ab e a ch e e , ch a a e c fe e ce ,

c ce , a , cie ce fai , a d he ac i i ie ha d b i g a ge be f e e i he b i di g. U i g ch a i g ace f

80

ge e a e ec i c ea e a i e ge he ge e a b ic i e i f he ch .

Thi ki d f e d e a e a hi ica ed a a i f he e ce age f e e h fee e a a he , b i i i a

a e de e i e he ki d f c ce e e i d a d ib he i e i f h e c ce .

The e a e a he g i g ac i i ie ha ca be d e he e ab i h a da aba e f i i ha d be ef f he ch . F e a e, e e ca c i a ic e (a d e ecia e e he edi ) f ca e edia a e a i de a d he ch ge he a e ki d f i f a i f de e a e . I hi a , i i

ib e ake a g- e k a he cce f he ch i ge i g fai a d acc a e i f a i he b ic.

4. F c . The e focus group ha bee ed i a ke e ea ch i a a ie f a . F c g a e ed e a a e

g a a ead i e i e ce, de e e ha igh a k e i f a ide a die ce, ge he a ici a i e e ea ie

i f a i ha he a ha e ecei ed, eek i f a i ab e ia e g a eeded a ed.

S e g a e ched e f c g i hich a he a ici a a e a ike. F e a e, e e e i he f c g i e i a

ce ai c i , a a e a e f de i ba d, a a e e i ci i e e be f e he ide ifiab e g .

O he ike e f c g e ici i f a i f c ec i f e e. The ef e, he decidi g he he e a f c

g , fi eed de e i e he e f he f c g a d he eb he e be aki g ha g .

P a i g f f c g ha i c de a de e i a i f he be f g , he i e f he g , he ce f he a ici a ,

a d he e e f i e e f he de a faci i a . I be e ha i ed ha f c g a e a a ge a

acc a e ef ec i f he i i f he a e age e i he di ic ; a he , he a e a a ge e a e idea a d ge c ea i e e e

e i i g idea g a . S e e e, f c e ie ce e , ake a ead - ade g

e e a a f c g . Thi c d be e e a a e ad i c i ee h d be a ked e e a a f c g f a e ia

e g a . A g f de h ha e bee bjec a di ci i a ic a be a ked be a f c g e d ha

81

ecific ic . S de g e e a c i ee he e f c d be a f c g f ecific ac i i ie .

T ge he be i f a i a d gi e a i be efi he ch f he e f a f c g , he g h d e e e a e a i e b ad c ec i f e e. Se e a f c g c d be c d c ed, each f hich c d be fai a i c i i a g a i di id a g a e ake f diffe e c i e cie a i i he ch .

The f c g ca be defi ed a a e i g i hich eigh e e e de di c a gi e ic i he e e ce f a e - ai ed, bjec i e faci i a . The f c g ha he ad a age f bei g e a i e

a d idi g a f da a ha c d be e ici ed f a f a , i e e . A he c ea ad a age i ha i ca be ed b e e

h a e e f hei abi i a f a a i ica e ea ch. O he he ha d, i h d be ed ha f c g ca be ed

ge e a i e e . The di ad a age f f c g i ha he a e a effec i e a

he abi i f he faci i a kee he g he bjec a d i a e di c i f e be f he g i h d i a i g di ec i g he a ici a i a ecific di ec i .

A f c d c i g f c g f he ch , a e e ie ced ch ad i i a , ib a cia die eache a eache h ead di c i ha e ke e e f de , c d ha d e hi a k

i h a i i f ai i g. The a k f he faci i a i ge he ge e a bjec bef e he a ici a a d e c age he a d b i g he di c he i e a ha d i a f ee a d e a e .

The f c g e i bab h d a e ha a h a d a ha f. The e i h d be ec ded, , a a i i , he faci i a a ec de h d ake e . The faci i a igh e he e i i h a di c i f ha he ic i be. The faci i a h d

ha e i i d h ee b ic ha ca be ai ed i a e he di c i , if ece a .

F c g gi e e e a i ake ecific c e , e e g fee i g , a d hi g i e e a e ha igh be ib e i a c ed- e e e . The a e i ie ha

f c g h d dea i h di e e bjec . F c i e c , if e ha e f c g i be he d a d if he e a e diffe e

de a , he de a h d be gi e a ecific i f e i ic be c e ed a d ib e e a c i f he e i g a e e .

82

O ce he f c g a e fi i hed, da a h d be a e b ed a d e ed a a ib e.

F c g a e he f i de a di g he eed , a i de , a d e ec i e f he c e f he ch . The ca be e he f i

de e i i g g a ha igh be ffe ed a d i ge i g eac i ed b ch e , ec i i g e e , e e i i g a , he

ech i e ha igh be ed e ai he ch ac i i ie i i ia i e .

5. S a ca a . Scie ific a i g f b ic i i i ed de e i e he a i de f a e i e a i i h e di g he

i e a d he e ece a eek he i i f e e e i ha a i . S cce f a i g f b ic i i acc a e ef ec he

ie f he a i , i i i e a i ica e , a i i e c e ie ce, a d i i i e c .

O i i a i g i e a i e ea d a d d e e i e he b a ia e e e f e ai i g c a . Wi h he ba ic ech i e gge ed he e, a g f i i g ee i h i i a ai i g ca

c d c a e ha i ade a e f he a aj i f e . Thi d e ea ha e f a efe e d ca be edic ed i hi 1 2

e ce f he ac a e, a i d e b hi ica ed e f i icia a d aj e edia.

Whe i g f a ke i g e , a ha i ece a i ge a ge e a i e e . F e a e, if e i e f addi g Ja a e e he M de La g age g a i bei g e ed, i d e ake ch diffe e ce he he he e ce age f e e i e e ed i a e g a i 52 41 e ce i ce ei he e d be e ha ade a e j if he e i e ce f a e g a .

Whe de e i i g a e i e, e i i e a i e. The fi i he defi i i f a statistically ade a e i e, a d he ec d i he

defi i i f a politically ade a e a e i e. F a e a i ica a d i , a a e f i e 30, if c ec d a , a be ade a e

i dica e he ge e a ie f a a i f a i e. P i ica , a a e ha a d be diffic e ai a a i ha d e

de a d a i g a i ic if he a e i d a f a g a a ge a a e i a a ge ch di ic .

O e a f e i a i g he acc ac f a a e i e ha i ade a e f e f ed ca i a a ke e ea ch i di ide 1 b he a e

f he be i he a e. The e i g a e i he e ce age f e ha d be ike cc i ha i a i . F e a e, if he

83

a e i e e e 100, 1 e he a e f 100 i 1 e 10, 10 e ce a i g e . If he a e i e e e 400, 1 e he a e

f 400 e a 1 e 20, 5 e ce a i g e . If he a e i e e e 1,600, he ca c a i d ie d 1 e 40, 2.5 e ce a i g e .

Taki g he e a e f a a e i e f 400, he ike e d be ab 5 e ce , if he e ca e ha 60 e ce f he a e fa ed a a , he dd a e ha he ea e ce age d be i hi 5 e ce e a a he f ha fig e, be ee 55 a d 65

e ce . A e ca ee, hi i e fec acc a e, b i i e ea ab e i ce he e f a i de e a e g i g cha ge f

da da , de e di g a a ie f fac . I aki g a ke i g deci i , he ge e a e d i he i a hi g.

A hi h a i ica e e ci e h , g ea e acc ac e f i c ea i g he i e f he a e, b a i f di i i hi g e c e ick ce he a e i e ge e 1,000. I ca e ,

e f e edia a d i icia e d fee ha a a e i e a he e f 400 1,500 i e ha ade a e f e i g

a e ide e e a i ide a i . Ob i , if ha i ade a e f h e a ge a i , a e f hi ag i de h d be e ha ade a e f a ch di ic a e da ce a ea.

S a i ic e i ed he e a e ba ed i e a d a i g, hich i ike i g a he a e f he e e i he a i be a ed i a ha a d he i g he be f a e eeded f he a e a a d . O e ech i e ha ca i c ea e he acc ac f a i g i stratified random sampling, i hich a i a e be f a e a e d a f diffe e ge g a hic a ea he a a ha d acc a e ef ec ch di ic . F e a e, i a e i g a i de ab ed ca i i h ee adjace c i ie , e f hich had 20

e ce f he a i , a he 35 e ce f he a i , a d a he 45 e ce f he a i , he a e c d be d a

i a e f each f he c i ie . Ra d a i g e i e ha each i ha e a equal cha ce f

bei g e ec ed f he a e a d ha each i ha e a independent cha ce f bei g e ec ed f he a e. Tha i h i i gge ed ha he a e be i e a ed f a ha f a a a i be

ide ified e he a ( ch a a ig i g c e -ge e a ed a d be each i di id a ) ha he a e ca be d a i h a a i ica bia .

84

P e a d a i g i diffic d i h a ge a i , he e i i c ea h i i he a i . The fi e i i de e i e

ha i he a i ( e i e ca ed he i e e ) be a ed. The a i c d be a ad i a ch di ic , a h eh d i a di ic , a egi e ed e , a a e f chi d e i he ch

e . Whe d a i g he a e, i i i a k ha he a i i , a he e ca be ge e a i ed ha a i

a d he . If he a e i d a f a e f e ch , he e ca be ed ge e a i e ab he a i de f a e h i e i he c i f h e h a e a e f de i

a he ch . Systematic selection i a ech i e f d a i g a a e ick .

Tech ica , i i a acc a e a a d a i g, b f ac ica e i ca be ed i he ki d f e ha ch d . Wi h

e a ic e ec i , ce he a i i de e i ed, he a i i di ided b he be ha i be i a a e. The e i he a i g i e a . Thi ca be e e ed b he i e f a P/N = I, he e P i he i e f he a a i , N i he i e f he a e,

a d I i he a i g i e a . O e a d e ec he fi i f he a e f he fi i e a . Af e he fi i i ch e

c e e a a d , he e e I h i f he a i i e ec ed f he a e. Thi ea ha each i ha a e a (b a i de e de ) cha ce f bei g e ec ed.

S a i ica eci i i f g ea i a ce he ac ica ch eade h i i g fi d ge e a i f a i . The b i e i ha

e a ic e ec i a a i e ech i e f ick d a i g a a e.

C ide a i a i i hich he e i e a i be e ed c i f egi e ed e i he c i . If he e e e 6,000 egi e ed e a d a a e f 400 e e de i ed, he a i g i e a

d be 15 (6,000/400 = 15). Y ake he egi e ed e i a d, f he fi 15 a e , h e be i a ha a d d a e . If he

be d a e e 7, he a e be 7 d g i he a e. Y add he a i g i e a (15) he be d a (7) ge he e

a e (22). Y kee addi g he a i g i e a (15) ge cceedi g e be f he a e, ch a be 37, 52, 67, a d f h, i

he e i e a e f 400 a e i d a . C ide a he e a e. Y d a a a e f 50 a e f a

ch i h a a i f 1,000 a e . I de ge a ick e , di ide 1,000 (P) b 50 (N) a d ge a a i g i e a (I) f 20.

85

F he i f a e , a i e d a f a d be be ee 1 a d 20 i ide he fi e be i he a e. F e a e, if

d a be 14, he 14 h a e he i i be i he a e. The a i g i e a (20) i added 14 ge 34, he be f he ec d e i he a e. Y c i e i h each 20 h a e i he a e

i c e e. I i b i f hi di c i ha he e be a da aba e f

hich a a e ca be d a . I e ca e , he da aba e i c e e acc a e f he a i de i ed. F e a e, a e a h eh d i he c i , he ea ab e da aba e ha a be eadi a ai ab e i he e e h e b k. If a a e i d a f he e e h e b k, b ei he a d a i g e a ic e ec i , a

addi i a e f e i added he d i ha a h eh d ha e e e h e a d e e e ha e i ed be . The e a e e

f he i e be c ide ed i de e i i g he acc ac a d a ia e e f he ch e a i e e bef e decidi g he a i g e h d.

Whi e he a i g e h d i e i a , f e a i a ce i he abi i i e bia ed e i f he i e ie . Q e i ed h d be fai , de a dab e, a d f a e he ch . O e d e

d a e ice a i i i b acki g he deck a d a ki g e i ha i di he ea i i f he a i . The e e i a

be g d f i ica aga da e , b he a e e hica ec a d f a e i e f a ke e ea ch.

P i i ie be e ab i hed i decidi g ha e i h d be i a e . A c i ake i a k a e i , i c di g

e f hich he a e a e f a e a a i e a i he e f he e . A e ha i be ed h d be fie d

e ed ee ha he e i a e de a dab e, a e e cei ed a bei g fai b a bia ed e de , a d a e e a ca e he e de e i e e .

The be a d c e i f he e i ha a e a ked i a , de e di g he ech i e ed f i g. I i ib e a k a

e e i a d e i ha b i d e a he i a face- -face i e ie ha i d be i a e e h e i e ie . The ea a i fac

e h d f a i g i i i b ai , a h gh ha i he ac ica e h d i a ci c a ce .

GENERAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION

86

I e h d f da a c ec i , i c di g a i g a i ic , e f ge e a a i , a d f c g , he e a e e e a hi g ha eed be e e be ed:

1. T e e e d f da a c ec d be . If he da a ga he i g ake g, he e ca be e e a ega i e c di g fac . The e e a be i ac ed b aj e e e . I i be e diffic ai ai he a e f ee h a e c ec i g he da a. If he da a c ec i e i d i e g, he e i e e he i k f f i e e he a f he e e h a e e ec ed e he da a. M i a , if he i e a f c ec i g i f a i i g, e f he da a a bec e da ed e e

e e bef e he e ea ch i fi i hed. S e gge ed i e i i f da a c ec i i c de e eek f

e e h e e , eek f face- -face i e ie , a d f eek f ai e (i c di g he i e f he f - he igi a ai i g). 2. C e e e a e e a e ab c ed b d

a . I i bec i g e diffic e ab i h c edibi i f a a id a ke e . Thi i beca e a b i e g a e d i g a ke i g e , a i icia a e d i g i i a i g, a d a a e e e a e c ai i g d a e he he a e ea i he b i e f di ec a e .

O e a e ab i h ha c edibi i i h gh he e f a c e e e . A c e e e ca e ai h i d i g he e , he i a ce f he e , a d he a a ce f e de a i . The c e e e ca ffe a a ge e i a e ed b h e e e h a e

i e e ed i k i g e ab he e . I ai e , he c e e e ca acc a he e . The c e

e e f i - e i e ie h d be e a ea e eek bef e he i e ie i ake ace. F e e h e i e ie , he adi i a

a e ce a e d a c e e e e he e a a e i a ce he i e ie . N , beca e f he e be f a e a d he e e i g ha a ea be e e h e a ke

e ech i e , i d be i e e d a c e e e ahead f a e e h e e .

O e ece d h ed a a 50 e ce ef a a e f e e ca ed i e e h e e . I ca be a ed ha h e h ef e

e d ha e i i a i i h e h d a ici a e, i i

87

i a kee he ef a a e a a ib e. S e i ica e gge ha he ake e e ca c e e e.

3. Ma a e b e e ffe e d f ce e f a c a a e . The e i ce i e c d be ca h, gif

ce ifica e , he ki d f a gib e be efi . The e a e b e i he ch i g e he e ki d f i ce i e . I a a ea e ha ch e i bei g e e hi g ha i a ia e a ch ac i i , a h gh icke a ch a c ce a be

c ide ed a ea ab e i ce i e be ided b he ch e if a i ce i e i eeded. Thi i he ki d f i e ha h d be di c ed

i hi he c i bef e a fi a deci i i ade. F da a c ec i ech i e , i i i a ee ha he e i

ade a e e a a i a d e i i f he e e h i be ga he i g i f a i . The i e ie e , he e de e e a d a a , a d he de a f f c g h d ha e a ia e ai i g a d

i e i c i check i , a d he h d be c d c i g hei ce e i a a da di ed a .

S e i h d i he e ce e a d ide e c age e f he e e d i g he ac a e i g a d he he i i eeded. I i i a f he e i ee ha f - i d e i e a i e ie a d e e h e e . Wi h e e h e

e , i i i a (if ib e) ha e a he h i g d e f a i g e ca i ha ade a e e i i a d ca be ided.

N e i ed h i g f h e h d be d e beca e hi i a iab ead ei he ge i g he j b d e e e a i g i a d e he i ea a . Cha e 11 ha e de ai ed gge i i e i g e e h e ba k .

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Ga he de g a hic da a f i e ce ( he ce , ca a d a e a i g age cie , a d he a e ed ca i age c ) a d

d e d ha igh affec ch a i . 2. C ec i f a i ab he c e i i : ec i i g a e ia , e

g a , a d e e e d . 3. Mee i h b i e eade ge hei e ce i f ed ca i

eed i he c i . 4. Ide if b i e e ha igh he b ici e he ch a d i

g a .

88

5. Ide if aff, de , f ie d f he ch h c d d i i a i g. O e ibi i igh be a i e di ci i a jec be ee a cia die c a (de e i g he c e ) a d a

a h c a a a ke i g c a (de e i g he echa ic f i g).

6. S e he c i ab he e cei ed e g h a d eak e e f he ch .

7. C d c a ai i g e i f f c g faci i a e a e he f ki g i h a g .

8. C ea e a ke i g a e ia ha ca be di a ed he he ch i h i g b ic e e , ch a c ce , a , e h e , c i ee i g , a d e ec i .

9. D a c i ed ca i eed a e e he de e i e ch ffe i g f ad a d ch -age chi d e .

RESOURCES

L ch, R be F., a d L ch, Vi gi ia N. (1987). Principles of marketing. B : Ke P b i hi g.

Na i a PTA. (2000). Building successful partnerships: A guide to developing parent and family involvement programs. B i g , I d.: Na i a Ed ca i Se ice .

Zig d, Wi ia G. (1986). Exploring marketing research. 2 d ed. Chicag : D de P e .

89

TELLING YOUR STORY: PERCEPTION IS REALITY

Thi cha e dea i h he abi i f a ch c ica e effec i e i h i a a d a ied b ic . The abi i c ica e f e e ea he diffe e ce be ee cce a d fai e i ed ca i a eade hi .

PURPOSES OF PUBLIC SCHOOL RELATIONS

The A e ica A cia i f Sch Ad i i a (1950, 14) i ed he f i g e f ch b ic e a i :

I f he b ic ab he k f he ch E ab i h c fide ce i he ch Ra f he ai e a ce f he ed ca i a g a De e a a e e f he i a ce f ed ca i i a de c ac I e a e hi c ce b i i g a e a d eache i

ee i g he ed ca i a eed f de I eg a e he h e, ch , a d c i i i i g ed ca i a

i ie f a ea e E a a e he ffe i g f he ch i ee i g he eed f he

ea e i he c i

90

C ec i de a di g a he ai a d bjec i e f he ch

A ca be ee i hi i , he ba ic e f b ic e a i ha e cha ged i e fif ea . Whi e effec i e ch eade a a k e a d ed b ic e a i , i ece ea he e ha bee a g ea e e ha i he i a ce f b ic e a i .

PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Effec i e b ic e a i i ba ed e e a i a i ci e . The e i ci e be adhe ed if e i g i g ha e a c edib e

i i i i ed ca i a i a he fie d. Fi , b ic e a i be ba ed ea i . The e i a a i g i he b ic e a i fie d ha Y d e he eak, e he i e.

The b e i ha e ca e he i e if he e ai eak. P b ic e a i g a fa f a he he e i a a e ake a i a i k be e ha i ea i .

A e a ed i ci e i ha he e be h e i ha i aid a d d e. A e a e f ha not d a he ch e ha a he de f e e a ch hif i he cafe e ia a he a e i e f

a ic e be ed i i g a b d i e e ie e e c di g i he ch . Pe e i h k edge f he ch ea i ed ha he e e e

i e ch hif , g i g he de ge he a he a e i e i he ch c ea a dece i e ad e i i g. C edibi i b hi ki d f ac i i i e diffic , if i ib e, egai .

