--------15 Culture and Leadership
DESCRIPTION
As the title suggests, this chapter is about culture and leadership . Like the previous chapter, this one is multifaceted and focuses on a collection of related ideas rather than on a single unified theory. Our discussion in this chapter will center on research that describes culture, its dimensions, and the effects of culture on the leadership process.
Since World War II, globalization has been advancing throughout the world. Globalization is the increased interdependence (economic, social, technical, and political) between nations. People are becoming more inter connected. There is more international trade, cultural exchange, and use of worldwide telecommunication systems. In the past I 0 years, our schools, organizations, and communities have become far more global than in the past. Increased globalization has created many challenges, including the need to design effective multinational organizations, to identify and select appropriate leaders for these entities, and to manage organizations with cul turally diverse employees (House & Javidan, 2004). Globalization has created a need to understand how cultural differences affect leadership performance.
Globalization has also created the need for leaders to become compe tent in cross-cultural awareness and practice. Adler and Bartholomew ( 1992) contended that global leaders need to develop five cross-cultural competencies: First, leaders need to understand business, political, and cultural environments worldwide. Second, they need to learn the perspec tives , tastes, trends, and technologies of many other cultures. Third, they need to be able to work simultaneously with people from many cultures.
I 0 15.1 Globalization I ~ 15.1 Global vs. Local 383
384 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Fourth, leaders must be able to adapt to living and communicating in other cultures. Fifth, they need to learn to relate to people from other cultures from a position of equality rather than cultural superiority (Adler & Bartholomew, 1992, p. 53). Additionally, Ting-Toomey ( 1999) said that global leaders need to be skilled in creating transcultural visions. They need to develop communication competencies that will enable them to articulate and implement their vision in a diverse workplace. In sum, today's leaders need to acquire a challenging set of competencies if they intend to be effective in present-day global societies.
Culture Defined
Anthropologists, sociologists, and many others have debated the mean ing of the word culture. Because it is an abstract term, it is hard to define, and different people often define it in dissimilar ways. For our purposes, culture is defined as the learned beliefs , values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of people. It is these shared qualities of a group that make them unique. Culture is dynamic and transmitted to others. In short, culture is the way of 1ife , customs, and script of a group of people (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988).
Related to culture are the terms multicultural and diversity. Multicul tural implies an approach or a system that takes more than one culture into account. It refers to the existence of multiple cultures such as African, American, Asian, European, and Middle Eastern. Multicultural can also refer to a set of subcultures defined by race , gender, ethnicity, sexual ori entation, or age. Diversity refers to the existence of different cultures or ethnicities within a group or an organization.
Related Concepts
Before beginning our discussion of the various facets of culture, this section describes two concepts that are closely related to culture and lead ership: ethnocentrism and prejudice. Both of these concepts can have impacts on how leaders influence others.
Ethnocentrism
As the word suggests, ethnocentrism is the tendency for individuals to place their own group (ethnic, racial, or cultural) at the center of their
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observations of others and the world. People tend to give priority and value to their own beliefs, attitudes, and values, over and above those of other groups. Ethnocentrism is the perception that one's own culture is better or more natural than the culture of others. It may include the failure to rec ognize the unique perspectives of others. Ethnocentrism is a universal tendency, and each of us is ethnocentric to some degree.
Ethnocentrism is like a perceptual window through which people from one culture make subjective or critical evaluations of people from another culture (Porter & Samovar, 1997). For example, some Americans think that the democratic principles of the United States are superior to the political beliefs of other cultures; they often fail to understand the complexities of other cultures. Ethnocentrism accounts for our tendency to think our own cultural values and ways of doing things are right and natural (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997).
Ethnocentrism can be a major obstacle to effective leadership because it prevents people from fully understanding or respecting the viewpoints of others. For example, if one person's culture values individual achievement, it may be difficult for that person to understand another person whose cul ture emphasizes collectivity (i.e., people working together as a whole). Similarly, if one person believes strongly in respecting authority, that person may find it difficult to understand someone who challenges authority or does not easily defer to authority figures. The more ethnocentric we are, the less open or tolerant we are of other people's cultural traditions or practices.
A skilled leader cannot avoid issues related to ethnocentrism . Even though she recognizes her own ethnocentrism, a leader also needs to understand-and to a degree tolerate-the ethnocentrism of others. In reality, it is a balancing act for leaders. On the one hand, they need to promote and be confident in their own ways of doing things; on the other hand, they need to be sensitive to the legi timacy of the ways of other cul tures. Skilled leaders are able to negotiate the fine line between trying to overcome ethnocentrism and knowing when to remain grounded in their own cultural values.