P b ic e a i ac i i ie f he ch h d be i i e. Thi d e ea ig i g he ega i e ac i i ie , b i d e ea , a he d g a , acce a e he i i e. I ki g i h de , i i

c ake hei e g h a d b i d he . I ike a e , he e g h f he ch h d be e ha i ed i b i di g a b ic

e a i g a . The e i be i a i i hich i di id a g i

a he ch i a bad igh . Re di g a a ega i f e gi e e c edibi i he cha ge. A e ake de ia f a ega i

ha a e c ea fa e i eadi g h d be ade if he ch ee be h b he b ici . Dea i g i h he e i a i e i e a i g a d e a a i he a f he ch i de e i i g he

a d h i a be a ia e e d a ack .

91

A he b i i ci e i ha he b ic e a i ac i i be g i g. S e ch a ea be i e e ed i hei b ic

bef e a b d e ec i a e efe e d . O he ee be i e e ed i e a i g he b ic he he ha e a e cce f a h e ic ea he he a e i g di e e a ega i ade ab he

a i f he ch he beha i f he de . The g i g g a i ha e he b e f h e g a ha e e eac

ecific i cide . The g a be ba a ced a d c ehe i e, e a i g a

a ec f he ch a a i e f he ch ea a d aca i e i d . I e a ib e c ica i e ce . Sch ad i i a

e i e ge b e ed i h a i e c e f b ic e a i ha he f ge he ece i f a c ehe i e g a .

The g a dea i h a b ic . A a i e i hich a i a e 80 e ce f he h eh d i he a i d ha e chi d e i ch , i d be f hi k ha a effec i e b ic e a i g a i e ha dea i h a e . Ta a e g , e i ci i e , i g e , a d h e h igh ha e chi d e i he e f ch a e a a ia e b ic f he ch e . N be

f g e a e he ch i e a b ic , i c di g eache , he aff, ad i i a , a d, i a , he de .

The cha gi g de g a hic f cie e i e ha he ch e e ie i b ic e a i g a f e e i de effec i e

dea i h e a i ha a ha e e i ed i he c i bef e. I S . Pa , Mi e a, f e a e, he e e f he H g c i he U i ed S a e a a e f he Vie a Wa ha c ea ed a a i ha ha bec e he a ge i g e i i g i he ch e i a e a i e h e i d f i e.

E e a a d a a ea ha hi ica ha e bee h ge e i e f ace, e igi , a d a i a i a e fi di g ha ,

i h he bi i f he a i , cha gi g bi h a e , a d i ig a i , he a e f hei c i ie i cha gi g. Wha ce

e e fa i g c i ie a fi d ha e ec i g a d dece a i a i f a fac i g a e b i gi g e e i h diffe e ki a d backg d he c i .

P b ic e a i i a - a c ica i . Sch d a be e j b f eeki g he idea f he a a d a ied b ic he e e. If e k a b ic e a i a e i g, he i i i c i e

k a he ech i e f g d a e e . Th e h a e he cce f i he a e fie d a e he e h a k he b he

92

e h i e he . B i e i g, e ca ide if he c ce f he ha h e c ce ca be e . A , b i e i g, a

i di id a i h i g e ec f h e h he i e . U f a e , ch a e a a ee a ha i g e ec f he

i i a d idea f a f hei b ic . A he e i a i ci e f b ic e a i i he -ca ed

KISS c ce : Kee I Si e, S id. Ed ca f e e fa i he a f i g fe i a ja g a d ac ha a e k he

ge e a b ic. Whe e a i g a i e a e e a i , i a a he ha e he a e e e ie ed b e e c ec ed he ch ee ha a g age i i c ded ha i i c ehe ib e

ide . P fe i a a g age d e ha e i ace i idi g a h ha d e h d f c ica i be ee h e h de a d he a g age, b i ca a ea a ga a d ff- i g i i e ac i i h e e h a e a a f he fe i i -g .

The fi a i ci e ha be e e be ed i ha there are no panaceas. The e a e agic b e . The e a e i a i he e e ca a , If e did hi e hi g, e d ha e e fec b ic e a i . A i h i a e e he e dea , he e i i e

i ha i e a b e . O e ake a he e i ci e a d de e ac ica e h d f i e e i g he i de ha e a effec i e b ic e a i g a .

TEN TIPS FOR OPERATING A PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAM

1. Be prepared. P e a a i ea a a i g a he e e e ha a e ece a f he cce f a g a : h d e i , h he

g a i c ec ed, he ha eed be ed f he cce f a g a , k f c ica i , a d he a e f he

b ic . 2. Be organized. P e a a i a he g d k, a d ga i a i

e ab e he g a f c i . I e e i a i , de e i e h i i cha ge, ha he i e ab e i , a d ha ac i i ie a e ake

ace. O i h he e ba ic e e e f ga i a i i ace i he e be a i c d c a cce f g a .

3. Be informed. Ade a e k edge f he bjec , he e e i ed, a d he ce e i ece a if he g a i be

93

effec i e. 4. Be available. U f a e , ch eade f e e ee

di a ea he i c e ce ai b ic e a i ac i i ie , ch a ee i g i h he e edia e di g a c i i . A ai abi i f e e i a i a a e i e a i g he

e edia. 5. Be prompt. I e di g a e e i dea i g i h a aj

i e, i i i a be . Whe e d e e d i a i e fa hi a c i i , a e i , a i e, i a a ea ha he ch i hidi g e hi g ha a e e a be ha e e a hea . A c a ic e a e f hi ki d f b ic e a i c i i ha e ed he B i i h a fa i he dea h f

P i ce Dia a. Beca e he fa i k e e a da bef e he ade a b ic a ce e a d di a f hei fee i g , hei

c edibi i a d a a ica de i ed i h he a i . I k eek e e a ia d he da age.

6. Be open. I i e gh be a ai ab e; e a ha be e a d ab e b a d. Thi d e ea ba i g e gi i g a a he fa i ec e , b i d e ea bei g f h igh a d di ec i e di g i i ie . S e i e i a be ece a a , I d k I ha e fi d e i f a i I ge back

. U a , he hi g a i , N c e , b f a e hi i ha a ch eade a a a e f

ha i g a ched ch e e i i . 7. Be accurate. I i i a ake a e e he e i

e f he fac . A ack f acc ac ca ead a ack f c edibi i . Rea i ica , e e e ake i ake cca i a , a d he ha i d e, i h d be ack edged i edia e a d eff a acc ac ed b ed.

8. Be friendly. The b ic a d he e edia a e he e e . If e ee he a he e e , i a i ke a eci ca ega i e

e e. I h d be b i ha i i ea ie b i d e a i hi i h e e he e i f ie d ha he e i . T f e ch fficia d i e ac i h he edia i

he e i a c i i . S a ed ca i i i e edia e e ch g hei ffice i h age da he ha ge ac ai ed.

9. Be positive. Thi ea bei g i i e ab he acc i h e a d ac i i ie f he ch a d i e e b a bei g i i e i he e a i hi i h e e i ide a d

94

ide f he ch . The e i a e de c be ega i e a d e e h a e e cei ed a c i ic he i a ca e he a

be d i g a fa b b ic ai i g c ce ha he a ha e. A ega i e a i de he e c i ic i f he a ie a e he a d he h d eak .

10. Be creative. I a e i g b i d e a i hi i h e b ic , i i i a e ea f c ica i . C e i i f he a e i f he b ic i i e e. The a ge e e

a e i a be b d i g e hi g e i e. A , he be a ge c ica i from he b ic a be e e

i a i e e h d ha ha bee ed bef e.

WHO TELLS THE SCHOOL S STORY?

The i e a e hi e i i e e e c ec ed i h he i i i . Each e c ec ed i h he ch ca ha e a i ac he a i de f he b ic. A ecd a e ab d ab he i ac ha

e di g ed ec e a ja i ca ha e i a ki g hei f ie d a d eighb ab ha e a he ch . Sa e e a e i g f ch ch a e g ea ca ie f i f a i , e

cca i , i i f a i . A a ch de e i b ic e a i g a , h gh be

gi e h e e e c ec ed i h he i i i ge i f a i . Thi i c de eache , he aff, de , a e , ch b a d, a d

e be f he c i a a ge. Re ibi i f de e i g he b ic e a i g a i i h he

ad i i a . H e e , he a de ega e ch f he de ai f e a i g he g a he . F e a e, a e he

c i e e h a e fe i a i he fie d f b ic e a i ad e i i g a be i i g d b k a ee i

he i g e he f he ch . S e eache , a ic a i he a ea f c ica i , a ha e ki c ib e a a ee

a be ca ha e e b ic e a i f c i ade a a f hei j b a ig e . C a e i j a i , a , g a hic de ig , c e ech g a be i e a i he i g de e effec i e

c ica i e h d f he ch . I i ece a c d c a i e f he a e , abi i ie , a d

i e e f e e c ec ed i h he ch i de e i i g h h d be i ed i he fficia b ic e a i g a . Thi ea

95

ide if i g i e e a d abi i ie f de , eache , a e , a d c i e be a d he i g a ache f he ee

g a , f aff a ig e , a d f e e ie ia ea i g ac i i ie f de ga i e he e e i a a ha i effec i e f he ch .

P a be ade ee ha a e be f he ch c i de a d hei e i e i g he ch a d ha e ade

a ai ab e he he i f a i ece a be i f ed ha hei c e a i ab he ch a d hei ac i i ie e a i g he ch a e acc a e.

A d f ca i ab i g de . The a be ed he tell ab he ch , b he h d be ed sell he ch . F e a e, if i a ea ha ch fficia a e a i a i g de

e a efe e d , he e c d be a di a b he ch c edibi i .

REACHING OUT TO THE COMMUNITY

Sch f e e fa i he a f a ki g e e b i e i g he . A a ie f a d ech i e h d be ed ake e

ha he e i a ade a e i ge c ica i he ch . Se e a f h e a e di c ed he e.

The e f advisory groups i e ech i e ge i i f he b ic. S e ad i g a e e a e , a d he a e h e ,

e i g a ecific e. Whe e e ad i g a e e ed, i i i e a i e ge he de a d ha he a e ad i . Of e ,

e be f ad i g a e di a i ed a d a g if hei ec e da i a e ake i a . Ad i g e be

be d hei e he he a e a ked e e a d e i ded f i a i a e e ee i g. I h d a be ade c ea h i e ib e

f fi a deci i . I he e ec i f ad i g , i i i a ee ha a i

i di id a , g , a d i f ie a e e e e ed. O e a d hi i e e be hi a ee . A he a i e ha

i e i e k a he N ah A k a ach: aki g a be eff e ec i di id a g f each ide ifiab e ga i a i

i e e g i he c i . E e if he ch e ec he ad i c i ee, i a be g d i ic a a e h g e e a i e e d . A ba ic a ach dea i g

96

i h agi a a d c i ic i b i g he i he deci i - aki g ce ha he bec e a a f he e a he ha e e ide h ca c i ici e i h a e e f e ibi i .

O he e h d f eachi g i c de he a ke i g ech i e di c ed i he e i cha e , i c di g surveys a d focus groups. Whi e i a be fea ib e d a cie ific e each i e a e eeki g i f a i f he b ic, i i ea e i f a e a ee i g a e i he e a e a e e e ge a

ge e a e e f i i , ea i i g ha hi i a cie ific e e e a i f he e i e c i . I he a e ei , f c g

ca he ide if defi e i e e ia i b e , b he f c g i a a e ge a de ai ed c ec i f b ic

i i . Open houses he ac i i ie ha b i g a ge g f e e i

he ch a e a he i each . Ca a c e a i i h e e a e h e , a e igh , cie ce fai , a h e ic e e , a he ac i i ha d a e e he ch ca ide ef

i f a i . I i a ib e d b ief e f e e a he c e he ch f he e ki d f e e . The c ce f listening hours i e ha ha bee ed effec i e

each he c i . I e ca e , ch ad i i a he de ig a ed i e e f he ch ha e eg a ffice h i hich e e ca c e i a d i i he . Whi e hi i be eficia , i

e e e i i h ca ake ad a age f hi i . F e a e, a i e -ci ch i ci a dea i g i h e i i e ace

e a i b e h gh ha he a d i g he igh hi g b ha i g h f a e -d ic ce a eek i hi ffice f a

ci i e c e i a d a k hi . I hi eighb h d, a - i c e ci i e did ha e a a i ge he ch , a d

a f he he , h ked d i g ch h , c d c e if he k ff k. The i e i f he i ci a a a dab e, b he

e h d ef a be de i ed. A be e e h d ed b e ch eade i g i he

c i a d ee i h e e hei f. Thi e i i a e he a a i b e f e e e. If he ed ca i a eade g e

a a i i e d i g he da , i a e i i a e he b e f he c i e be h ca ge i d i g he a ch da . The ca i a ake a big diffe e ce i he e e f a ici a i .

97

O e b ba e i e de a cce f b i i g a a ab e i he bb f he ba k F ida e e i g ( a da f a e e),

a ai ab e f a e h a ed c e a d ee hi . O he ha e f d ha h di g i e i g e i i he a ge g ce e i e

ef i ce e e fa i ea . I e c i ie , he ch ca ide if ecific i i i

he e he e e fee c f ab e a d a be ch e ike di c hei c ce . F e a e, i a Af ica -A e ica

eighb h d , he ch ch i f e he ce e f c i ac i i . Whi e e b ic ch ad i i a a e ea i h ab ch ch

a e e a i hi , ea i dic a e ha if he ch ch i he e e e ga he a d fee c f ab e, he ha i he ace ee he .

Wi h e i ci i e , h a e f e e ee a e f ch f di g beca e f hei c ce ab e a e , i igh be a

eighb h d ce e . Sch eade h g e i ci i e ce e ha e a i b i d e a i hi a d fi d he ecific c ce f de ci i e .

Public forums a e a he i each . The ch ca f i hich e e f a a ie f e ec i e a d

ga i a i ca ha e a i a ici a e. F e a e, e e e a e c ce ed ab he i g a i e f ch a d i

i ac he hea h f ee age . A ch c d a f ha d b i g ge he hea h ca e ide , ice ffice , e e f

de a - i e ke , ch e e , a e , a d de . B i g he f , he ch de a e a i e e i eachi g

he b ic a d a he a e i e ga he ef da a i de ake a e i f ed deci i .

Sch e e ca a a ici a e i b ic f ed b he ; i d i g , he ha e a i i e ac i h diffe e

e e e f he c i . Wi h he i eg a i f b ic e ice bec i g a a e f c ce , i d be ef f he ch c e a e i h hea h, a e f ce e , cia e fa e, a d he c i age cie i i g b ic f ha d e a e

a e f i e e a h e e e e f he c i . The ac f a e i g i h he ga i a i b i d e a i hi i h he , a d he e f he ac i i ie ca e ab e ch de e a e a i e a f dea i g i h a e f c ce a i e e ed a ie . Presentations ade b e be f he ch c i ga i a i ( he he i be a a h e ic b e c b, a b i e e

a cia i , a ch ch ga i a i , a e e a c b, a he ki d f

98

c i g ) i gi e he e i i e ch eade he i eak, i e f a di c i f i g he e e a i , a d

a ici a e i i f a c e a i bef e a d af e he e e . The e e e ide e i igh a he hi ki g f he ge e a b ic a d ca be be eficia i b a i g e e b ff ea .

Ne e ea f eachi g i c de electronic dialogues h gh he I e e ice ai . Thi i a ic a he f beca e i a

e e i e ac a hei c e ie ce. Tech g a a e ab e e e gi e hei h e i i f h e i e a i e a i , he e i e c ce ab he i ica c ec e f he c e . The

d ide f hi ech g i ha he e a be e e aki g age e a k , a i g hi g ha a e e, a e i g a g age

ha i i a ia e.

TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION

Broadcast Television

The i ie i b adca e e i i i a i h he i e f he c i a d he a ai abi i f ca b adca e e i i a i . I a ge c i ie , i i diffic f a i di id a ch ge ai i e

a b adca e e i i a i . I e a , he e a e e e i i a i . I c i ie i h a i f 25,000

100,000 ha ha e e e i i a i , he i f he ch ge e i e i be e . The ea i i ha he i f ai i e i i i ed i a a c i ie , b c ea i e ch ca fi d a

ge e hi g a ca b adca a i . The ch b i d a e a i hi i h he e e i i a i . O e

a ge a i e e e a i e i ch i i i e he eak a e i e a e b f he de b d ha e ca ee da

d i g hich e e i i e e he c ec ed i h he b i e a e i i ed eak. Thi gi e ch fficia a i b i d

e a e a i hi i h e f he e ee f he a i . If ch ha e c ica i c a e , i a be ib e ake fie d i he a i , gi i g he a i aff a cha ce i e ac i h

i di id a de a d eache . I i i g e ea c e ha he ch ee a e h

e e i e f he a i hich b i d a e a i hi . I be

99

e e be ed ha he edia i e d a i i a i . The e a be ch b eaki g e , he a i a be h ha ded fee ha he ch e e i f i e e a ide e gh a die ce. Media- i e ed ca k ha if he i e e gh i i a i , he e i

e e a be e i i e e e . A he a ach i ide backg d b iefi g a e ha igh be f i edia e e i e e b ha igh be ef f he a i k f f e efe e ce. Ma e e i i a i e fea e ab e e i he

c i , f e a e, he a h e e f he eek a g he high ch a h e e i he a ea e ed b he a i . Whi e hi a e e a ba a ced ie f he ch , i i he f f he ch ge hi ki d f e e, a d i i a i f ed ca a k a i

e e ab he ib e fea e , ch a a di g de i acade ic c e i i , a ac i i ie f ch e e , ec g i i ea ed b eache i he ch .

N a h e ic c e i i (e.g., cie ce fai , a h c , O iad f he i d, high ch b , a d f h) ha e bee ed effec i e

b ch f c de i a i i e a . The e e ed a i f i h e e i i a d he I e e a ake ca

a i e i e e ed i acade ic c e i i . Whi e e ch d a c e i i , he ea i i ha he b ic i d a he

a di g de h cceed i a c e i i , he he i be i a h e ic , fi e a , acade ic , a he a e a.

Sch ca ge e a e ac i i ie ha ha e a e a e fea e . T e a e a e i g a ic a fe i a ( hich h ha he ch i a c a ce e f he h e c i ) a d ha i g he

de d c ic a - e a ed ac i i ie e e e he e i e ( hich de a e ha he ch i a e ib e c i

e be ). Sch a ha e e i ge e e e e i i

h gh ge e a e ie , ch a he a i e f a e i ci a he c ea i f a e c ic . Pa e g a a eed de

ed ca a ici a i , e ecia he he f c chi d e a d h. Occa i a , he e a e i ie f b ic e ice a ce e

ecia g a c i b e i b a d h . S e a i ha e i ie f g e edi ia c e i e ed

i hei e ca . Sch e e c i e h d ake hi i dea i h i a c e ia i e .

100

O he c ce ab e a i hi i h e e i i a i i c de ge i g f he a i a e f g a ha d fea e he ch

i de . A he i idi g ee ace f e e i i a i ac i i ie a he ch i e. Fi a , if e e f he ch a e g i g be i ed

e e i i , a e a d c i i e e e a i bef e he ac a e e i i a ea a ce e a e e e k g d a d beha e a a . The ke

a cce f e e i i a ea a ce i be ab e k i he ca e a a d a k a h gh e i a ki g e he e . A i ake a

e e ake he he g he e ec ic edia i ac ike e adi di c j cke , e i g a a h e e e he e i adi a d

i ead f e a i g e e, each i di id a ie e i e e .

Cable Television

U ike b adca e e i i , cab e e e i i e e a g ea i ie f he ch . M e ha - hi d f he a i h e

ha e cab e. A a e f hei ice i g ag ee e , i a a cab e e a ha e b h b ic a d ed ca i a acce cha e a ai ab e f e b he ch . Cab e cha e a ha e a ai ab e, a c , d c i faci i ie a d ai i g f e e d b ic ed ca i a

acce g a i g he a i . The aff a d ad i i a i f he ch ca e cab e e e i i i a a . The e i e de , i ci a , head a e ca ha e a

eg a g a di c i g ed ca i a i e e e i g ac i i ie ha a e g i g i he ch . B a d ee i g ca be b adca

cab e. S e b ic ch di ic ha e cce f ed hi ech i e, i c di g he i f ca -i a b ic a ici a i i e d i g he b a d ee i g .

I e ie h a e e a i e ea d ce. Dea i g i h bjec e a i ie f i e e he b ic ca be d e e b ch

e i a e a i e efficie a e . Sch a a ca -i h ide ified h ed ca i ic he ge idea f he c i a d a e he a e a d i e i f c i fee i g .

Sch e ha ha e had diffic ge i g he b ic ead he ch a a e ha e a ed ei he e e i g e aci g he i e i h a ide e . Thi ide e ca be b adca

101

cab e e e i i e ea ed a d he ade a ai ab e f e e a i he g i he c i . A he e f cab e e e i i i he b e i b a d, hich ca be ed di a a hi g f he h ch e a i f de

ac i i ie e e h e be f ke e e i he ch e . S de e f cab e i i i ed b he i agi a i f he de , bjec he ge e a c f he ch e ee ha hi g a e

d e i g d a e. S de ca d ce g a i c a e a e ac ic a ac i i ie . S de ac i i ie a d ga e c e ca be b adca cab e acce cha e ake h e ac i i ie a ai ab e

e e h he i e c d ee he . O e cab e i e ha h d a be add e ed i he c ce ha cab e

ha i e a ke e e a i i e f ac a ie e hi . M h eh d i h e e i i e i he U i ed S a e ha e cab e, i i acce ib e. H , he , d e e ge e e a ch b ic acce ed ca i a acce cha e ? The ch d a g d j b f

b ici i g ha i be ai ed a d f ha i g eg a g a i e ha a a die ce ca g e a e i d f i e.

F e a e, i d be ai e a e a a ge a die ce f he ch a a e if i i i cab e i h a ad a ce

i . The a a e i a e a e f e hi g ha ca be b ici ed e i ad a ce, i h i b adca ched e i ed i

e a e a d e e e , i a e ia ake h e b de , a d he cab e e e i i cha e ched e i e f. I ca be ade e e e

a ai ab e b e c agi g e e ake c ie f he ide a e f he cab e b adca .

Sch ca e he b ic acce cha e f e cha ge g a i h he c i ie , h ge i g e a e ia ca cha e .

P b e c ic a ea ca be dea i h b i g ecia he g a he ca cab e cha e , ch a a g a f a e ha

gi e he gge i h he hei chi d de e a he a ic ki . I c i ie i h a E g i h- eaki g a e ,

g a b adca a e i hei a i e a g age ca he he de a d he ch g a a d h he igh k i h hei

chi d e ch k.

Radio

102

L ca adi e e a i ie f ch e . I a ge e i a a ea i h a a i , beca e f a ke eg e a i

he e i a a ea e a i ha d ha e e i e e i ch ac i i ie . I a e c i ie ha ha e e adi a i f hei , i i e ea f ch ge i f a i he

adi . O e f a adi a i (a d e a e ) f e ee he e e i a i a b i e e e h j ha e be i he edia b i e .

The a eed ide he i ga he i g e . S e a a i e ca a e efe ed a i -a d- ead, ea i g ha he i e a i a ic e f e a e a d ead he he ai f e . I he e

a e a i , ch f e e ca ge hei a e ia he ai e e b b i i g i f a i he a i . O i ie i adi i c de b ic e ice g a ha a

a i e he a e e a e i e i g (e.g., ea S da i g). H e e , ca a i i b adca ch e ie ,

c e e e , a d b ic e ice a ce e ab c i g ac i i ie . The e a ge a g a he adi i ha e he g a

ed. U a , he a i ha aff ge . If he a i ca fi d a f he ch g a i g, he ch igh be ab e ide if a d ec i a . S e i e he adi a i he e e i e e ch g a .

Radi ha i e ie h , ca -i h , a d cca i a i ie f edi ia c e . O e a ha a adi a i

he ch i b a ci g ch c i g e e ge cie . The e a ce e a e i a hi g f a adi a i beca e he e e a i e e hi , a ea a ce ai i e .

I i i a e e be ha a e ia e e ed adi h d be i e i c e a i a a g age. S e f he be - i e a e ia

d a k a d adi beca e i i i e be ead a d i a ca a , c e a i a a . Whe a ea i g he adi , a e e i i , a k a a a h gh i e ac i g i h e e . S a

a a f ja g a d ai he g a i g a ia e a he a i a ke . F e a e, if he a i e e j e ge g a hic a ea f a

a ge ch di ic , e e a i h d be f i e e he e e i ha a ea. I i i a k he he a a i dea i h a ecific

a die ce (e.g., h, a a ic a e h ic a g age g ) fea e ecific g a i g (e.g., ck ic, a a k).

103

Kee adi a e ia b ief a d f c ed. A e a e i d ce e hi g e a ed ca hi , ch a he hi i e e f

g a i g ha c d be f i e e he adi a i a d a g d jec f de i he ch .

T be effec i e i adi , he e h d be i e ice , j e i di id a d i g a e g h. The ice h d be di i g i hab e f e a he a d h d be ea a . If a e ia a e g i g be ec ded, e a i ec de a d ha a e a ia e ha he e i e a e backg d i e. M ic ca be ed e

effec i e i i d ci g c c di g a backg d adi .

Newspapers

The e a e a diffe e a ge a e ia i e a e . The fi hi g ha ha be c ide ed i he e f e a e . I i a dai

e a e ha eache a ch a ge a ea ha i e ed b he ch , i i a a eek a e f a a ic a a eighb h d, i i a a e gea ed a ecific e h ic acia a i ?

O ce e k he ci c a i a d a die ce f he a e a d h i e a e he a ea e ed b he ch di ic , he a effec i e

a ach ca be de e i ed. E Wa Ge e Ne a e 1. Ne e . S aigh e

ie i e ab ac i i ie a he ch e e c ec ed i h he ch a e c ea e f he be a ge i he e a e . Ne

ie b i ed a a ca a e a e e ike ge b i hed i ce he e a e ica de e d ide e e e e he i h ch f hei a e ia . Ne ie b i ed a ge dai a e a e ike ei he be e ked c e e b he aff

a a , a he a e ha e fe i a ide i de e i g hei e ie .

O e h d be di c aged if a ie b i ed a e . P i icia a ha if b i e gh a ic e , e hi g a ge

. Tha i he ba i hich he e a e, a d i a be a ea ab e f a ch , .

2. Fea e e . A ed aigh e ie (e.g., h a kid a ed ch hi ea he e ce age f h e h a ed

he a e ide e ), fea e dea i h e hi g i e a d i e e i g ha d be c ide ed -ca ed ha d e . E a e a e he

104

de d i g a a jec f a c a , a eache h had a i e e i g e aca i ac i i , e e b a ce f a d a f he b i di g ha i bei g d . Fea e a e i i ed b he

c ea i i f he e e h i e he , a d he ca e e he f a ide f i i i . 3. C . Week e a e e a e e i g ecia

a i , eighb h d , a f e e a e e f he ch a c i he a e a eg a ba i . S e e a e a e a i ci a i i g a c ab he aj ac i i ie a he ch ea g e e , a fi e a eache e ie i g a a d

ie , a ag ic e eache i i g i ga de i g, a d a c e i i g a c ge i g e a ed f e e highe

ed ca i . Wha e e he bjec , if e e c ec ed he ch i i i g he c , i ca he b i d he i age f he ch i he

c i . 4. S de a e . If he ch ca aff d b i h i de

e a e , e a eighb h d a e i e i dica a e e f i age be e a ide a he ca de a e .

5. Ed a . I a a e a e , he edi d ha e he i e he i c i a i i e edi ia f hei , b he a ake

a e edi ia ha a e e he b e a e b i he a cia i b i e e g . The ch c d be e f he e i e e g e di g a e edi ia he a e .

O e e a e i a edi ia gge i g he i a ce f a e ki g i h de h e k a d de e i g i i e a i de a d ch . O he c d dea i h he i a ce f a i g a

efe e d a e ch b i di g, a ai e i he e di g i i f he ch di ic , he i a ce f e ab i hi g a ch

ice iai ffice g a . 6. O -ed ece . F a ge-ci c a i a e f ca a e

edi ia , he e i he i f he -ca ed -ed iece. Thi a a ide b i a ig ed edi ia ha d be e e ed

i he e a e a edi ia b e he e e e he edi ia age he age i e.

7. Le e e ed . A he a i hich he ch ca ge i i a e ia i he e a e i h gh e e he edi . I a be i a f he ch eade , a eache , a ch b e , a

g f de i e e e he edi c ea i c ce i e e e k ab i e e i g a ac i i ie g i g a

105

he ch . Le e he edi h d be de e i a ed. The a e a e f he high ead a ea f a e a e . A c edib e

e e he edi be ig ed, a d he a h be ide ifiab e i ca e he edi eed e if he a he ici check he fac f he e e .

8. Ad e . If a e e fai , e a ge a e age i he a e i e aid ad e i i g. Sch e e di e f ad e i i g a be i ega i e a ea a d c d be a acked a a i a ia e e f

b ic f d i he ace , b ad i c i ee , a e g , b e c b , a d he igh be i i g ad if he e i he

a c e i a ch i f a i h gh he e edia.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Ide if e be f he ch c i h ha e ki he i h he b ic e a i g a : he abi i i e g d e

a d fea e ie eak e adi a d e e i i . 2. De e a a ge i f a i ab a a di g a

ac i i ie b de aff f he ch . 3. Ide if a he ca e edia a d ake e i i a c ac

i h each e bef e he e i a eed ee i h he . 4. A a f a c i i a age e a , a he i i ie a d

e ibi i ie f dea i g i h he b ic. 5. C d c e i dic e a d/ f c g de e i e he

b ic a a e e f he ch g a a d he acc ac f he i f a i he b ic i ecei i g.

6. B i d i e a c ica i e ha a e ee a d de ha e a d acc a e i f a i ab ch

ac i i ie a d i e . 7. Ide if i e a d ace i he c i he e he b ic ca

c e c ica e di ec i h ch fficia . 8. De e a i f a c i ga i a i ha ha e eg a

ee i g i h g a eake . Make a ai ab e h e ga i a i a i f de a d aff h c d eak e f

f he ga i a i . 9. Offe i e a c f he ca eighb h d e a e .

10. De e a ch g a f ca adi cab e e e i i .

106

REFERENCE

A e ica A cia i f Sch Ad i i a . (1950). Public Relations for America s Schools. Wa hi g , D.C.: A e ica A cia i f Sch Ad i i a .

RESOURCES

Na i a Cab e Te e i i A cia i , 1724 Ma ach e A e e NW, Wa hi g , D.C. 20036. Te e h e: 202-775-3669. Web: <h :// . c a.c >.

Na i a Sch P b ic Re a i A cia i , 15948 Dee d R ad, R ck i e, Ma a d 20855. Te e h e: 301-519-0496. Web: <h :// . a. g>.

P b ic Re a i S cie f A e ica, 33 I i g P ace, Ne Y k, Ne Y k 10003- 2376. Te e h e: 212-995-2230. Web: <h :// . a. g>.

107

CREATING EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH PARTNERSHIPS

Pa e hi i h e e a e i ie ide i ie ge e ce , e a d c ic a, a d e ci e de fa be d he abi i f he ch b i e f. A partnership i a e a i hi i hich each a ide

e hi g a d each gai e hi g. Sch a e hi bab ha e e i ed f he i e he fi ch a c ea ed, b ece ha e he e bee c ce ed eff c ea e a d i i e a e hi de i e he ed ca i a g a .

SEVEN MYTHS ABOUT PARTNERSHIPS

Bef e di c i g he i e e a ed b i di g a e hi , i i ece a deb k e f he h e a i g hi ic. The e

h hi de he abi i de e he b ead h, de h, a d d a i f a e hi ib e f ch .

1. O e c be ef . A he defi i i f partnership ake c ea , a a e hi e i if each a be efi f he e a i hi . If a ch c ea e ha i ca a e hi i h a

idea f ha he he a ie ha e gai , i i a d h d be a gh e .

108

Pa f he ea f hi h i e f he e i g ed i ki g i h a e . The c a ic e a e i Ad a Sch . I

c i ie ch a S . L i Da a , hi e ha bee ed f ea a d ha a ea i g e k , de d, a d e ec ed.

H e e , f he c i ie , Ad a Sch ca ha e a e ega i e c a i . T he ch e e , i a ea ha he i

be i a b e ie e a i hi . T he e e a a e , i a ee ha he i be e ec ed ake ca e f he ad ee.

2. A a e be a e- - e e a . Thi a be he ea ie e f a e hi e ab i h (e.g., e ch b i di g i h e b i e ), b i ce ai i he ibi i . I he e ec i f hi cha e , i i be ee ha he ki d f e ia a e a d hei

c fig a i i a e hi a e i a i i ed. 3. T e e e ce e c ea a e .

Thi h ha i i he fac ha e ed ca a e f c ed ce ha he f ge he g a f he ac i i . Whe he U.S.

De a e f Ed ca i fi e ab i hed a ffice a e hi , a ead ea f ed ca i c a ca e i , each c ai i g ha e a

ce ha d ead cce f a e hi . A he ce e a d hei a cia ed c e e diffe e , b a he c a e e ce ai ha hei a he a .

A a ge b e i a e i g i h b i e i ha ed ca e d f c ce a d b i e e e c e (i.e., he b i e ). S id a e hi a e ba ed e g ge i g

ge he dea i h a shared concern. The f c be he bjec i e fi . O ce he e i ag ee e ha , he a d he h d he ce be de e i ed.

4. A a c a e . U f a e , i a ca e hi i e, b hi a a i de a d i he a f b i di g cce f

e a i hi . F e a e, a b i e eade i Ca if ia ce e ai ed a fede a fficia ha he ca ch had a ked hi ai e a b a ia f e f he he b i e e i he a ea f

ge e a f he ch . The b i e eade a i i g, b he aid ha hi a cia e e e he eb ffed i hei e e k a he

b k f he affec ed ch ! Ob i , ch c ea e a e hi e a d hei e ce f

e i g ea e . Ca h i e f h e e ce . O he i c de e i e , ie , a d e e . S e e a e a e a b i e ha i

be ab e c ib e ca h he ch a d d a e h ee- ea - d c e , ba k ha gi e checkb k a d e a ed a e ia ch

109

a d a i he ch i eachi g chi d e h e checki g acc , a d a b i e ha a i a egic a i g e e a ch

e faci i a e he ch a egic a . 5. O b b e ca be a e . Thi h i ea e ai .

Bigge b i e e ha e b ic e a i aff ha d a g d j b f b ici i g hei c i e ice eff . S a b i e e , ch a

he a - Mai S ee e cha he eighb h d h kee e i he ci , d ha e aff b ica i e he b ic k f a hei ac i i ie . S a b i e e a e f e e a e i h ch , b he a e kee ec d f i . The j d ha c e a a .

A ec da - ch i ci a i a a i Wi c i a a e i g he ack f a e hi i ie beca e he e a big

b i e i hi c i . Wi h a i e ddi g, i e ha e h he a aged hi k f e e e diffe e a ha ca b i e e a d ga i a i e e i ed i h hi ch . Whi e ch f he i e e a a i c e, i i h ed a i i g e he ch . P idi g c e ib e f he h ec i g a ade, gi i g c a be f e i h c a e , cha i g ad e i i g i he ea b k (h a a e e f ki g a a ea b k e ea a e ?), eaki g a ca ee da , a d e i dica idi g a age

i he ca e a e f de e a e e a e f hi g c d e.

6. O b c e ec a aff ca c ea e a e . Thi h e i f he a e ea a he e i e: La ge ch

e ha e aff a d b ica i e hei . C ea i g a e hi a i ea ie f a e ch beca e he e i e

b ea c ac . Se e a e e f a a a be e i ed bef e e e i g i a e a i hi i a a ge e , hi e e ick ca i f e a ha i ece a i he a ch .

7. Sc e c f e f c a e . T adi i a ad i i a a e af aid ha he i gi e e f hei

e if a e bec e i ed i h he ch . I h d be i ed he ch a ead ha e a e h d a a ica c ai he

a h i f he ca ch eade : he fede a a d he a e g e e . U ike he e a i hi be ee he fede a a d a e g e e ,

c i a e hi a e e i e a . N ch i f ced e e i a a a ge e f i iki g. If a ed a e hi i

100 e ce a i fac he ch , ei he i ca be e ked ake i ag eeab e he ch ca ejec i . The ch h d a he

ace .

110

H e e , ch eade h a e hi hica ed ha ed deci i aki g a a e e i a e hi . S cce f

a e hi a e ba ed a e ec a d , c .

WHO CAN BE PARTNERS?

Maki g a e ha i e i f e ia a e i i a i ib e. O e eed c ea e ca eg ie a d he i ca e i ie f each i . The f i g ec i di c e ica ca eg ie .

Business

Thi i c de aj e e , ca f a chi e , ca a b i e , a d c age i d ie . The cha be f c e ce c e cia c b h d be ab e ide he ba ic i . Check he b i e age f he e e h e di ec f addi i a idea .

D e k a b i e . S e i e a e hi c e f he ea e ec ed ace . F e a e, a aj b i e a e i h he

b ic ch ca ed i he Ma f A e ica i B i g-Fe i I d ie (BFI). BFI, hich ide he a e di a f he a , de e ed a e i e a ed ca i g a f he ch , ide e e f de i a a e, a d ade a e - ea c i e f $100,000 e ea f f he ch .

Postsecondary Institutions

Re ea ch i e i ie , ibe a a c ege , a d eache ai i g i i i a a e ib e a e . Beca e f hei ca ie a d e e e e ia i i , c i c ege a d ech ica c ege a e

a ag eeab e j i ac i i ie . B h b ic a d i a e i i i h d be c ide ed. O e f e - e ked ca eg i he f - fi ie a ade ch .

Wha e e ch i c ide ed, be e ee ha i i acc edi ed b he a ia e acc edi i g age c .

S e ch c ege a e hi a e b i . F e a e, a e ea ch i e i ha d e a d i a ch e ab e he ch ge

111

eeded i f a i a d he i e i de ge eeded e ea ch e e ie ce.

A he e a e i he ace e f eache ed ca i de i b e a i , de eachi g, a d i e hi i a i . Agai , he

c ege de ge eeded e e ie ce hi e he ch ge a i f i g f aff a i a ce a d ib e idea a ache .

Beca e f hei c ie e e a d ca f c , he c i a d ech ica c ege a d i a e ade ch a ide ecia

i ie f he ch b i d a e hi dea i g i h a - i k de . C ea i g i ie f de h ha e cceeded i

ec da ch i f e a f he i i f he e e e e i i i .

Other Schools

Pa e hi be ee b ic ch i e di ic ca ead e a ded c ic a ffe i g he ha i g f aff e e i e. The a e

d a a e hi i h he b ic ch e . Whi e a c , b ic i a e ch a e hi ha e bee

be eficia b h. P i he ece e ha i e ice ea i g i he b ic ch , he e e e e i a ce f Ca h ic high ch

idi g ee i b ic ch . The e de e e f fi i g he e ice e i e e f hei e igi c a e .

Da ca e a d ea chi dh d g a a e a a ee a ch , b he a a a ha e e ed ca i a di e i . The

e f e a i hi ca be a di e e a idi g ea i ic e e ie ce f de i fa i ife c a e gi i g e e e a de e ee - b i di g i ie b eadi g ge chi d e .

Public and Nonprofit Human Service Agencies

P ic ake a d di a e de a di g be e i eg a i f h a e ice , i c di g ed ca i . B dge , ad i i a i e c e , i

c ac , a d adi i a e ica ba ie ha i eg a i . The ch ca h g d-fai h a e a i eg a i b b i di g a e hi i h

he . Age cie c ce ed i h hea h, e fa e, ec ea i , h,

112

a c h /d g ehabi i a i , a e f ce e , a d c e ice a be i c ded a i f e ia a e .

Pa e hi a e e c i h e f he e g . F e a e, ec ea i a ga i a i f e a e feede e f a i a h e ic g a , ice c e a e i h ch he D.A.R.E.

g a , a d b ic hea h e e e ch ha d ha e ade a e hea h e ice f hei .