Prejudice
Closely related to ethnocentrism is pre judice. Preiudice is a largely fi xed attitude, belief, or emotion held by an individual about another individual or group that is based on faulty or unsubstantiated data. It refers to judg ments about others based on previous decisions or experiences. Prejudice
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involves inflexible generali za tions that are resistant to change or evi dence to the contrary (Ponterotto & Pedersen, 1993 ). Prejudice often is thought of in the context of race (e.g., European American vs. African American), but it also applies in areas such as gender, age, sexual orien tation, and other independent contexts. Although prejudice can be posi tive (e .g., thinking highly of another culture without sufficien t evidence), it is usually negative.
As \Yith ethnocentrism , we all hold prejudices to some degree. Some times our prejudices alJo,,· us to keep our partially fixed attitudes undis turbed and constant. Sometimes pre judice can reduce our anxiety because it gives us a familiar way to structure our observations of others. One of the main problems with prejudice is that it is self-oriented rather than other oriented. It helps us to ach ieve balance for ourselves at the expense of others. Moreover, attitudes of prejudice inhibit understanding by creating a screen that filters and limits our ability to see multiple aspects and quali ties of other people . Prejudice often shows itself in crude or demeaning comments that peopl e make about others. Both ethnocentrism and preju dice interfere \\ith our ability to understand and appreciate the human experience of others.
Jn addition to fighting their own prejudice, leaders also face the chal lenge of dealing with the prejudice of followers. These prejudices can be toward the leader or the leader's culture . Furthermore, it is not uncommon for the leader to face followers who represent several culturally different groups, and th ese groups have their own prejudices toward each other. A skill ed leader needs to find ,,.a, ·s to negotiate ,,·ith followers from various cultural backgrounds.
Dimensions of Culture
Culture has been the focus of many studies across a va ri ety of di sciplines. In the past 30 yea rs, a substantial number of studies have fo cused specifi cally on ways to identi~r and cla ss i~r the various dimensions of culture. Determining the basic dimensions or characteristics of different cultures is the first step in being able to understand the relationships between them.
Several well-known studi es have addressed the question of hmv to char ac terize cultures. For example, Hall ( 1976) reported that a primary charac teristic of cultures is the degree to which they are focused on the individual (individualistic cultures) or on the group (collecti,·istic cultures). Taking a
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different approach, Trompenaars ( 1994) surveyed more than 15,000 people in 47 different countries and determined that organizational cultures could be classified effectively into t\\·o dimensions: egalitarian versus hierarchical , and person versus task ori entation. The egalitarian-hierarchical dimension refers to the degree to which cultures exhibit shared power as opposed to hierarchical power. Person-task orientation refers to the extent to which cultures emphasize human interaction and not tasks to accomplish.
Of all the research on dimensions of culture, perhaps the most referenced is the research of Hofstede ( 1980, 2001 ). Based on an analysis of question naires obtained from more than 100,000 respondents in more than 50 countries, Hofstede identified five major dimensions on which cultures differ: power distance, uncertaintv avoidance, inclividualism-collecti\·ism, masculinity-femininity, and long-term-short-term orientation. Hofstede 's work has been the benchmark for much of the research on world cultures.
In the specific area of culture and leadershifJ, the studies by House, Hanges, Javiclan , Dorfman, and Gupta (2004) offer the strongest body of findings to elate, as published in the 800-page Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. These studies are called the GLOBE studies, named for the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness research program. The GLOBE studies ha\·e gen erated a very large number of findings on the relationship between culture and leadership.
The GLOBE research program, \\hich \\as initiated by Robert House in 1991 , is an ongoing program that has im·ohecl more than 160 investigators to date. The primary purpose of the proj ect is to increase our understanding of cross-cultural interactions and the impact of culture on leadership effec tiveness. GLOBF. researchers have used quantitati ve methods to study the responses of 17,000 managers in more than 950 organizations, representing 62 different cultures throughout the world. GLOBF. researchers have col lected data in a variety of ways, including questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and content analysis of printed media. The findings of the GLOBE studies will be provided in more detail throughout this chapter.