Le b i a e hi ca be de e ed. F e a e, ch e a d he j dge f he ca j e i e c c e a ed a ack

ee age ki g. The b e a ha he ch a e ed e f ce he a agai de age ki g. B ki g i h he j dge, a ag ee e a eached e ab i h a icke e . E e i e a

de a ca gh ki g, a icke a i ed i h a a ia e e a f each ffe e. O af e a ecified be f ffe e e e

dea i h b he ch a he e a e i i he j e i e c . The he j dge, h k e e ac ha had ed ha i , d a a

j dicia e a . The ch g he e e had bef e, a d he j dge ge had be c ce ed i h i c i e beha i he

a f ch fficia .

Community Groups

A e ica a e ac i e j i e . Each c i ha i di e e g h ha e ga i a i f e e i e e a d eed . Beca e f he i e a e f e g , he e a i e i ha c e

a e : ci ic, e ice, f a e a , e igi , h, a d e i ci i e , a d f h. Sch eade h d de e i e he be a d

a e f ca ga i a i b i g ca di ec ie a d ha i g b ai i g e i i h fac a d aff a ce ai hei

e be hi a d affi ia i . Pa e hi ca be ade ea i i h ga i a i ch a he

Ja cee , Li C b, R a , Ki a i , a d he h e g a i ide c i e ice. I ake e h gh de e a

be eficia e a i hi i h e i ci i e g . Ch che a e a i e e i g cha e ge a d a g ea i i

c i a e hi . C ce ab ch ch a e i e i he c ic ha ed e b ic ch ea ch che a h gh he d e i . H e e , hi eed be he ca e, a i h b he e

113

cce f Chi d e Fi i i ia i e i S . L i Pa k, Mi e a, a a e hi a g ch , ch che , b i e , hea h, a d ci

g e e .

Government

Thi ca eg e a e ha i h he he , a ic a i he h a e ice a ea . H e e , he e a e he age cie f g e e a a e e ha ca a e i h ca ch , i c di g fede a , a e, c , ci , hi , a d ecia i f g e e .

I Wa hi g , D.C., he fede a g e e i the b i e i . O e e e e a ch ha achie ed he B e Ribb a a d f he U.S. De a e f Ed ca i a ci ed f he effec i e a i hich fede a e ee ked i h g chi d e . Scie i a d e ea che f a i age cie ga e de a i a d de e ed

jec i h he de . A he ki d f a e hi i e i hich he ch c e a e i h

a a i a h i ie a e ed ca i e e e a d i c ea e ide hi i b ic a a i .

Se e a a e egi a e c e a e i h he ch b idi g ed ca i a a d k e e ie ce a he a e ca i . Thi gi e he

de a ea - d k edge f g e e hi e ge i g e k d e f he egi a e.

WHY EVERYONE WINS WITH SCHOOL BUSINESS PARTNERSHIPS

M di c i f ch a e hi f c he e a i hi i h b i e . Bef e a e i g e ab i h a a e hi i h b i e , i

d be g d e ie he ea h i i a be eficia . B a d Sche e (1984) ide ified e e ea h b i e e

a ch a e a d e e ea h ch h d a b i e a e . Th e ea a e a i ed i ab e 9.1.

A ed ca i a a d b i e eade i d ge he , he ca e ie he e ea a d ee hich igh be cha ac e i e hei i a i . I

ca e , he ch a e ki g f e ce ( e , e i e ,

114

ie , e e ), b e i e he i a c e f he e a i hi d be b i d c i f f e efe e da.

Each f he ea i ed i he ab e ha bee a ied a i e i cce f a e hi . F e a e, a a e hi i h a ch

k e ha i d he b i e ge be e e - e e e ee a d i f e ce ca ee ch ice hi e he ch d be ge i g c ac f ca ee g a a d j b ace e .

Wi h he ad e f he acc abi i e e a d cha ge i de i e e a d ga i a i a c e, ch i h i i ed aff de e e b dge a ha e a eed f a age e e e i e a d

aff de e e a i a ce ha c d be ided b a a e h ha g e h gh he a e e f cha ge .

The b ic e a i a d a be efi a e b i b i e e . A ch ki g f a e ca ide if b i e e h ha e a b ic e a i eed (e.g., a e a ha e ea e a i he ai a e ) a d e ha a a ba i f begi i g c e a i . Tech g c a ie de e i g f a e a d ha d a e ca d be a

e i g i a ch . Thi c d ide he ch i h e i e a d c ic a ad i i a i e f a e.

O e f he e a b i d a a e hi i f c ec ic ed ca i , he ea ha a ea b h i i he ab e. Ma ch k ha he eed he i eachi g b h ic - a d ac ec ic , a d a b i e e a e f a ed i h he ack f

k edge f ec ic e , a c ea ca e f a c c ce . S e b i e e d j ike be g d ci i e . Thi ea i

b i he ed ca , b , j ike i di id a , a b i e e a e a ike. The a e ed ca h ide ifie b i e e ha ha e a g e e f c i e ice ha g ea a e hi ibi i ie .

Table 9.1 Reasons for School Business Partnerships

Business Reasons School Reasons

b ic e a i e a be efi b ai e i e

be e e - e e e ee b ai ie de e a ke addi i a e e de e d c aff de e e i f e ce ca ee ch ice a age e e e i e

115

ec i e ee add a ie ; e ich g a

ec ic ed ca i ec ic ed ca i de e be e ci i e c ac f j b a d g a

ake a fi h g d fai h a d e e i e e ee a e ide addi i a e de be a g d ci i e b i d c i

VOLUNTEERS:THE IDEAL PARTNERS

Vi a e e e ag ee ha a e a d ch be a e if de a e ge he a i be efi f hei ed ca i a

i ie . Whi e a e a e i a , each i di id a h ee k i h he ch i a a e i he ed ca i a

e e i e. The e e a a e hi he he de b a de e a e e f a a d f he ch e . A

cce f ee g a de e d a de a di g f he g a e e e a d h ca be ch ee .

Volunteer Program Elements

A cce f ee g a ha e e e c e e e . I i f a e i g , he e e e a be e ed , b he a e he e. Whe a i g a ee g a , i he f i g e e e a d de e i e h i e ib e f each, h i i be ca ied , a d he i e ab e f c d c i g he ac i i ie :

1. Rec e . I a i g a e g a , c ide ec i i g i he i g f he f i g ch ea . Thi i ie d a cad e f ke

ee he e ab i h a d ai ai he g a . Whi e he big h i f he e i g f ch , ec i i g h d be a g i g

ac i i . A e ha e e e i a e ia ee . U e a ke i g a d b ic e a i ki a d ce e i ed i cha e 7

a d 8 he de e a c ehe i e ec i e g a . O ce ha e ide ified e ia a e , he i e a d effec i e

a ge ee i ask he . P c i e h ha he be - e ea e e ee i ha e e a ked he . F

116

e a e, i a 1999 e b I de e de Sec (2000), a 90 e ce f he e de aid ha he d ee if a ked.

2. O e a . Bef e ee begi , he eed e ba ic ie a i he faci i ie , he g a , he e e , a d he e f

ch . Of i a ce i a e a a i f da a i ac a a d ced e be f ed i ca e f e e ge cie . The e a d i i f he ee h d be ade c ea . Each ee h d

k h c ac if he e i i a ai ab e. 3. P ace e . Thi i c cia he cce f a g a . P aci g

ee i i a i i hich he a e fea f , ha e i e e i he ac i i , ha e e a i c f ic i d i e he a a a d je a di e he e i e g a .

Effec i e ace e i e ide if i g he eed f he g a , a ki g he e ia e i a d ee ide if hei i e e , a d a chi g e e a d g a he ba i f eed a d i e e . O a e cca i , a ace e d e k . I ha ca e, a cha ge i ace e eed be ade a a ib e a id ega i e

fee i g b he a ie a d e i ha he g a . 4. T a . If d ha e i e ai e e e i ed, ai

he e i fi , he he ee . We - ai ed e i ca a d i ai he ee . If he ee i d i g i e a k , ch a a i g c a i g a e , he ai i g ca be acc i hed i h a fe c e . M e c e a k a e i e g i g ai i g. Effec i e ai i g i a d i e e f i e ha i ie d k di ide d be d g ea e e ec a i . Whe e e ib e, he

ai i g i i i g. 5. S e . T be efi he ee a d acc i h he g a

f he g a , ee be e i ed. S e i h a e c i ed i ead a cce f g a , e i i g

e i . W ki g i h ee i i i ia i c ea e he k ad f he e i , b i a h i e he ee i be a i g

ch f he ad e i d e b he fe i a . De e di g he a e f he ac i i , e i eed a a be e e he

ee a e ca i g hei d ie . 6. E a a . A face f he g a h d be e a a ed.

V ee h d be e a a ed b e i a d e i e a a ed b ee . The e i e g a h d be e a a ed b a ici a a d be eficia ie ( a eache , de , a d a e ). Si e e-

age e a a i check i a e a ai ab e, ch a h e de e ed b

117

S a e Ta a (1983), he f e di ec f he Sch V ee Office f he F ida, i he b k Coordinating Your School Volunteer Program.

7. Rec . O e f he g ea j f i g ch ee i he ec g i i g a . Thi ca be a hi g f a i e ha k- a d

a ce ifica e a e ab a e ece i di e i h e e f ec g i i ba ed a , e, a d e g h f ee e ice. A effec i e ec g i i g a igh i c de i edia e e e he ee

ac i i ; g i g ec g i i h gh e e e , e , a d f h; a d a a a ec g i i e e . De e i g a d e a i g ec g i i

g a ca be a de f i f aff a d ee e e ci e hei c ea i i .

A e a e f a ec g i i g a i h g ea i ac he ee a d he b ic a he a e ide g a i F ida ha

b gh a di g ee a ecia da a Di e W d.

Who Are Volunteers?

Whe T. H. Be a he U.S. ec e a f ed ca i , he e a e e a he a i ch e i e de gge i g ha he a ch

ee g a if he did a ead ha e he . A e f he e i e de f a i ab e, aff e b ba di ic aid, Y d

k ha a e a ki g ab , h e e ha e a g e k. Tha e i e de a ca gh i he h ha e -i c e

f i e h e ake a e ee . I fac , ee c e f a eg e f cie a e a d fe a e, g a d d, aff e a d

, e ed ide he h e a d e ed a d f a acia a d e h ic g . T f he be ce f ee f a ch a e e i ci i e a d he de i he ch e .

P d e f I de e de Sec c i e h ha e ha f he e e i he U i ed S a e d e ee i g each ea . The ece i dica ed ha 56 e ce f ad e eigh ee ea f age

ee ed i 1999.

Who Benefits from Volunteering?

118

Whi e e igi i he be - e be eficia f A e ica a i , ed ca i i a ec d, f ed c e b he hea h

fie d. I 1995, f e a e, 25 e ce f a ee did ch ch k, a d ab 18 e ce ee ed i ch , acc di g he U.S. Ce B ea (1999) i he Statistical Abstract of the United States. A f i a ce ed ca i ha a he 15 e ce f he

a i ee ed i he fie d f h de e e .

The Psychology of a Successful Volunteer Program

The echa ic f e a i g a g a a e i a , b i i e e e i a e e be ha he a ici a a e h a bei g a d

h d be ea ed a ch. Whe e e i i ia a ici a e, he f e a e he i a e a i e.

Make he fee c f ab e. Re e be ha a e e ha e i c ce i ab da ch ha a e ba ed edia

e f i cide ha a ha e cc ed a he e i he c . P ide a f ie d e i e i h a e ag , ef e h e , a d a ai ab e e ce e e a e e i .

T Ke , a age f he Mi e a T i , ha d cha i hi i h ea ha had fe e a . Ke b i g a hi a e a d aci g each e f he i i a i he e he a

ike cceed. Thi hi h ca be a ied ee g a a e . T a i i e e ia cce , e e e ch e hei ac i i ie f he i ha e. O ce he a e i ed i h he

g a , i i ib e a d ike ha ca ge he d he addi i a ac i i ie . Thi i beca e he e gai c fide ce a d a de e a c i e he ch i bec e ch he ee .

A e e f be gi g i c cia he cce f he g a . I i e e e i a he i di id a , a he ee ac i i f fi ha ba ic ch gica eed be eeded.

I e i a i , a g f e i ci i e i a i g h e e e ec i ed d e i e e e e ffi g. E e h gh he d

be i a e e e a ch , he e e fea f beca e f ha he be ie ed a he a e f kid i de ch . Fi a , e e a e e did ag ee ee i ce he d be i a g a d

119

d be ki g i a b he e e . I a h i e, he bega e j he e e , a d he j i ed he . O e da a eache ed i he k a d e ai ed ha he had

a de h had i ed e e a da f ch a d eeded e e ead hi . O e ee fi a ag eed e e i he c a he he de . The ee g e h ed ab he e e ie ce

ha e e a he e e i c a ki g eadi g i h he de . B he e d f he ea , a he e i e g f e i h had a ed i he k e e i c a he i g

eache , a d a e i e e g f hei c eag e had c e f he i g h e d he a k i he k .

I de e de Sec e i dica e ha 43 e ce f e i age 75 a d de ha e a ici a ed i ee i g. Thi i dica e ha he

f e ia ee i a ge a d g i g i a agi g a i . I a h he i a ce a e e f bei g ac i e a d c ib i g cie .

I a i a ce , he i a be eficia f ee i g i he ee hi e f. The i fee g d ab e e f b d i g

f he ca be e a ed. F e a e, d i g he 1980 , VOLUNTEER, a a i a ga i a i dedica ed i g

a i , c d c ed a g a i hich h ica ha dica ed i di id a ca ied ee jec . F a f he a ici a , i

a he fi i e he had he i d e hi g f he a he ha ha i g he d e hi g f he .

B i di g e f-e ee i g ea e ha i ed i he A e ica ed ca i a e , b i he e a i e ece e ha i e ice ea i g ha a i bee ee a a f ha eff . A ,

f e he de i eed f a b i a fee i g f e f- h a e ea ed a ic i a d a e h ca c ib e h gh hei a eff .

TRENDS IN EDUCATION PARTNERSHIPS

Wi h a i c ea ed e ha i ed ca i a e hi i he 1990 , e e a e d ha e e e ged ha a e e ha i g a i de ab he e ,

ef e , a d a e f he e e a i hi :

120

1. There is less panic by educators. I he a , he gge i ha ide d be i he ch he i g gi e di ec i he

ch e f i g a f e a e i h ed ca a ie h i i .

2. More school systems are initiating partnerships. Th gh he c ea i f ch f da i a d a e hi g a a d b e ab i hi g i i f a e hi c di a , ch a e ea i g he be efi f c i a e hi . E e he he

e ha f a a e hi g a , i di id a ad i i a a d eache a e bei g e c aged e hei i i ia i e i e ab i hi g a e hi .

3. Recognition programs are growing in number and visibility. G e e , b i e , ed ca i , a d he e edia a a e

a e i ec g i i g a di g g a . F a i a g a , ch a he P i f Ligh F da i , i di id a

i ci a a a d , ec g i i i bei g gi e h e h c ib e ch h gh a e hi a d a i .

4. Expectations are becoming more realistic. Pa e hi a d ee g a a e ge bei g ee a a acea . B h ch a d

he c i ha e c e ea i e ha a e hi a e e a d e ha ce he ed ca i a g a , b he d

ide a c ehe i e g a he e e . 5. There is a more substantial and essential involvement of the

nonschool partners. Thei e i ee a a i eg a a f a c ehe i e c i ch ffe i g. Le e ha i i ba d-aid a d e e ha i i ac i i ie ch a a egic

a i g a d a a i a age e (TQM). 6. Partnerships are becoming more complex. A i c ea i g be f

a e , a g ea e a ie f a e , a d idi ic a e hi a e a i dica i f hi e d.

7. Business is getting involved with the schools at all levels: national, state and local. A he ca e e , b i e i ki g i h ch di ic , b i di g , a d i di id a c a e . The B i e R d ab e (BRT), he U.S. Cha be f C e ce, he Na i a Fede a i f I de e de B i e (NFIB), a d he Na i a A ia ce f B i e (NAB) a e a a i a b i e ga i a i

ki g i h ed ca i . 8. Business is getting more involved in educational policy. The BRT i

c ed f he chief e ec i e ffice f a f he bigge

121

c a i i he c . I ade a e - ea c i e i f e ce ed ca i a ic i he U i ed S a e a d ha i ce e e ded ha c i e . C a ab e a e- e e ga i a i a e i g high- e e a e hi i ki g ed ca i a ic . F e a e, i I a he b i e eade hi ked i h ab , ag ic e, a d ed ca i a eade de e c ed ca i a g a a d g a .

9. More educational partnerships are operating outside the traditional school settings. Cha e ch , a e a i e ea i g ce e , a d

ef b ic ch a e e a e f hi e d. 10. The emphasis is now on systemic change. The c ea i f he Ne

A e ica Sch De e e C a i , he e ha i c - ca i a d i eg a i f e ice , a d he a e hi i i g

highe ed ca i a d fe i a ga i a i a e a a f hi e d.

TIPS ON BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS AND PROGRAMS

1. Assess where the school is and start there. The be a d a ge f ac i i ie de e ed b i di id a ad i i a , eache , c ache , a d he f e i e ed ca i a eade h ha e f a

g a . 2. Build on common needs. A k ha a e he c i eed ,

de e i e he e he ch c d a i ee i g e f h e eed , a d decide ha ki d f ac i i d ake e e e a i e . F e a e, a a e hi ed ce h if i g a e

e f e cha , he he ch i h ci ic ed ca i , a d a kee e g e e f ha i g a c i i a ec d.

3. Do not get hung up on differences. The e a be a e de c di i a ib e a e b i e e i di id a i h h he ch i aff ha e had diffe e ce , f e a e, he e a e ha ed a efe e d , a i efi e ha i ee a

a ce f i , he i a e ch ha c e e f de . B f c i g c eed i ead f diffe e ce , he

ch i b i d a e hi a d de i i e c f ic e i beha i .

4. Distinguish between short-term and long-term needs. Dea i g i h a ad h c h - e b e ca ide a ia f e

122

a e hi . If i e cce f , he a g- e e a i hi igh be c ea ed. A e a e i a ch ec g c a ki g i h c i ga i a i a c ea jec ha he ca

ead a f - ca e ec c i g g a . 5. Start slowly, then build on successes. Ne e f ce a e

a ici a e. M ad ha e a e c a ce e hi g . W k fi i h he e e e aff a d c i e e. Wi h a

e de e ed g a , he e he i g aj i f he ch e ee a d a he c i f k i j i i he he ee cce a d ib e e a be efi . Ig e he a c e , a d he i e e a i a e he e e .

6. Check out the legal and insurance issues. Ma a e ha e h d- ha e i i a d ke c e a i i i

ec ee a d a e i ch . If , ee ha i a ce ( ided b ei he he ch a a e ) c e e e e i ed i a e hi ff he ch i e.

7. Make sure that all the appropriate officials know of and, if necessary, approve all programs. N hi g i e e ba a i g a d i i a i g a b i e eade , ch ad i i a , he

ga i a i a eade ha ha e a g a e i i g de he f hich he a e a a e.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Take a i e f he a e hi a d ee ac i i ie bei g c d c ed i he ch .

2. Ide if i e ha c ce he ch , b a e e c i e ch b e .

3. Li e i i g c i e a i hi . 4. Li ea h he ch d be efi f c i

a e hi a d ea h b i e e a d ga i a i igh a be a a e i h he ch .

5. Li ga i a i f hich c d ec i ee . 6. Ca a he ch f b h ad i i a i e a d c a e i g

he e ee a e e ce c d c ib e he i i a d g a f he ch .

7. E ab i h ie i h ec da ed ca i a i i i (b h acade ic a d ca i a ) ba ed c eed a d c ce .

123

8. C ac he a e ffice f ee e ice a d ca ee ce e ake e f hei a e ia a d g a .

9. Pe i dica check he Web i e f a i a e ce i ed a he e d f hi cha e .

REFERENCES

B , R be J., a d Sche e , J e h J. (1984). B i e e a d ch : Rea f a a e hi . Journal of Career Education 10:197 203.

I de e de Sec . (2000). Giving and volunteering in the United States, 1999 Edition. <h :// .i de e de ec . g>, A i 21.

Ta a , S a e. (1983). Coordinating your school volunteer program. Pa A , Ca if.: V C a i .

U.S. Ce B ea . (1999). Statistical Abstract of the United States. 119 h ed. Wa hi g , D.C.: U.S. G e e P i i g Office.

RESOURCES

Na i a A cia i f Pa e i Ed ca i , 901 N h Pi S ee , A e a d ia, Vi gi ia 22314. Te e h e: 703-836-4880. Web: <h :// . a e i ed ca i . g>.

P i f Ligh F da i , 1400 I S ee , Wa hi g , D.C. 20005. Te e h e: 202- 729-8000. Web: <h :// . i f igh . g>.

124

SEEKING AND SECURING GRANTS

A e ica a e e ge e e e. Acc di g he AAFRC T f Phi a h , cha i ab e gi i g i he U i ed S a e a e $190 bi i i 1999. Of ha e , a 80 e ce a gi e b i di id a . The e a gi e b c a i , f da i , a d be e .

C e i i f he e di c e i a d a ca be fie ce, b i ie d e i f i di id a a d ch ha ha e a e e f

i i a d he de a di g f he ech i e f cce f f d- ai i g.

Thi di c i f ec i g aj g a i di ided i h ee a : a i i g, f da i , a d g e e ce . Cha e 11

e e a a ie f ech i e f ai i g e f ca ce .

PROPOSAL WRITING

T ec e e f b h g e e ce a d f da i , i i ece a de a d e f he ba ic i ci e f a i i g.

S e c i fa ha eed be a ided a e c ide i g e f de , i i g b c i ee, a d i i g f he g ea .

The be a a id he e i fa i begi b i i g a c ce a .

125

Wha i be acc i hed? Wh i g i g d i ? H i i be d e? The a e he e e i i ie d a c ce a . Thi

a h d de a e he a i f he a h i i g a b e acc i hi g a g a . O ce a d af i c e ed, he a

h d be ci c a ed a g he i ed i h he jec ee he he i ca be de d b i de e de eade . The e a e e e ba ic e e e ha h d be i c ded i a g a

a : 1. Need a e e . The eed h d e a e he e f he

ch , i h d be ea ab e i c e, a d i h d be ed b e ide ce a e e f ec g i ed a h i ie he bjec . I i he f if he eed a e e i de e ed i h i f h e h

igh be efi f he ed g a . The eed a e e h d be b ief, i e e i g, a d c ai a ja g . A e - i e eed

a e e h d ake a g ca e f he ed jec a d f he a h a he be e ca i .

2. Ob ec e . The bjec i e h d de i ea e c ea he c e e ec ed f he a , h d be efi f he jec , a d he i e i e f i e e a i . I i i a ha e a ea e bjec i e f each eed a ed. The bjec i e h d be ea ab e, a d

i i i a e e be ha ch bjec i e a e e h d b , a he , g a be acc i hed.

3. Me d . The e h d h d f f he bjec i e f he g a . The be e h d h d de c ibe i de ai he g a a d he

ea f he ecific ac i i ie e ec ed. The e h d ec i f he a h d ake c ea h i bei g e ed, h i he aff

de i e i g he g a , a d he e e ce f ac i i ie acc i h he bjec i e .

4. Pe e . Se ec i g he igh e e i c cia i i g a g a . I be ade c ea ha he e e ffe i g he g a ha e he backg d a d c e e ce ake i k. The i a e he cce f he a i be he jec di ec . If hi i

a c edib e i di id a , he e i e i e ike ih d f ecei i g a g a . I i a i a ide he a ifica i a d j b de c i i f he e e h i ha e ig ifica e i he

jec . I addi i he jec e e , he e a e e e a he e a ed

e e i e ha a be add e ed i he a . F e a e, i a c a be ed? If , h a e he eeded, a d h i

126

he be e ec ed? Wi he e be a ad i c i ee c i ee f he jec ? Wha i he eed f he e c i ee , a d h a e he e ec ed? Ad i c i ee ca be ha d b i d c edibi i f he jec if e ia f de d k he a ica . A ad i

c i ee ca ide e b ed c edibi i . C e a i i a he e e i e. Sh d h e ki g i he jec be g a ed e ea ed i e f hei eg a d ie , h d he be

c e a ed a e ad ba i , a d h h d he c e a i e a e he a a ? M f de i a a a a g ea e ha he i di id a d a be ea i g, b he i a f e ea ed i e e ad k.

5. B d e . The fi i e i h e ec b dge i h he fi ca age f he jec i be. Tha i , h i be he d acc ab e f fi a cia a age e ? Thi i a i e i e if he e e i f e ch , b i i ch e c ica ed a d eed be c a ified if he e

a e he ch a e i ed. I i i a ha he b dge ef ec he a a a ed i he

ec i eed, bjec i e , e h d , a d e a a i . The b dge h d be a ed i h e gh de ai be c ea de d. I h d i c de f i ge be efi f e ee a d he c f a c a . I de e i g he b dge , i i ece a de e i e he ic f he f de c ce i g i di ec c e head. S e f de i a

i di ec c . Wi h he , i a be ib e ge a he e f 8 20 e ce f he b dge f e head. A he i e e a e ca h a d i -ki d c ib i . The b dge

h d ef ec a e ce c i ed he jec f he e e a f de b a f he a e i he jec . F e a e,

i he b dge i c de ace, e i e , ie , e e h e , a d he hi g ided b he ch a di ec c he jec ? Wi he e

be k d e b ee ed ce he di ec c f he jec ? I i i a a a e a face f he jec a d a d a a e e e ib e c ib i . I hi a , he f di g age c i ee ha i i he e c ib he b dge .

6. F a ce a . A a i ied i he di c i b dge , he a ea c f he jec i ike be b a ia e ha he a

c ib ed b he g a . The fi a ce a h d de c ibe he he ce f f d , he a a d ki d f f - e a chi g, a d he

a a a f fi a ci g he jec i i i c e ed. The fi a ce a a d he b dge h d be de ai ed ea b ea f he d a i f

he jec .

127

M age cie ha gi e g a d ike ee a f he c i ed f di g f he jec af e he g a e ha bee e . B h g e e age cie a d i a e f da i ha e i i ed e ce f di c e i a g a , he a e i c i ed gi e hei

e f i a i e jec . The , if a e c ce k , he g a - ecei i g i i i i e ec ed c i e i h i he f d .

F hi ea , i i he f i c de a i ea b dge a d fi a ce a ha i h he e e a e ace e f a f he g a

e i h f d f he ce if he g a i be g i g. T ica , hi a h d jec c a d i c e f h ee ea e e h gh he a i f a e- ea g a .

I i i a ge e e f c i e f a i di id a e i ie ha d be c ide ed a ce f f d f - e

a chi g f he g a . I i a he f he a if e efe e ce ca be ade he ack ec d f he ch a d jec a e i h

e i g a . 7. E a a . The ack f a c ea a d e -defi ed e a a i a i e f he c ea ha g a a fai . I de e i g

he e a a i a , i i i a g back e he eed, bjec i e , a d e h d ee ha he e i i e a c i e c .

The e a a i a h d a e ha he c i e ia a e f he cce f he g a , h he da a i be ga he ed de e i e cce , a d

h he a a i f he da a i be d e. If a da di ed e e i e a e ed, he e h d be e efe e ce hei e iabi i a d a idi . If he e a a i i e a e de e ed f he ecific

jec , he e h d be a e a a i a he a ia e e f he i e a d h he e e de e ed.

Wh i d i g he e a a i g i f g ea i a ce if he e a a i i bjec i e a i a i e. I hi ca e, i h d be e ai ed h he

e a a e e e ec ed, ha hei a ifica i a e, a d he he he a e i de e de f he c f he ch .

The a h d i c de a a f he de e e a d di e i a i f e a a i e . Make c ea h f e e a d i

ha a e e i be gi e he f di g age c . De e i e h e e h d be gi e e a d he a e f h e addi i a e . Af e a he e e e ha e bee e ed , i i he ib e i e a summary, abstract, be ed f di c i e . Thi a ca be b i ed i h he fi a a if e e ed b he f de . I

b i i g a a , he e h d be a c e e e f ed b he a ( hich h d be a ha d hi i g a d di ec a ib e)

128

f ed b he e e a e e e i de ( e he f de e e a diffe e f a ).

FOUNDATIONS

The fi i c i a i i dea i g i h f da i i i e a a a d b i i ha e e f da i e e igh be fa i ia i h. Thi i a ce ai a eci e f di a e . T be effec i e i ge i g

f f da i , a a a i be d e ab he e f f da i , he e f g a he gi e, a d hich fie d he f da i gi e .

Types of Foundations

The f da i ha e e a e a a e f a e he a ge general- purpose foundations ha ha e a b ad cha e a d a fe i a aff. The e f da i igh be a i a i e a i a , ch a he F d F da i , he Pe Cha i ab e T , he R ckefe e F da i . Beca e f hei i e a d g- a di g e a i , he e f da i a e he fi e ha e e hi k ab he eeki g f d . H e e , he a e a g d ce f f ca ch beca e he e d jec f a i a ig ifica ce a d beca e he a f e e e ed b ca ch a e e ha he a a gi e b he e f da i .

Regi a , a e, ca ge e a - e f da i a e ch be e ec f f di g ca ch . I a ca e , he e f da i

ha e a ecific ge g a hic f c . If he a f c ed ca i a a fie d f gi i g, he he a e g d ec f ib e f di g.

Special-purpose foundations a e i i ed b hei cha e ecific fie d f gi i g, ch a hea h, ed ca i , he fi e a , cia e ice. Whi e he gica ace f a ch a ki g d be he ed ca i f da i , i d be a i ake di i i edia e

he e f f da i a ec . F e a e, a a f da i a be he f i ge i g f di g f he ic hea e g a a

he ch , a d a hea h- e a ed f da i igh ha e i e e i he ch e e g a .

129

Community foundations ide f a a ie f ac i i ie i hi a defi ed ge g a hic a ea, a a ci (a d i b b )

ib a a e. C i f da i ecei e gif f a a ie f ce a d di ib e f d he ba i f e cei ed c i eed .

O e big ad a age i g i g a c i f da i i ha i i e i c i ed gi e f g i g g a ha he e f f da i . A , he c e i i i a e i e e f f d f c i f da i ha f a a i a egi a ge e a - e

e e ecia - e f da i . A he e f f da i i he corporate foundation. I hi ca e,

he c a a fe e i cha i ab e gi i g a . S e i e a f da i i e ab i hed i h a a ge a f c a ck. O he c a e f da i ecei e a fe a e f he c a each

ea , de e di g he fi a cia hea h f he c a i . F d f c a e f da i a g c i ie he e he c a ha e ee a he e i d e a a ge e ce age f i b i e . Ma c a e f da i gi e a b a ia i f hei f da i d a i he c i i hich he c a e head a e i ca ed. F da i f aj e ai chai a ake e c ib i i a c i i hich he ha e a e.

O e he e f f da i ha h d be e i ed i he family foundation ha i e ab i hed b i i g e . Me be f he fa i

a c he f d . Si ce a a fa i f da i e d f c i a i f a ba i , i i i a ge k he e be if a a ea i be ade e f he e ga i a i . S e fa i f da i ha e c i f da i ad i i e hei f d , b he fa i e be a i e ai b a ia c e he g a -gi i g ac i i ie .

Types of Foundation Grants

A he a ie f da i i b he e f g a he gi e. Li ed he e a e e f he c e f g a a ecified b

a i f da i :

1. Research grants. P ided i di id a , g , ga i a i f e ea ch jec

130

2. Training grants. P ided b ic fi g f a i g i i g ai i g g a

3. Service grants. P ided a i he e a i f ac i i ie g a

4. Construction grants. P ided f e c c i f e de i g d b i di g , b i g he da e, a e he f diffe e e

5. Demonstration grants. P ided a i jec g a

The e f g a iked b eci ie f f da i f d a e institutional grants, hich a e e ic ed a d a he ch e he e a i ee fi .

Fields of Giving

M f da i , e e ge e a - e f da i , e ha i e ecific fie d f gi i g. Maj ca eg ie a e ed ca i , e igi , hea h

a d e fa e, cie ce, a , a d h a i ie . Wi hi he e b ad ca eg ie a e a a ea f ecia i a i .

F e a e, e ed ca i f da i a e i e e ed i highe ed ca i , he i K 12, a d he i ca i a ed ca i . S e

efe i a e ed ca i , hi e he i c ib e b ic ch . S e c ib e f ecific e , ch a

e d e , ib a ie , aff de e e , ch a hi , i e i i i a c e a i , ecific c ic a a ea , ch a cie ce.

Ha i g a g d de a di g f he e f f da i , i fie d f gi i g, a d he e f g a i gi e ca a e i e a d eed e e e di e f e e g he a f h e eeki g f d f ed ca i a

jec g a .

WHAT FOUNDATIONS LOOK FOR IN A PROPOSAL

The fi hi g he f da i d c ide i he a ia e e f he a he f da i e a d c e g a . C ide ed e d be he fea ibi i a d ea i f he jec . The i a ce f he jec he c i he eci ie , i i e i e , he

e ia i ac , a d he igi a i a a affec he f di g deci i .

131

Hi ica , f da i a e e i i g ha g e e f d high- i k, c ea i e a . I he jec a de ha ca be e ica ed, if

cce f ? Beca e f da i ha e i i ed e ce , e icabi i gi e i e ba g f he b ck.

T e e e ha a be e a i ed c e a e he b dge a d he e a a i a . D e he b dge ade a e e ai he eed f f di g, he ca a chi g f d i -ki d c ib i , a d he g- a ge fi a ce a ? A e he c ea ab e i e a i he be efi ha igh be gai ed? Wi he e a a i h ea ab e e ?

The abi i f he a ica ca he jec d be e a a ed. Thi d i c de a e a a i f he c e e ce f he

e e . S e i e a f da i a ike a a b a e i he he he a ica i he e be i ed c e e i . I ha ca e,

he f da i a ec e d ha he a ica f a a e hi i h a e e e ie ced ga i a i e e e ab i h a ad i g he g ide he jec .

STEPS IN SEEKING A FOUNDATION GRANT

1. W i e a c ce a a d ci c a e i a i e e ed a ie f e ie a d c e .

2. O ce he e i ag ee e he c ce , e ab i h e ibi i ie f he de ai ed a : de e i e f c i be acc i hed, a ig aff he f c i , a d de e a i e i e f each f c i .

3. De e a i f a f da i ha igh c ide he a . The F da i Ce e , a a i a fi c ea i gh e f da i , i a e ce e e ce. I I e e i e ha a ea h f i f a i , e f ee a d e e i i g a fee. F e a e, i i

ib e b c ibe f e h f a fee f e ha $20 F da i Di ec O i e, hich ide i f a i e 10,000 f da i . If he ch i g i g e hi e ce a eg a ba i , i i chea e ge a a a b c i i .

Affi ia ed i h he F da i Ce e a e C e a i g C ec i , ca ed i b ic ib a ie c ege i e e a e. B checki g he

F da i Ce e Web i e, i i ib e fi d he ea e ce e . The ce e a e f ee e ce ha c ai b ica i f i e e

132

g a eeke , a d e f he ce e ha e he a e IRS fi i g f he i a e f da i i he a e. 4. P i i i e he f da i he ba i f hei e, i e f

g a , a d ece a e f gi i g. 5. T de e i e he he a e c ec ed i h he ch ha a

e a i hi i h aff b a d e be f a f he ec i e g a . Thi c d dif he i i i .

6. E ab i h c ac i h he f da i aff a d ai ai a e a i hi h gh he a ica i ce . A ig hi a k

e e ha he f da i d e ge c f ed ge i ed ig a f he ch .

7. W i e he fi a a af e i f a a ici a . D e ja g be c e. P f ead ca ef e i i a e e i g g a a ica e a d echeck a fi a cia da a. Be e i c de a e e e e e ed b he f de . I c de e e f .

8. S b i he a . 9. F ee ha e e hi g i ecei ed a d i e de .

10. Lea f e e ie ce. A a eek feedback. F da i a e de b iga i a h he decided hich jec f d,

b i e e h a k. U a , a f a e e i f i g a a ica ha i a cce f i a ha he e e e

a e h a ha he f da i c d f d. C e a i i h f da i aff a ha i igh he .

FEDERAL FUNDING ISSUES

Di c e i a g a e i a ai ab e f a fede a age cie . I i ai e hi k ha he U.S. De a e f Ed ca i i he ib e

fede a ce f f d f ch g a . I fac , he De a e f Ed ca i ha fa e di c e i a g a e ha a he fede a age cie .

G d g a i e a e i i ed b hei i agi a i i de e i i g h hei eed fi he g a f a i g e e de a e . E e i hi he De a e f Ed ca i , a e i K 12 ed ca i h d f ge e b i ce , ch a he F d f he I e e f P ec da Ed ca i (FIPSE). Ma FIPSE

g a a e a ai ab e a e hi be ee highe -ed ca i i i i a d ch .

133

Li ed he e a e e f fede a de a e a d age cie ha i he a ha e gi e g a ch a d ch -age chi d e :

Department of Health and Human Services. M e i a ai ab e f he Na i a I i e f Hea h, he Na i a I i e f Me a

Hea h, he Ce e f Di ea e C , a d he c i e ice ffice . The hea h- e a ed age cie ha e bee i ed i h a a ie f hea h ed ca i jec , a d c i e ice b ck

g a ha e bee ed f ch hi g a f di g he Na i a Y h S P g a , hich ide e a h e ic a d acade ic ac i i ie f -i c e h.

National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) a d National Endowment for the Arts (NEA). B h a e a age cie ha f d

g a e a ed eache ai i g a d de e e f c ic a e ia f ch . F e a e, he NEH ha ed eache ai i g dea i g i h he Bi f Righ a d he g a e a ed

hi a d h a i ie . The NEA de e a e ia ha ca a i ch , a ic a h e h ha e i i ed a c ic a.

National Science Foundation. Thi age c a ha fa e e f g a ha d e he De a e f Ed ca i . Whi e f i

g a f d cie i , highe ed ca i , a d he ga i a i , i ha bee i ed i he de e e f cie ce c ic a a d

ai i g cie ce eache . Department of Labor. The e a a i e he he De a e f Lab

had e e f ai i g ha he e i e e e e a a d ec da ed ca i b dge f he U.S. De a e f Ed ca i .

Whi e ha i ge e, he ece e ha i ch - - k g a ha ade De a e f Lab a aj a e i h

ed ca i a d e ia ce f e . Department of Justice. F e e a ea , he De a e f J ice ha

bee i ed i a - e a ed ed ca i . J ice a k i h he De a e f Ed ca i i a e hi c ce i g j e i e de i e c a d c i e e e i .

Department of Energy. Beca e i i hea i de e de cie i f he i a d c f e e g e, he De a e f E e g ha bee i ed i h g a i e e h i cie ce a d de e hei abi i ie i ha fie d.

Department of Housing and Urban Development. Si ce he a k f hi de a e i b i d c i ie , e ia a e hi a g

134

h i g age cie , ch , a d he age cie a e ib e a ge addi i a e ce f he ch .

Thi i f fede a age cie a d e f he hi g he ha e d e igh be i i g d i ei he c ehe i e e ha i e. Af e

de e i i g he ch c i eed be e , c ea i i ca be ed i decidi g hich fede a age cie h d ha e he i

a ici a e i he jec .

FEDERAL FUNDING TIPS

1. Understand the differences between grants and contracts. G a a e a a a ade a c e i i e ba i , b c ac a

a be c e i i e. 2. Consider submitting an unsolicited proposal. Whe he g e e

ici a e e f a (RFP), i i i i i g c e i i f a g a c ac . Wha i e k i ha e fede a

ie a e a a ded a h f ici ed a . S cce f ici ed a a e a e a d a a e b i ed b aj

a i a ga i a i . Ne e he e , hi i igh be c ide ed f e e ha i g a i e k a ecia e

g a . 3. Know the deadlines for federal grant requests. A a be

ecei ed b he e ac i e ecified i he e e f a , i i be c ide ed. A a a e gh i e f a

each he a ia e ffice. N a , he RFP i ecif he da e he he a i d e, a d a ha a e a ked a

ea e eek bef e he d e da e a e acce ed. A h f aj a ha e bee k ha d ca he a he

a ia e ffice i Wa hi g e e ha he dead i e a e e .