As a part of their study of culture and leadership , GLOBE researchers developed their om1 classifica tion of cultural dimensions. Based on th eir research and the work of others (e.g., Hofstede, 1980, 2001 ; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961 ; McClelland, 1961; Triamlis, 1995), GLOBF. researchers identified nine cultural dimensions: unce rtainty avoidance, pO\\·er distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism,
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388 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation. In the following section, each of the dimensions is described.
Uncertainty Avoidance
This dimension refers to the extent to which a society, an organization, or a group relies on established social norms, rituals, and procedures to avoid uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is concerned with the way cul tures use rules, structures, and laws to make things more predictable and less uncertain.
Power Distance
This dimension refers to the degree to which members of a group expect and agree that power should be shared unequally. Power distance is concerned with the way cultures are stratified, thus creating levels between people based on power, authority, prestige, status, wealth, and material possessions.
Institutional Collectivism
This dimension describes the degree to which an organization or a society encourages institutional or societal collective action. Institutional collectivism is concerned with whether cultures identify with broader societal interests rather than with individual goals and accomplishments.
In-Group Collectivism
This dimension refers to the degree to which people express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. In-group col lectivism is concerned with the extent to which people are devoted to their organizations or families.
Gender Egalitarianism
This dimension measures the degree to which an organization or a society minimizes gender role differences and promotes gender equality.
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Gender egalitariani sm is concerned with how much societies deempha size members' biological sex in determining the roles that members play in their homes, organizations , and communities .
Assertiveness
This dimension refers to the degree to which people in a culture are determined, assertive, confrontational , and aggressive in their social relation ships. Assertiveness is concerned with how much a culture or society encour ages people to be forceful, aggressive, and tough, as opposed to encouraging them to be timid, submissive, and tender in social relationships.
Future Orientation
This concept refers to the extent to which people engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying gratification. Future orientation emphasizes that people in a culture prepare for the fuh1re as opposed to enjoying the present and being spontaneous.
Performance Orientation
T his dimension describes the extent to which an organization or a soci ety encourages and rewards group members for improved performance and excellence. Perfo rmance orientation is concerned with whether peo ple in a culture are rewarded fo r setting and meeting chall enging goals.
Humane Orientation
The ninth dimension refers to the degree to which a culture encourages and rewards people for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. Humane ori entati on is concerned with how much a society or an organization emphasizes sens itivity to others, social support, and commu nity values.
G LOBE researchers used these nine cultural dimensions to analyze the attributes of the 62 different countries in the study. These cultural dimen sions formed the basis for studying how the countries varied in their approach to leadership.
I ~ 15.1 Cross-Cultural Management I ~ 15.2 Interpreting GLOBE Dimensions
390 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Clusters ofWorld Cultures GLOBE researchers divided the data from the 62 countries they studied
into regional clusters. 1 These clusters provided a convenient way to ana lyze the similarities and differences between cultural groups (cl usters), and to make meaningful generalizations about culture and leadership.
To create regional clusters, GLOBE researchers used prior research (e .g., Ronen & Shenkar, 1985), common language, geography, religion, and historical accounts. Based on these factors, they grouped countries into 10 distinct clusters: Anglo, Germanic Europe, Latin Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, Middle East, Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, Latin America, and Nordic Europe (Figure 15.1 ). These 10 regional clusters are the groupings that were used in all of the GLOBE studies.
Figure 15.1 Country Clusters According to GLOBE
Switzerland
(Francophone)
Spain
Portugal
SOURCE: Adapted from House , R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan , M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, copyright© 2004, Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 391
To test whether the clusters, or groups of countries, were valid, research ers did a statistical analys is of questionnaire data collected from individuals in each of the clusters. Their results indicated that the scores of respon dents within a cluster correlated with one another but were unrelated to the scores of responden ts in different clusters. From these findings, they concluded that each cluster was unique. In sum, these regional clusters represented a valid and reliable way to differentiate countries of the world into l 0 distinct groups.
Characteristics of Clusters
In an effort to characterize the regional clusters, GLOBE researchers analyzed data from each of the regions using the dimensions of culture described earli er. Table 15 .l provides a classification of the cultural clus ters in regard to how they scored on each cultural dimension. In the table, the nine cu ltural dimensions are listed in the left-hand column; the high score and low-scorc regional clusters are provided in the next two columns. These are the regional clusters that were significantly higher or lower on particular dimensions than other regions. From these data, several observa tions can be made about the characteristics of these regional cultures.