4. Get the RFP as a soon as possible. The e e ge he RFP, he e e ca a de e i g he e e. F e e , he

age cie ca e ea e he RFP i a e i he fi ca ea ( he ai i C g e a d he e ide ha e ag eed he

b dge ), he i e i e ca be e h . T d e i i a a i g, e ie RFP f e i ea i ce age cie ge e a

d ake ig ifica cha ge i RFP f e ea he e .

135

Ha e e e i he Federal Register i de ge he fficia RFP a a i i e ea ed i ca e he e a e ig ifica

cha ge f he e i ea . 5. Whenever possible, visit the program offices of the federal agencies

that are potential sources of funds. Vi i i g i h g a aff face face ide he i ge e de ai ed k edge f ha he a i g a a . The e a i i ake i ea ie ca e e ded c e a i b h e b I e e a e .

B i di g a e a i hi i h g a ffice d e e e f di g, b i a ea ha he i he i f a i he

a ha ca be c ec ed bef e fi a b i i . Make e f he ech ica a i a ce f g a aff he e e ib e.

6. Attend all possible meetings that relate to the grant program. B iefi g , g a hea i g , a d ee i g f di ec f e i i g

jec ca ie d i f a i he de e a be e a ha i ha e a g ea e ike ih d f cce .

7. Follow instructions exactly. If he RFP e i e a be b i ed i e aced i h e-i ch a gi , d ha e ac .

S e e e ha e a ed he e e b i g ake hei a a d b i g c ed a e , dd- i e hee f

a e , a d f h. A hi d e i e e he di a ifica i f he a .

8. Get a copy of reviewers comments. Whe e e a a i b i ed a fede a age c , he a h ha e a igh ee he

c e f he e ie e af e he c e i i . Wha a h ge ( if e e ed) i a c f he ac a c e hee ed i h he

a e f he e ie e b cked . Thi i h he i gi e f each a f he a a d a addi i a c e f he e ie e . Thi i f a i ca be e he f i he f e.

9. Become a program reader. S b i a e e he g a ffice. The e i a a a eed f eade . Wi h he a ia e backg d, i i ib e be e ec ed a a eade . Bei g a eade

ide a be e de a di g f he ce a d ca ie d a e idea ha ca he be ed de e a f he

g e e i a e f de . A , i h e i a i he eade a e b gh ge he i Wa hi g a a he i e, he

c ac ade hi e a i g a i e ab e e e k i h cce f jec di ec a d ca ead f e a e hi .

136

10. Ask your congressional and senatorial offices to help you to follow up. D e ec e e f he e be f C g e , b he ca be he f i kee i g ack f he ce a d i ge i g i f a i ha a be ef f c e f e e e .

11. Be aware of year-end funds. I a ica ea , a he a ia ed e i e . A he e d f he fi ca ea a ache , f d a bec e a ai ab e. A hi i , g a

ffice e i e ha e he a h i di ib e a a (b fede a a da d ) i he f f e ce ( c e i i e) c ac cha e de . Th e i eg a c ac i h he

g a ffice a e e ike ge e e hi a i e e a b ief a . Beca e f he a f e

i ed, he e a eed be bjec he a g a ce .

12. Do not go to the federal government for the small stuff. Wi h he e ce i f he e i e i ed ea -e d f d , i i a

h he eff g fede a g e e f a g a . The a f e ha a be ecei ed h d a a be j dged agai he a f i e, eff , a d e ce de ed he a ce .

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. S e aff, de , a d c i e be f eed a d a . C ea e a i h i a d he i i i e i .

2. U i g he e ce f he f da i ce e , ide if e f da i a d c ec a a e a d he i f a i ab he . M f da i ha e Web i e , hi i ch ea ie

d ha i a i he a . 3. De ig a e a i di id a i he Federal Register a d he

U.S. De a e f Ed ca i Web i e kee i h g a ffe i g .

4. S e he ch aff ide if ce f e i g a he ch .

5. Ide if c ac i he a e ed ca i age c h ca ide i f a i ab a e ( a e-ad i i e ed fede a ) g a

g a .

137

6. C d c a aff de e e e i a i i g. E i he aid f f da i aff ch e ee h ha e i e

e i f ded a . 7. Vi i he ca F da i Ce e C e a i g C ec i Lib a . 8. Ide if e ia a e f g a e e . 9. Whe e e a e be f he aff a g i g Wa hi g ,

D.C., gi e he e a i e a d a a ge ee i g i h g a ffice a fede a age cie ha igh be e ia f de f he ch .

REFERENCE

AAFRC T f Phi a h . (2000). Total giving reaches $190.16 billion. <h :// .aaf c. g>, J 21.

RESOURCES

The F da i Ce e . (2000). The Foundation Directory Online. <h :// .fd- ce e . g/ b c ibe2.h >, A i 21.

The F da i Ce e . (2000). Foundation Finder. <h :// .i .f dce e . g/fi de .h >, A i 21.

U.S. De a e f Ed ca i . (2000). Funding opportunities. <h :// .ed.g .f di g.h >, A i 21.

U.S. De a e f Ed ca i . (2000). Federal Register documents. <h :// .ed.g / egi a i /FedRegi e />, J 21.

138

LOCAL MONEY SOURCES

Seeki g di c e i a f di g f ca ce a ee a e ci i g a ici i g g a f he g e e a ge f da i , b i a ead a ch highe e ce age f cce . L ca a

ea a i a e f da i i he a e egi , a b i e ca ed i he a ea, i di id a a d ga i a i i he eighb h d .

A big ad a age f ca ce i ha he a e ch e i c i ed gi e a g i g ba i gi e jec ha a e ece a i

e i e b ha d be efi he c i . The e e i e i ge e a ch h e he dea i g i h ca ga i a i i di id a ha i h he g e e aj f da i . U a , he e i e cha ce each ea ecei e e f fede a

g e e g a g a . La ge f da i e i e a ea a 90- 120-da a d i e. Wi h ca ce , i i a ge a e e i e ha 30 da . I e ca e , he e e i i edia e.

L ca ce ca be a ached f a a . I i efficie f he g e e aj a i a f da i dea i h e e i he h d ed f d a e e a fe h a d f d a .

DEVELOPING LOCAL SOURCES

P ec i g f e ce f ca be d e a be f a :

139

1. U ade e c b . A f d- ai e i a ha he be ec f e c ib i a ca e a e e e i i i ha ha e c ib ed bef e. I i i a kee de ai ed ec d i h da e , a , add e e , h e be , a d a he e e a i f a i a e i c ib . Thi i bec e he

ba e f f e f d- ai i g eff . 2. Ob a f a e e a ed a . Fi d h i he

ch ha bee i ed i he f d- ai i g ca aig . F e a e, e e a ha e ai ed e f he B Sc e e e e f

a ca ch ch h g . Pe e h ha e c ib ed he h ga i a i he ed ca i a i i i a be g d ec

f i g he ch . 3. Ge e be f e aff, ad , a d a e a a ab e a c ac a a be be ef c a

ee e e a . F e a e, ide i f b a d f di ec f ca f da i a d ee h a ha e a e a i e a ac ai a ce he i . Si ce a c a i ake hei

hi a h ic c ib i i c i ie he e hei e ee i e, i i i a k h e he a e f he de a d h e he de h k.

4. De e e 5 e ce a d 2 e ce c b . A a b i e e ec g i e hei e ibi i ie a c a e ci i e , he e c b ha e

bee e ab i hed h h e b i e e ha ha e c ib ed a ea 5 e ce 2 e ce f hei g fi cha i ab e ca e . The Ke e C b i Mi ea i i a e a e f a g ha a a ci e c a i ha ake hi c i e he c i . If hi

e f ga i a i d e e i , k i h he c i eade ide hi a ia e ec g i i f he be e c a e ci i e . 5. See f e e ed e e e c . A

e a e f hi a e he a i b i e e ha e hei d c a d e ice ch . Thi ca be a e f he ca bake dai ha

ide f d f he ch g a aj b i he c e a fac e ha ide e i e a d a e ia f he c ic . 6. De e e c e ec . U e he f i g

e e ci e i h aff a d ad i g . Ha e each e ake a hee f a e . A k each e ake a i f a ea h ee a e i each f he

f i g ca eg ie : ga i a i f hich a e a e be , ga i a i i hich k a ke e , ba ke k e , cce f b i e e e k , a d ea h e i ee

k . S e e e i i a a e , a d he i ha e fe

140

hei i . The a e ha i e ide he ba i f e a di g he be f e ia ce f he ch .

BUILDING THE SALES PITCH BOOK

The de e e f a f d- ai i g i ch b k i ece a . Thi a be a i e a a e- age i e f a ki g i f h e i di id a

h a e g i g be e e i g he ch ca e ga i a i i di id a . Thi i ch hee i ch b k ha a he e e e f a i f a g a a . A g he hi g i c de a e he f i g:

Information relating to the need for the program. Fac c ce i g ca a d egi a eed a e e a i e, b if ha e f da a

a e a ai ab e, e a e a d fede a i f a i . F e a e, i de e i g a g a ge e gi i e e ed i cie ce ca ee , he e a e a i a a i ic ha h hi eed e e h gh he e a be ca da a he bjec . I e ca e , if he e i e ide ce he ecific eed bei g add e ed,

e i f a i ha i a ai ab e c ce i g e a ed fie d f i e e .

The basic elements of the program. Thi d i c de bjec i e , e h d , e e , a d e a a i a . The e hi g d

eed be de c ibed a f a i a ch de ai a i a g a a ica i . The h d be i he a ia e a g age f he a die ce bei g add e ed. U ike a g a a ica i , he e e e hi g be i i i g, he i f a e e ca f de a i e a e e a i i h i h i e

a e e . Beca e f hi , i i ib e e d i edia e a e e , a e a e i , a d be ab e e a d

a i ha eed c a if i g. Financial issues. Thi i c de he ed b dge a d fi a ce

a f he c e jec i c i a i ac i i ie . Why this is a good investment. Pe e ike be ie e ha he a e

aki g i e i e e i h hei e . Thi a ea ha he e ec a ce ai fi a cia e , b he he a e

i e i g i a cha i ab e ac i i , i h d be e ai ed ha he i e e i a ff i he a :

141

1. De e di g he c ib a gi a a e fede a a d a e i c e a e , e- hi d e f he e i c e

f he g e e i ed ced a iabi i . N hi g i e a i f i g e e e ha a he e hei e i g a he ha ha i g he g e e e d i f he .

2. The c ib i i he ee a ecific eed. Thi a ach d be ed i h h e i di id a h a he

jec , f e a e, he a achi g a e f h h cke a e a i d ice a e a.

3. The e i be i e ed i e a d i be i ied h gh c ib ed e ice , a chi g f d , a d f h.

Pe e h a e f a ed i h e ea i g he c i f ha he fee a e a ef i efficie g a f g e e a d a ge fi ga i a i fi d hi a a ac i e a g e .

4. The c ib i i he b i d a be e c i h gh he ac i i bei g f ded. Whi e a ea c i ide ca be cce f i h i di id a , he h d ha e e e e i ac ci ic a d e ice ga i a i , ch a a cha be f c e ce, he Li C b, he Ki a i , a d he B i e a d P fe i a W e O ga i a i .

5. The c ib i e ha ce he gi e e e f e f- h. I i a i e e ha ide i ie f e e fee g d ab he e e .

FACE-TO-FACE SOLICITATION

The effec i e a ai e e i b di ec face- -face ici a i . The e h d be he g ea e e a d he e c e

c ib Thi ca be d e a h e, a he ffice, i a g i a i . Ge i g ee ai e e hi a i a diffic

a fi , b ce he e e ie ce cce , i ge ea ie a d e a i f i g.

The a ake i ea ie i i a g e i g. The ici ea ha e b i g e e a ee i g (a ch a e he

b ic ace, ch a a e a a c b), a d e e ca ake he i ch a c ib . The g e i g ca c ea e a a he e he e he e be f he g i f e ce e a he c ib e.

142

Thi i he ed c ide ab if a fe aj c ib a e i ed ahead f i e kick ff he gi i g a he ee i g.

Each ke h d ha e a i i ed be f ec i i e, a e ha i eigh . O e a ach i ha e a ch

ee i g he e ke ag ee b ch f he e he i i e hei ab e. Th , he e a e di ec c e ce f he i ed a e ia

a d edge ca d ha a e di ib ed. O ce he e e a e ga he ed a d af e i e f ca a c e a i

( a ea ), he ke ici ake he i ch. P edge ca d h d be a ai ab e f e e e, a d e e h d be ead c ec he

edge ca d bef e e e ea e. G ici a i k be i h g ha ee he e e a

ee . L ca b i e e e, a cia c b, e be f a e ice g a e e a e . If a fe e be f he g ake k hei e e f c ib i , i a e a a da d f he he .

I ake e eff ici i di id a a h e a hei ace f b i e , b i ca be e fi ab e. Thi e i e ai i g e e e

ake he f d- ai i g i ch a d de e e i e he eff . Agai , each ke h d ha e a i i ed be f ec . If

a ked ca e ha e e e, he i e e ie ced ici a fi d he a k e he i g. A , if edge ca d a e ade i ad a ce, each ke h d be gi e a ea e ce ai c ib a i h. Thi i gi e he cce a d e c age he c i e if he ge e d a e .

If a a ib e, ici h d be e i ai . Thi i ake i e ike ha he i d he j b a d d i i e. I a ea ha if he e a e e i b he ec i e d , he ea ca k

ge he i idi g a e . Fi a , he d a a ach a i e e e e he ec if he a e hi he ee .

FUND-RAISING PHONE BANKS; OR, BOILER ROOM BASICS

Rai i g e b e e h e i a be d e b a g f e e ki g ge he i e ca i . Thi e f ca i i a h e ba k, e i e efe ed a a b i e . I e ab i hi g a b i e , a be f fac be c ide ed:

1. C . Te e h e e a i ca be e e e i e. I i i a kee f d- ai i g c a i i . U e f ch i e ( ide f

143

ch h ) ide a h e ba k a c , a i g ha he e a e i e i e i e ca i a d he e f he h e i i e fe e

i h he ch b i e . A he i i e h e d a ed b a b i e ha ha e e a e e h e i e ca i , ch a a b ke age h e ea e a e ffice. A hi d i i ake a i a a e (e.g., $1 e i e e igh ) a b i e f e f he h e .

Sch h d a c e cia a e ha e h e i a ed j f f d- ai i g e . The d a e e i ed a d he c f

e f i e d be fa g ea i e a i he e ike be ai ed.

2. L ca . The i e h d be ea fi d, ha e ade a e a ki g, a d be acce ib e ha dica ed. If he c i ha b ic a i , acce he e i i a , e ecia f h e g d i e a d f e i ci i e ee . Fi a , if h i g i be d e i he e e i g, he eighb h d be afe a d e cei ed b he ca e .

3. T e . The h d ide a ea a a he e. P ide a ig -i a i f ca e . T e c age ke , ace b h i f a i e a d i a i a ig h gh he . The e h d be

ece a i e di ac i . F d a d be e age h d be a ai ab e, e ecia if h i g i be d e d i g he e e i g di e h . Make a ai ab e ade a e ie a d a e ia , ch a i ,

h e b k , e ci , f , e e e , edge ca d , a d f h. The k a i h d be e i i a e. I di id a h d ha e

e gh i ac ge he k d e, b he e h d be a i f he e i b e e. A efficie e a i h d e e ha e fe e ha h ee h e e i e.

4. N be f e . The be f h e eeded i ca c a ed b di idi g he be f ec b he be f hif a d di idi g ha e b he e i a ed be f ca a i di id a ca complete

each hif . F e a e, a e ha 1,000 ca be ade i fi e da a d ha each ca e ca c e e 25 ca i a hif . Di idi g 1,000 ( ec ) b 5 ( hif ) ea ha 200 ca be c e ed each hif . If each h e i e ec ed c e e 25 ca , he he e be

a ea 8 (200 di ided b 25) h e a ai ab e. If he be f h e a ai ab e i i ade a e, he he be f

hif be i c ea ed. A he e fig e h d be c ed bef e he e e h i g begi .

5. P ec . Each ca e ha e i k f . The be ec a e e i c ib . O he ec i a i c de

144

a i, e d , a e , eighb , a d f ie d f he ch . I i i a c ec i f g ch a he ad ed ca i

g a , b e c b , ci ic ga i a i , e ice c b , a d ch che i he a ea. E e e h ha a e a i hi i h he ch h ca be ee a a ci ic- i ded e h d be c ide ed a ec .

6. T e ca e . The be ca e a e e ec ed f e ee , ke g ha he ch , a d he efe ed b ei he f h e g . F he ca i g g a cceed, he e be a cad e f ac i i ec i he h e a d ke . Thi cad e he e he a da d f he he .

P ide ai i g f he ca e , i c di g i e i c i a d c i e f he h e ca . I i e he f c d c a b ief i a i f e ca . Thi i de a e he igh a c d c

e e f, a d i h d a e c e a ea e. Sch fficia ke ac i i i cha ge f he g a h d be e i a he i e gi e e c age e , a e e i , a d ee ha ca e a e

e f i g i a i i e a d effec i e a e . A ca e h d ecei e ec g i i . Thi h d a ea i c de a

i edia e ha k- f ed b a e e ce ifica e f a ecia i . A a d i e c d be gi e f a di g e f a ce.

7. T e ca . Ca e jec a ea a a i de. Kee a i e i he ice i he h a e f e ed b fe i a ai e f e e h e

ke . The ca e h d f a c i , a ea i ec e i hi he abi i ake he ca i h he . Each ca e h d begi b ca i g he be ec . Thi h d ead e cce ha i

i a e he ca e c i e. U a , hi ea a i g i h e i c ib (if he e a e a ), he ec he ca e k

e a , he efe a , a d he c d ca . F - i c cia cce f h e ba k f d- ai i g. Ca e c i e f i c e e ca (b ig a e e). A f - ca a a be ece a he a ec ha ai ed bjec i a ked a e i ha he ca e ca a e . Ca e ake e f a bjec i a ed b ec , he he he c ib ed .

8. T e c e. The ca e c e he a e, ha i , a k f a c ib i . The ca e gge a a be gi e , he i e a

e ia $100 c ib a e d i $5. Af e a cce f ca , ge he i f a i a a e ia a d edge ca d i edia e . A , b ai a e a e i he c ib a ha e a d gi e a e e.

145

DIRECT-MAIL FUND-RAISING

Rai i g e b di ec ai i a e efficie i ce a 5 e ce e a e i c ide ed e g d. Tha ea ha f e e

100 e e e , fi e a e e ed. Af e ca c a i g he c f age a d i i g a d he i e i ake c d c he ai i g, he e

fi i fa e ha f he e h d f ai i g e . Ne e he e , di ec ai d e ha e i e , i c di g i g b ade he ba e f c ib he ch a d/ c bi i g a b ic e a i eff i h f d- ai i g.

S e ba ic i f c d c i g a di ec - ai ca aig i c de he f i g:

1. Ob a . The i a i ha e a e f a e i d he ch . Th e i h d ha e i f a i ha i c de he i e f he c ib i , he da e f he a c ib i (e e be e

i he a h ee c ib i , if a ai ab e), he e h d f ici a i , a d he e a i hi he i di id a ha he ch . Of i a i a ce he cce f a di ec - ai ca aig a e he

i f e ec . Headi g he e i a e efe a f e i d f ed b a i, a e , aff, ad i e g , e d , a d a affi ia ed g . O he i ha a be f a e i c de c ib he e a ed ca e ( h ga i a i ,

ga i a i , c i g , ch che , a d f h) a d c ib i i a ch .

2. Se a a d e ab e . O ce he i a e c i ed, i i i a e i a e he be f c ib eeded, he d a a be ai ed, a d he e ce age f fi e ec ed f he eff . G a h d a be e f g ici ed a d c ib i e i di id a . The fi i e a di ec - ai ca aig i c d c ed, he e g a i be ed ca ed g e e . I b e e ca aig , he g a ca be ea i ica ied a e f a ce.

3. De e e a ac a e. The h ee c cia e e e he ai i g ackage a e a b ch e, a e e , a d a e e e e i h edge ca d. The b ch e h d be ai ed a he i di id a c ib ; i h d

ide a de c i i f he ch , he g a f he ch , he ecific e f hi fi a cia a ea , he be efi f c ib i g, a d he

a e f he ch he c i . The b ch e h d high igh he e g h f he ch a d be i e a b i d a e a i hi i h

he e ia c ib .

146

The e e h d be e a i ed. S i i g a i a ee he i i ia ed, cce f f d- ai i g e e a e a g. The i c de

a be f ecific a ea a d e e a e a efe e ce he c ib a d he g g hich he c ib be g . I i i a add a P.S. a he e d f he e e i ce hi a i ead a a highe a e ha a hi g e e i he e e . The ef e, he P.S. h d i c de a ke a ea he e a e e f he i a

a ea f he e e . A e ca d a d e e e h d be i c ded i h each di ec - ai

iece. The e ca d h d i a be f gge ed c ib i e e (e.g., $25, $50, a d $100) a d ide a ace f a he a

be i e i b he c ib . O he ca d h d be a e e f i f a i he c ib ha d be ef he ch a d a e i de ha he c ib i i a ded c ib e ( e he ch i a

f - fi ga i a i ). Si ce he a e f e i be , i i a fa chea e e a age aid b add e ee i i he e e e e ha ide e a ed e e ed e e e .

4. Ma a da a a e . T de e i e he cce f he f d- ai i g eff a d a he g d k f f e di ec - ai a ea ,

de ai ed da a h d be ke . F each c ib , hi h d i c de a e a d add e , he i he c ib a , he fie d f i e e , he

da e f he ai i g, a d he a d i e be ee ai i g a d e . Ge e a da a c ec ed h d i c de a c f he ai i g, he

be f iece ai ed, a d he be f iece e ed a d e ce age e . M i a a e he a d a e ge e a ed, he d a a e age e e , a d e fi f he ai i g af e

e e e ha e bee ded c ed. 5. T a a c b . P e a . Tha k- e ca d

h d be e a c ib i edia e . S e ch ha e diffe e ha k- e e a d ce ifica e a a d ba ed he e e

f c ib i . Thi h d be de e i ed bef e he fi ha k- i ai ed. Each ha k- h d i c de a ecei f a e . 6. O e e . Th e h d di ec - ai ici a i fi d ha he

be c ib a e h e h ha e gi e i he a . Thi ai e he e i f h f e e he e i di id a ca be ici ed. The

f e e c f ai i g h d be de e i ed b he eed f he ch , he a e f e f e i ai i g , a d c e e. P i ica

ca aig a e ed i he fac ha e i c ib a e he be ec ha he a e ici ed e e a i e a ea . Mai i g ha a e f e e ca c ea e ega i e eac i i e i e .

147

The di ec - ai i e ab e h d be i eg a ed i h he f d- ai i g ac i i ie . Si ce di ec ai i a he ea efficie e h d f ai i g e , i h d be d e bef e e a ici a i a d e e h e ici a i ac i i ie ha e cea ed a d h d i e fe e i h

f d- ai i g e e . A e ce i hi i di ec ai fi - i e ec h a e e e he i f he he f d- ai i g

ac i i ie . I i i a de e i e he he he i a e f he di ec ai i f d- ai i g b ic e a i . A i e , he di ec - ai

ca aig ca be c ide ed cce f e e if i e e if he i a e a i f e e f he ch ac i i ie a d

g a . Gi ick a e f e e ed i c ea e he e e di ec - ai ca aig . F e a e, e e h a h j k ai

a e e ike e he e e e if i ha a a a he ha bei g e e ed. I i ib e ge hi d-c a a ace he e e e.

Thi i c ea e he ike ih d ha he e e e i be e ed, hich i he fi e i ge i g a c ib i .

O he gi ick a e e i e ed i c ea e he e a e he d a a e c ib i . F e a e, e ici a i aced i he e e e a edge ca d ha a i ha f. The e e bega i h a a e e ha a hi ed i h e e bei g i ed f he e ki d f

ici a i ha he a e i c i ed ea he edge ca d. Af e hi a e i -ge i g de i e, he e e e e ai he eed. Thi ech i e ed a b a ia i c ea e i d a i .

S e e f di ec - ai f d- ai i g d i c de e age. I ead, he e i ha b i g hei a , he c ib a e he i g kee he c d f he ch .

FUND-RAISING EVENTS

E e ca ai e b a ia a f e , e e ca e e . E e ca e e gi e a ch , e e ca de a i e a ch .

E e ca b i g g ea i i e b ici , he ca be b ic e a i di a e . If cce f d e, f d- ai i g e e ca c ib e g ea

he ch , i ec ic e -bei g, i b ic i age, a d i c i a e.

E e ca be a i e a a de ca a h a Sa da af e a d a c e a a eeke d a - ch fai ha e i e ea - d

148

a i g. Beca e e e a e a ied, he e i e a ach ha i g a a ee cce , b he e a e e e i ha eed be a ked bef e a e e i de ake :

1. Wha i he e f he e e ? I i f d- ai i g, b ici , c i b i di g, e hi g e e? Whi e he e a be

i e e , if aki g e i he i a e, ha h d be ade c ea i he begi i g.

2. H d e he e e fi i i h he f d- ai i g ac i i ie ? The e e a de c eff a di ec ici a i c f e e ia c ib if i i c di a ed i h he e e e- ai i g ac i i ie .

3. Wh i ge he fi f he e e ? D e he ch ad i i a i he de g e e decide i i ie f h ge f d- ai e , d e a he e ai ed b he ch g i a ge e a f d i h he fi be di ib ed a eed ba i ,

i i e e g f i e f i e aki g ac i i ie ? Wha i he e f b e g i fi d ai i g?

4. I he e e ec ica efficie ? D e he a f e ai ed j if he i e a d e e g i he e e ? Ma i e , ch ge ca gh i e hi g ch a aga i e a e ca d a e he a e ab i e i e eff igh ai e a ch e

e . 5. I he e a b dge ? Wi he e be e e e ib e ee ha

e e e d ge f ha d? Fi a cia di a e i h e e a e ca ed a ch e b e e di g e e e a b aki g i i e e e e.

6. A e he e e e i he c i h ike f d- ai e a hei a f c ib i g he ch ?

O ce he e e i a e a e ed, i g a f d- ai e i ike a he jec . The e be a a i h g a , a i e i e, a d e e i h ecific e ibi i ie .

PROFIT BY EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

Effec i e e a age e ca ea i ead a i g f 2 5 e ce f a a a b dge . M e a age e i e i c de a i g bi ,

149

ac i i g a e ia a d e i e , b ai i g fe i a e ice , b i di g ca h f , c ec i g bi , i e i g, a d he ib e e f a f da i .

The fi c ce i e a age e i k ha f d a e a ia e acc ed f . Whe e e he e i a cha ge i eade hi i a ch , a a di h d be e f ed a a he e eade hi ake cha ge. Thi ec he e eade f a iabi i a a e f e i deci i ade ega di g he ha d i g f f d . E e if a

a di ha bee c d c ed, a e h ece bef e a cha ge i eade hi , a e a di be e e ed beca e c ha bee a ed. A di h d he be c d c ed a a b a i de e de

acc i g fi . Ca h f a i g i c cia he efficie e a i f ch . O e

f he e i hidde c f ch i h - e b i g ha f e e i a e f ca h f a i g. Ca h f a i g

ea i g he i i g a d a f ecei a d e e di e . I de a id h - e deb , i i ece a a each fi ca ea i h e gh ca h ha d ca he e a i i ig ifica e e e

i ecei ed. The ba a ce eeded a he a f fi ca ea i be de e i ed b he a ici a ed f f ecei a d e e di e ,

a ic a i he ea a f he ea . Hi ica , i a ec e ded ha b ic ch begi he fi ca

ea ( ica J 1) i h a ba a ce e a 20 e ce e f he a a e a i g b dge i de i i i e fi a cia b e d i g he ea . Wi h e e f a a e g e ide a d e ee

ga i a i he he , b ic ch da a e f a e if he ca begi i h a ba a ce f 5 e ce f he b dge a i a i g fa i ia

i a e ch . Ne cha e ch a d he a - f e e ha e ecia b e i ha i g e gh e ha d begi

e a i . The be ce ai ha e ca h ake a a d he ig ifica e a i g e e e i he i c e f eache a ead a e .

O e a i g e e e a e e a i e ea a ici a e i ce he a ge e e di e a e i he a ea f a a ie ha a e e ab i hed bef e he

ea begi . S e e e di e , ch a bi f e e g c i e a , a e e diffic a ici a e. The a e a ba ed

he a e f e e di e f e i ea . Beca e f he ce ai f he e e e di e , i i he f e i a e he he

high ide.

150

F b ic ch , he i a ce f i c e a e f a e a d ca a e . The da e a d a f he e ecei i be k a he

begi i g f he ea . The e i b e i e i a i g he e e e f a ea i a i e if he e e cha ge ig ifica .

E e f eca h d be d e a a a d h d c ide fac ch a bi h a e , ig a i a e , cha ge i a e da ce b da ie , a d he e i g c i g f ch i he a ke a ea. T he i h g- a ge (fi e e ea ) a i g, ch fficia h d

a c e a e i ac i i ie f ea e a e de e e a d ici a a i g age cie . P i a e ch ha e a g ea e cha e ge i f eca i g e e e i ce

he i a ce i a i i ( hich a be e e ed b a i h b idie i a chia ch ). The be f de a d he e e f i i e de de e i e a i i e e e. I e i a i g

i c e, he ch a a de e i e he i f di i i hi g e he a i i i c ea e a e ed. Thi a e i e a

e f a e ee ha e e f i c ea e c d be e ac ed i h a e i f e e . C ica i g fac a e idi g- ca e

i i ba ed eed a d/ i i ed c i f fa i ie i h e ha e de i he ch . P i a e ch a a e de e de

f d- ai i g ac i i ie a d ib e d e a addi i a ig ifica ce f e e e.

E a e f i ce f e e e i c de ch hi g a i c e f f d e ice a d e di g achi e , ecei f ch ac i i ie , a d de fee . The e a ca be e i a ed f he a e f

e i ea . F a e ch , he e ca be e i a ed b i g da a f c a ab e ch .

TEN TIPS FOR GETTING THE MOST FOR THE MONEY

1. Contract out any services that can be done more efficiently or more effectively by someone else. S e ch g ha e c ac ed f

acade ic e ice , ch a de a a i . The e i a g i g e e f ch e a , i c di g b ic ch b a d , ee he e e a purchasers of services a he ha a providers of service. F each ig ifica e ice, he e i ha h d be a ked i , H ca e ide he highe - a i e ice

a a ea ab e c ?

151

I addi i a a i , f d e ice a d b i di g ai e a ce a e a ea ha f e e ha e bee ced. O he

acade ic a ea , ch a a a d i a d fi a cia acc i g, igh ea i be c ac ed , a i g he ch ad i i a i f c eachi g a d ea i g.

The cha e ge f ch i de e i e ha fe i a e ice a igh be d e b c ac a he ha b

e ee f he ch b a d. S ecia e ice ch a c e i g, i g, ch g , a d cia k igh be ided b a

i a e fi b c ac i h a b ic e i (ci , c , i e edia e ed ca i age c a he ch di ic ). The a e c d be e f a c ic ecia i a c a .

2. Use formal bidding or informal quotes for all but the very smallest purchases. Ma i f g e e e i e a f a biddi g

ce f cha e e a ecific d a a , ch a $10,000. The a e i e he aki g f h ee e i f a bid f a e a a e h e h d, ch a $1,000 $2,000. The ch h d e ab i h a ic he ake bid , he e e e , a d he cha e d c ff he he f. E e i

b ic ch e , each ch ca e e h e h d f bid a d e ha he a e i e . Seeki g f a bid f cha e

e $1,000 a d i f a e f a ea h ee e d f cha e e $100 ca d ce ig ifica a i g f he ch .

3. Use group purchases whenever possible. I e a e , ca i f g e e , ch a ch a d ci ie , a e a ed a ici a e i h he a e g e e he cha i g a e ia a d e i e .

The e g cha e a e e a i i i ake ad a age f a i di c . Whe e hi i ib e, he ch h d c ide f i g ag ee e i h he ch

fi ga i a i d j i cha i g. 4. Be aware of the opportunity for prepayment discounts. E e if

di c a e ade a ai ab e b ic , i e e h a k he he he e d d gi e a di c f e a e . Thi eg ia i c d a e e e a e ce ff he ice f cha e.

5. Be aware of any penalties for late payments. Make ce ai ha a e dead i e a e k a d ke . The e i e c e f a i g e ha i ece a f d c e e beca e f

i a e i e e a e ched e .

152

6. Know which vendors allow long grace periods with no penalties for late payments. I a be ece a ake ad a age f hi i a i a h e i e he ca h i i h .

7. Be aware of surplus sales. G e e age cie e i e e ed e i e a ba gai ice ch a d fi ga i a i . C a i a a di e f f i e

a d e i e he a e a . I e ca e , c a i i gi e he e i e ch , ei he f b ic e a i e

beca e he a be efi i gi i g he a e ia a a a e e fi ab e ha a e i g e i he b ic.

8. Invest surplus cash in interest-bearing accounts, short-term certificates of deposit, or short-term Treasury bills. E e a a ch h d be ab e ea a ea e e a h d ed d a a ea

b g d fi a cia a i g. De e i e h e i e f he ea he he e i be ca h ha d a d i e he e i i i eeded.

9. Encourage members of the school community to shop at those businesses that have special programs for donating a portion of the sale price to the school. Ta ge de a e e , f e a e, i d a e 2 e ce f each a e he ch f he cha e ch ice if he cha e a e ade i h a Ta ge C a i cha ge ca d.

10. Consider establishing an affinity credit card with one of the general credit cards, such as VISA or MasterCard. Whi e he e ce age

b ai ed each cha e a be a , he a a f e ca add if he e be f he ch c i (e ee ,

a e , a d f ie d ) e c edi ca d f cha e .

A e f ca i : K hich e cha a e e f he ch . I c d be a e i i ake a e a fe d a a i g e

cha e b acce i g a e f a e d h ha i e e i he ch a d a i g he i d b i e i h e h i a aj c ib ( f i e, a e , a e ia e ce ) he ch .

The a e c d be e f i g e i a e e ba k ea a fe e a d a hi e a i g a ca ba k ha c ib e eg a he ch a d de ga i a i .

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

153

1. S e he aff a d e ee h ha e e ie ce i f d- ai i g ac i i ie e e .

2. Re ie he f d- ai i g hi f he ch a d he ch - e a ed ga i a i . T de e i e he e a i e be efi f each ac i i .

3. C d c b ai i g e i i h de , aff, a d e ab ib e f d- ai i g e e .

4. Ide if i di id a h ha e a ed aj e ha e bee cce f a di ec ici a i f he ca e , ch a he U i ed

Wa , ch ch g , e ice a d ci ic ga i a i . 5. De e a de ai ed a a ca e da f f d- ai i g ac i i ie . 6. C ec ec i a d ga i e he b hei ecia i e e .

F e a e, e d a h e ic , he fi e a , a d e he cie ce g a .

7. De e i e h i he ch ha c ec i i h ca f da i , ea h i di id a , a d ga i a i ha igh be

ec f fi a cia . 8. E a i e he ib e be efi f a e i g i h a he ch

ga i a i i a f d- ai i g eff .

RESOURCES

A e ica F d Rai i g I i e, 7004 C a che D i e, N h Li e R ck, A ka a 72116. Te e h e: 800-496-2374. Web: <h :// .af i. g>.

The Ch ic e f Phi a h , 1255 T e - hi d S ee NW, Wa hi g , D.C. 20037. Te e h e: 202-466-1200. Web: <h :// . hi a h .c >.

Na i a S cie f F d Rai i g E ec i e , 1101 Ki g S ee , S i e 700, A e a d ia, Vi gi ia 22314. Te e h e: 703-684-0410. Web: <h :// . f e. g>.

154

USE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

T e he g e f cie ce a d ef a , b ec i g f i i ed i e a h a d i e he e c i e igh hei e ec i e i i g

a d di c e ie .

U.S. C i i , A ic e I, Sec i 8

The e intellectual property efe he e f eff c ea e e d c , ce e , a e ia , de ig , a i ic i e a k . M

e e ea a i i g b b i di g d c (e.g., ki g i a fac i g ki ed ade ) b idi g e ice (e.g., ed ca i hea h ca e). O he e e ea hei i i g b de e i g i e ec a

e , ch a i e i g e , di c e i g e edici e , i i g b k , d ci g ie , de e i g c e f a e,

c i g ic. Sch c d f c i i h he e f i e ec a e .

B k , e a e , ie , ide , hee ic, f a e, k f a a he e a e e a e f i e ec a e ed dai i ch .

Thi cha e e e a de ai ed di c i f ha i e ec a e i , idea h ega ake a i e f he e e i e ec a e a i i a c he ch , a d h he ch ca fi f he i e ec a e a i de e .

155

TYPES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

S e ba ic de a di g f he a ia e a i ece a e i e ec a e effec i e . Fede a a ec h ee e f i e ec a e : a e , ade a k , a d c igh . Pa e a e

b ai ed a d ade a k ca be egi e ed i he Pa e a d T ade a k Office f he U.S. De a e f C e ce. C igh a be egi e ed i h he U.S. C igh Office i he Lib a f C g e .

A a e ec he igh f a i e f a d c ce . Pa e i g a d c i a g a d a c ce . B i e e a e

i i g g h gh hi ce beca e ce a a e i b ai ed, i gi e he e e c i e igh a fac e he d c ( ice e i he ) f a ea e e ee ea . C ege , e ecia e ea ch

i e i ie a d hei fac e be , ha e ade b a ia fi f de e i g a e ed a e ia a d d c .

E e e a a d ec da ch a a e i ed i h a e beca e ch a e i he b i e f i e i g d c .

The i e a d c f ge i g a a e di a i d be ee a a a ia e e f ch e ce . E e if i e e ib e ge a

a e , he ike ih d f aki g a fi d a be g ea . A ade a k i a d, h a e, b , de ig a c bi a i f

d , h a e , b , de ig ha ide ifie a d di i g i he he ce f he g d e ice f e a f h e f he .

T ade a k a e bec i g i a e ia ce f i c e i highe -ed ca i a i i i . C ege ha e e ab i hed ade a k ha e ab e he ake a fi he a e f i e ch a T- hi ,

c ffee g , a d e . M aj i e i ie k f ei he acade ic a h e ic achie e e a e ea i i g i- i i -d a

fi f he e f hei ade a k . Beca e f he cce f he aj i i i , a he c ege a e ea i g h fi

f hei a e . Mi i -d a fi a e ike f a e e e a high ch ,

b i i ib e ea h a d f d a f fi f a e f ea e , ca , T- hi , a d he i e ha di a he ch g

c . I a c i ie , he ch a ca e cha , a c , e g d ha di a he ch c g .

I he i g f he ea , i igh be h hi e f he ch c e e a ee i g i h he ca e cha i f i g he f he

i e g d di a i g he ch ade a k . A ea ab e fee h d be eg ia ed f hi igh , i h he fee begi

156

i h he a e f g d f he f i g ch ea . The ch c d e i a e ia a d ake e e , b ha d ake fa

e eff a d c ea e ib e b ic e a i b e i h he ca e d .

Ve d e i a ce a ice i g fee c d ca e he ch a ke i g b ic e a i c ce ha a eigh he a e f he fi a cia

fi f ice i g i b . I ha ca e, he ch a be e ed i c ea e i i ibi i b e c agi g e e e ( de g ,

b i e e , b e c b , a d f h) f ee d ce d c i h he ch b . Thi a ach ked e f he G a ef Dead,

kee i g ha g a e i f f he b ic f ea . T a e ai ed e i i bab d be i e f a ch i ce e h gh e de i a ie igh e he ch g a c

i a i a ia e ffe i e a e . If he ice i g igh a e be d, he ch h d a ea e i e a ig ed e ea e f e.

The i a i e ec a e i e f ed ca dea i h c igh . The c igh ec he igi a a i ic i e a k, i c di g e b k , c e f a e, i edia ed ca i a

d c , a d ide a e .

COPYRIGHT ISSUES

Thi ec i di c e he ega i e e a i g c igh , gi e gge i h ge he effec i e e f he e e

c igh ed a e ia , a d di c e he c ide a i i de e i g e c igh ed a e ia .

The Copyright Act of 1976

C igh i a f f ec i ided b fede a a he a h f igi a k f a h hi , i c di g i e a , d a a ic,

ica , a i ic, a d he i e ec a k . Thi ec i i a ai ab e b h b i hed a d b i hed k . Sec i 106 f he C igh

Ac gi e he e f he c igh he e c i e igh d a d a h i e he d he f i g hi g :

1. Re d ce he c igh ed k i c ie h g a h ec d

157

2. P e a e de i a i e k ba ed he c igh ed k 3. Di ib e c ie h g a h ec d f he c igh ed k

he b ic b a e he a fe f e hi b e a , ea e, e di g

4. Pe f he c igh ed k b ic , i he ca e f i e a , ica , d a a ic, ch e g a hic k , a i e , a d i

ic e a d he a di i a k 5. Di a he c igh ed k b ic , i he ca e f i e a ,

ica , d a a ic, a d ch e g a hic k , a d a i e a d ic ia , g a hic, c a k , i c di g he i di id a

i age f a i ic e he a di i a k 6. Pe f he k b ic b ea f a digi a a di a i i ,

i he ca e f d ec di g .

The a h f a k he c igh i edia e a he i e he k i c ea ed, b ha igh ca be d gi e he a e . Whi e

i i ece a egi e a c igh , egi a i d e e ab i h a b ic ec d f he a h c ai a d i ece a bef e a

i f i ge e i a be fi ed i c . Regi a i i a i e a e ha e i e b i i f a a ica i f he c igh ffice, i h he a e f fi i g fee ($20) a d a c ( c ie ) f he k

bei g egi e ed. Sec i 107 f he C igh Ac dea i h he fai e d c i e f

c igh . The fai e i i ec g i e he eed ba a ce he igh f he e f i e ec a e i h e ibi i ie f

ed ca i a i i i a d ib a ie ake i f a i a d c ea i e k a ai ab e he b ic. Fai e a e d c i i c ie

ec di g b he ea f c i ici , c e , e e i g, eachi g, ch a hi , a d e ea ch. The f fac i he fai e

d c i e a e he f i g:

1. The e a d cha ac e f he e 2. The a e f he c igh ed k 3. The a a d b a ia i f he i ed i e a i he

c igh ed k a a h e 4. The effec f he e he e ia a ke f a e f he

c igh ed k

158

Dia g e be ee ga i a i e e e i g b i he , ed ca , a d egi a ed e ecific g ide i e f he e f c igh ed

a e ia i ed ca i a e i g . G ide i e a e a ai ab e f i a e ia , ic, a d ide ec di g. The e g ide i e h d be ke

i e e ch ib a edia ce e . If a ai ab e, he a e ea i b ai ed f he e ce i ed a he e d f hi cha e .

The di c i f he g ide i e a ie b k a d e i dica . Si g e c ie f he f i g a be ade b a eache f ch a e ea ch e i eachi g i e a a i each: cha e f a

b k; a ic e f a e i dica e a e ; h ie , h e a , h e ; a d cha , g a h , diag a , d a i g , ca ,

ic e f a b k, e i dica , e a e . M i e c ie a be ade b he eache f a c e f c a e di c i (

e ceed e ha e c e i ) acc di g he e g ide i e :

1. The c i g ee he e f b e i a f : P e : a c e e e f e ha 250 d e ha

age ; f ge e , a e ce f e ha 250 d

P e: A c e e a ic e, , e a f e ha 2,500 d a e ce f e ha 1,000 d , 10 e ce f he

k, hiche e i e I a i : e cha , g a h, diag a , d a i g, ca ,

ic e e b k e i dica i e S ecia k : A e ce f e ha f he b i hed

age a d c ai i g e ha 10 e ce f he d f d i he e

2. The c i g i a e . The c i g be a he i i a i f he eache . The deci i e he k a d he i e f i e

f a i eachi g effec i e e a e c e ha i i ea ab e e ec a i e e e e f e i i .

3. The c i g ee he c a i e effec e a f : The c ie a e ade f e c e O e h e , a ic e, , e a e ce a be c ied f he a e a h a d e ha h ee f he a e c ec i e k e i dica e d i g e c a e

N e ha i e i a ce f c i g f e c e d i g e c a e

4. Each c i c de a ice f c igh .

159

The e g ide i e c ea hibi ce ai ac i i ie . C ie a e be ed c ea e b i e f a h gie , c i a i , c ec i e

k . N c ie a be ade f k ha a e i e ded be c ab e, ch a kb k ab a a a . C i g a

b i e f cha e, be di ec ed b a highe a h i ch a a i ci a de a e head, a d a be e ea ed. Ke fac i

de e i i g fai e a e b e i , a ei i decidi g e he a e ia , a d he c a i e effec f he e f a a ie f c igh a e ia d i g e c a e . The a e i e ca be c ied b he

a e eache f e e . N cha ge h d e e be ade de be d he ac a c f c i g. Fai e ea ha c ie ca be ade a d ed i h i

a a f he c igh h de if he g ide i e a e f ed. S e e a e f a ia e e f fai e a e a f :

1. I e a i g f a fac ee i g, he i ci a d ica e e a ic e di ci i e ha he j ead i he c e i e f he NASSP Bulletin.

2. A cia die eache a e a e e i i e e ca aig fi a ce i e f e i h hi c a e he e da .

3. A E g i h eache e a i g a i e c ie h ee h e ( e ha 250 d each) b diffe e a h a he ba i

f a c a di c i . 4. O he eeke d, he ic eache a e a adi g a he

hi f ja be a ed a a a f B ack Hi M h i , hich begi M da .

5. A a eache c ie e ca f each f e e a diffe e aga i e h c a i g e a d de ai i d a i g.

I a he e ca e , he c ie i c de a ice f c igh . Thi i a d e b a i g he ce f he a e ia , i c di g b ica i

da e a d a h . S e e a e f e i c igh a i a i b eache a e a

f : 1. C f e ded be c ab e. I cie ce, a

e b k i e ec ed a f e e ea i h a e acc a i g ab a a be ed each ea , e e ab a a h d be d d i g

he ife f each e b k. Si ce b i he ba e hei e i a e f i c e a d e e e hi a i , he i ci a h e he cie ce eache

160

ake c ie f he ab a a i i ega de i i g he b i he f a fai e i i e ec a e .

2. U c ed a e a c ea e b e f a e , c a , c ec e . A E g i h eache h e ace a e b k b c i g e , h ie , a , aj e ce f

e c ea i i a i g he c igh e e i i ha bee g a ed f each f he a e ia ed. E e i h e i i , c igh

a be i a ed if each c igh h de i f i f ed f he fac ha he a e ia i be ed e ace a e a h g .

3. U de f e e a e e a e a d f d be a b e de . The e e e a ch i ci a h e a

ie f he ca ide e h he de b d he da bef e i e aca i i i a i g he f h fac f fai e: he effec f he e he e ia a ke . If 500 de ee he ide i ch , i ed ce he ike ih d f each f hei fa i ie eei g he

ie i a hea e cha i g he ide he e e . 4. Ma a c f c e f a e a a e ac e. A eache h ee a ge g a h g a he c e he i i i g a he c a a d ake he f a e di k i a he

g a hi achi e i ha i g a i ac he a ke f ha d c . U e he e i a i e ice e di ic ice e f he f a e,

i ca be ed achi e hich i a i i ia i a ed. 5. C b ed ee c f e c a . Beca e f b dge

c , he i ci a e i i a e he f d f he cha e f hee ic f he ba a ce f he ea . The ch i di ec e d hi e b

e c f hee ic a d he ake c ie f he e i e ch i . Agai , hi i affec i g he e ia a ke f he k.

6. C e f a c e a a e f e a c a . A e e e a ch eache decide ha hi i ch g d a e ia ha he

i ake e a c ie e i h f e c a e . Thi i a e he a ei i i f he fai e g ide i e .

Pe e f e e i a e he c igh a . S e ed ca a e a a e ig a f he a , a h gh a ch i h a c e e ib a ia edia di ec h d be a a e f he aj i i ha e a e ch . O he ed ca k ha he a e i ega c i g a e ia b hi k ha he a h d a he beca e he

k f he g e e a fi ga i a i he fee ha he a e j ified beca e he a e he i g chi d e ea . O he i a e he a beca e he be ie e ha e i k ha he ha e d e.

161

Chea e a e ike ge ca gh . T da , c e i ed i e c ca ai e ed f ag ha ake i ea de e i e he a ch i i a i g c igh a b e d ci g c ab e . Sa e e e

h i i ch i e a ee i ega c i g. Pa e h ha e k f a b i he di ib f ed ca i a a e ia a ice

i ega c ie b gh h e f ch b hei chi d e .

TWELVE TIPS CONCERNING COPYRIGHT

1. Plan ahead. I de b ai e i i e he be i e ec a e a ai ab e, c ic a i g h d be d e e i

ad a ce. Thi a f he i ecei e e i i a d e ab e he ch de e a e a i e a if e i i i g a ed.

2. Develop and distribute to the entire staff forms to be used in seeking permission to use copyright materials. A g i h he f h d be a i f he ike ace eache d b i e e ,

ch a ca e a e , adi a d e e i i a i , fe i a ed ca i a ga i a i , a i a e aga i e , e e i i

e k , a d f h. The i h d i c de add e e , e e h e be , fa be , a d I e e add e e he e e ib e.

The ea ie i i e e e i i , he e ike i i ha e e i be ade.

3. Make no assumptions about which materials are copyrighted. I i i a e e be ha i ce he a age f he 1976 C igh Ac , he c igh b ( ) d e ha e a ea i c igh ed a e ia .

4. Be careful about programs on public radio and television. Ed ca f e a e ha beca e he e a e b ic ed i i i , hei g a i g i i he b ic d ai . Tha i

e. I fac , i i e i e ea ie ge e i i e a e ia f c e cia a i ha f b ic e . E ab i h a e a i hi i h he aff a he ca e edia ha e i i i e edi ed he e e a e ece a .

5. Remember that everything in the newspaper is copyrighted. Ed ca a e e i e c f ed beca e cca i a he b i e f a i a ha he a e ia i c igh ed b he i e . I

162

ha ca e, he i e ha he c igh , b e e hi g e e i he a e i c igh ed b he b i he .

6. Federal government documents are in the public domain and can be used without concern about copyright. I ca e , d c e f

he i f g e e ( a e , ci ie , a d c ie ) a e a i he b ic d ai , b he e ca be e ce i . E e if g e e

d c e a e c igh ed, e i i i a g a ed f e. 7. When rights must be purchased, seek reduced rates by group

purchases rather than purchases by individual teacher or classrooms. Thi i a d e i cha i g c e f a e i hich he ch ca eek a i e ice e he f a e a c e i he b i di g. A ch di ic a cia i f ch ca eek a g ice e f a c e de i

j i dic i . 8. Rent videos and films from organizations that have paid the

copyright fees. The afe a e ide a d fi i e he f a ga i a i , ch a a i e i a e di ib i e ice, ha ha aid he a ia e c igh fee a d b i ha

i he e a c . 9. Seek the use of nonroyalty plays when mounting theatrical

productions for limited audiences. O e f he fe a ea i hich ch hi ica ha e aid a ia e fee i i he a ea f hea e , i hich a ie be aid i de d ce e -

k a . If he ch hea e ac i i ie a e aj e ake a d he d c i i i a i f ed ca i a

e , ed ce e a i g c b i g - a a . 10. Purchase generic music for use with student creative arts projects.

M ic ca g ea e ich a de - d ced ide i edia g a , b ic ice i g fee d be c f a

ch . I c ded i he ice f ff he he f ge e ic ic i he ice e e i i a a de i ed, e i e i a , i c di g

b ic e f a ce, i h he a e f addi i a fee . 11. Use public domain materials whenever possible. I a ge e a ic

c a , he g f S e he F e he i e ee h-ce c e ca be ed j a effec i e a e ece ic. I i i a e e be ha e e h gh he ic a be i he

b ic d ai , a ecific a a ge e a be c igh ed. 12. Be wary of using materials from the Internet. The e e a d

a id g h f hi edi ai e a c ce , i c di g

163

acc ac f i f a i a d i e ec a e i e .

CREATING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE SCHOOL

Sch a e a h gh f a c ea f i e ec a e i he e e ha ch hi ica ha e bee i he b i e f eeki g a fi a cia fi f hei c ea i . Sch g a d g

a e e a e f c ea i f he ch ha ha e bee f ee ed b e a d a .

Of g ea e i a ce i he i e f h fi f acade ic a e ia de e ed i he ch , ch a e b k , f a e,

ide a e , a d i edia d c i . Thi i bec i g a e c e i e a ch e f e b k-ba ed c ic a jec - ba ed g a .

C ea i g i e ec a e i he ch ca be a i f i g a d fi ab e, b he e a e e i fa be a ided. Wh he

a e ia ha i de e ed a d ed i he c a ? F e a e, if a eache de e e a f a e f e i c a e , he ch

a i c ide ed he e f he f a e i ce i a c ea ed a a f he j b. F he eache c ai e hi , he he a ha e

e ha i a de e ed f ch , he eache i e, a d i g he eache h e c e a d ha he de e e a a

e ec a i f e e . T e e ac i a d b i d a e e f a e hi , he ch

h d e ab i h a ic f e hi f i e ec a e ha i ake i e f e e e. The ic igh a e ha eache i be

e c aged de e jec a d a e ia a a f hei j b i h he de a di g ha a fi , af e ded c i f ea ab e e e e ,

d be di ided be ee he eache a d he ch . The de ai f he ag ee e h d be e ed i a i e c ac ha i de d b a a ie , i c di g he ch b a d, bef e begi i g a c ce ed eff de e a e ia .

P d c i c d i c de e e hi g f c e f a e ide a e . Of a ic a e i he c a d be ea i g ackage i ha c d be ed de e a d de a e de

c e e cie i he a i c ic a a ea . A a be ade f h be fi f a e ia de e ed.

S e i a e a f :

164

1. The ch i a ke he a e ia , a h gh ch a e e a ed d ha effec i e .

2. The ch c d e he c igh a c e cia b i he d ce , e ai i g he igh c i e e he a e ia .

3. The ch c d de e ice i g ag ee e i h he ch i h b i he .

4. The ch c d e i igh he eache h de e ed he e a d e he eache a ke i he e e .

A he ac ica i d be f he ch e e i a a a ge e i h he ch ha each d ha e f ee acce a a e ia de e ed b e be f he c e a i e g . The c e a i e he igh e ice e igh ide g if he

a e ia ha b ad a ea . Thi e f c e a i e bab d k be if ch i h diffe e c ic a e g h (e.g., e g i he cie ce ai i g i h e g i he h a i ie ) ba ded ge he

de e a a ie f d c ha e f he ch c d aff d d a e.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Check he Lib a f C g e Web i e f cha ge e i f a i c igh a . Thi h d be d e a a .

2. De e a a da d f f e e i g e i i e c igh ed a e ia . Di ib e c ie f he f a fac

e be . 3. Mee i h ca e edia ( e a e , adi , a d b adca

e e i i ) eeki g b ade e i i a d/ a e edi ed ce f he e f a e ia i ch . (e.g., e i i a e a ed f age f a e ca f e i e ha e ch e ).

4. Mee i h ca cab e e e i i ide ge hei a e ia c ce i g he e f cab e g a i ch , ch a Cab e i he C a , a b ic e ice f he cab e e e i i i d .

5. C d c a aff de e e ee i g h e he fai e d c i e effec i e . T ai i g he ba ic f c igh a be d e fi .

6. Seek i e ice e f a f a e eg a ed i he ch .

165

7. P ide eache i h i f ce f ie a d ide e a e ice h e fee i c de he igh e c igh ed a e ia ,

b ic d ai a e ia , ge e ic ic, a a , a d a he a e ia ha ca be f ee ed i he ch .

8. De e a da d f he e e a i a d e f he ch g , c , a d a c . Regi e he i h he Pa e a d

T ade a k Office a d he de e i e he he ice e e d c i g he g .

9. C d c b ai i g e i c ea i g ed ca i a i e ec a e a ch a d de e ag ee e c ce i g i i i a

a d i di id a igh f a e ia de e ed. 10. Mee i h he ch ab f i g i e ec a e

eci ca ag ee e a e hi .

RESOURCES

F a k i Pie ce La Ce e (ba ic i e ec a e i f a i ), 2 Whi e S ee , C c d, Ne Ha hi e 03301. Te e h e: 603-228-1541. Web: <h :// .f c.ed / fie d/i ba ic .h >.

U.S. C igh Office, Lib a f C g e , 101 I de e de ce A e e, Wa hi g , D.C. 20559-6000. Te e h e: 202-707-3000. Web: <h :// . c.g /c igh >.

U.S. Pa e a d T ade a k Office, C a P a a 3, R 2C02, Wa hi g , D.C. 20231. Te e h e: 800-786-9199. Web: <h :// . .g >.

166

INDEX

The i de ha a ea ed i he i e i f hi i e a i e i a e ed f he eB k. P ea e e he ea ch f c i

eReadi g de ice f e f i e e . F efe e ce, he e ha a ea i he i i de a e i ed be

AAFRC T f Phi a h ad i g A e ica A cia i f Sch Ad i i a

B , R., a d J. Sche e B i e R d ab e (BRT)

cha e ch c ica i c e i i c e c igh . See i e ec a e C a , J. c ea i i

deci i aki g Dick , P. D cke , P.

e e e e hi : ac i a

167

defi i i i a e e hi

i ie ga i a i a

e hic e e a e i e

fi a ce fi a cia e ce , fede a f c g f eca i g f da i f d ai i g: di ec ai

e e face- -face ici a i

ec i g e e h e ici a i

Gig ie a , J. g a a

I de e de Sec i e ec a e : C igh Ac f 1976

C igh , e e i c ea i g i e ec a e defi i i f

ade a k a d g

Ka e , R. Ke , T Ke ck Ed ca i Ref Ac f 1990

eade hi i e i g h

Ma , H ace a ke i g: defi i i f de e i i g eed

a ke e ea ch a

168

Na i a Ri k Na i a A ia ce f B i e (NAB)

e a e . See b ic e a i

e e e ga i a i a c e

a e hi : h g a b i di g i

ea f ee g a

h ca a ici a e Pe a , B. Pi ch , III, G.

i g ec da ed ca i i

b ic e a i : defi i i e a e , e i

e a i g i i ci e

e adi , e i e e i i , e i

ec i e Rehabi i a i Ac f 1973 e a d i k a d i k aki g

Sche e , J. S a i ica Ab ac f he U i ed S a e

a eg c e

Ta a , S a e ea a d ea b i di g e e i i . See b ic e a i ade a k . See i e ec a e

U.S. Cha be f C e ce

169

ee g a . See Also a e hi be efi

g a e e e ch g f cce

h a ici a e

Whi e, Ch i

170

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

D . R be J. B i fe f ed ca i a eade hi a he U i e i f S . Th a i S . Pa , Mi e a. B ee ed ca i f e e a e ec i e , ha i g bee a a e e a , a e be f he Mi e a S a e B a d f Ed ca i , a ecia a i a he U.S. ec e a f ed ca i , a d he Sch a i Re ide ce i h he Na i a

A cia i f Sec da Sch P i ci a . He ha e hi -fi e ea f e e ie ce i ed ca i ic a d ai i g ch

ad i i a . D . Jeff e R. C a h d he Sa d a Sch E d ed Chai i

E e e e hi a he U i e i f S . Th a i S . Pa , Mi e a. He a he f de , e ide , a d CEO f A a ic Hea h S e ,

hich ided a f c i f hea h g a , i c di g a e- ice ed i a e ch . C a ha i e a d e e ed e e i e

e e e e hi i b i e , a d c eg a i h fi a d fi ga i a i . He ha a a gh a he U i e i f

Wi c i , O hk h, a d he U i e i f Ke ck .