Anglo
The Anglo cluster consists of Canada, the United States, Australia , Ire land, England, South Africa (\Vhite sample), and New Zealand. These countries or populations were high in performance orientation and low in in-group collecti\·ism. This means it is characteristi c of these countries to be competitive and results orien ted, but less attached to their famili es or similar groups than other countries.
Confucian Asia
This cluster, which includes Singapore, Hong Kong, Ta iwan, China, South Korea , and Japan, exhibited high scores in performance orienta tion, institutional collectivism, and in-group collectivism. These coun tries are results driven , and they encourage the group working together over individual goals. People in these countri es are devoted and loyal to their families.
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392 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Table 15.1 Cultural Clusters Classified on Cultural Dimensions
Cultural Dimension
Assertiveness orientation
Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Humane orientation
In-group collectivism
Institutional collectivism
Performance orientation
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
High-Score Clusters
Eastern Europe Germanic Europe
Germanic Europe Nordic Europe
Eastern Europe Nordic Europe
Southern Asia Sub-Saharan Africa
Confucian Asia Eastern Europe Latin America Middle East Southern Asia
Nordic Europe Confucian Asia
Anglo Confucian Asia Germanic Europe
No clusters
Germanic Europe Nordic Europe
Low-Score Clusters
Nordic Europe
Eastern Europe Latin America Middle East
Middle East
Germanic Europe Latin Europe
Anglo Germanic Europe Nordic Europe
Germanic Europe Latin America Latin Europe
Eastern Europe Latin America
Nordic Europe
Eastern Europe Latin America Middle East
SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., &
Gupta, V. (Eds.) , Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
Eastern Europe
Included in this cluster are Greece, Hungary, Albania, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, Georgia, and Kazakhstan. These countries scored high on assertiveness, in-group collectivism, and gender egalitarianism. They scored low on performance orientation, future orientation, and uncer tainty avoidance. People in this cluster tend to be forceful and supportive of their coworkers and to treat men and women equally. They are less
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likely to be achievement driven, to emphasize strategic planning, and to stress rules and laws as a way to maintain order.
Germanic Europe
The Germanic Europe countries, which include Austria, The Nether lands, Switzerland, and Germany, scored high in performance orientation, assertiveness, future orientation, and uncertainty avoidance. They were low in humane orientation, institutional collectivism, and in-group collectivism. These countries value competition and aggressiveness and are more results oriented than people oriented. They enjoy planning and investing in the future and using rules and laws to give them control over their environment. At the same time, these countries are more likely to be individualistic and less group oriented. They tend not to emphasize broad societal groups.
Latin America
The Latin America cluster is made up of Ecuador, El Salvador, Colom bia, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Argentina, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Mexico. People in these countries scored high on in-group collectivism and low on performance orientation, future orientation, institutional col lectivism, and uncertainty avoidance. People in these countries tend to be loyal and devoted to their families and similar groups but less interested in overall institutional and societal groups.
Latin Europe
Comprising Israel, Italy, Francophone Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and France, the Latin Europe cluster exhibited more moderate and fewer high scores on any of the cultural dimensions, but they scored low on humane orientation and institutional collectivism. It is characteristic of these countries to value individual autonomy and to place less value on the greater societal collective. Individuals are encouraged to watch out for themselves and to pursue individual rather than societal goals.
Middle East
This cluster was made up of Qatar, Morocco, Egypt, Kuwait, and Tur key. These countries scored high on in-group collectivism and low on
394 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
future orientation , gender egalitarianism, and uncertainty avoidance. People in these countries tend to show great pride in their families and organizations. T hey are devoted and loyal to their own people. Further more , it is common for these countries to treat people of different genders in distinctly different ways. Women often are afforded less status than men, and fewer women are in positions of authority than men. In the Middle East, orderliness and consistency are not stressed, and people do not place heavy reliance on policies and procedures. There is a tendency to focus on current issues as opposed to attempting to control the future.
Nordic Europe
The Nordic Europe cluster, which includes Denmark, F inland , and Sweden, exhibited several distinctive characteristics . This cluster scored high on future orientation , gender egalitarianism, institutional collectiv ism, and uncertain ty avoidance, and low on assertiveness, in-group col lectivism, and pm' er distance. T he Nordic peopl e place a high priority on long-term success . Women are treated with greater equality. The Nordic people identify with the broader society and far less with family groups. In Nordic Europe, rules, orderliness, and consistency are stressed. Asserti ve ness is down played in favor of modesty and tenderness, and power is shared equally among people at all levels of society. Cooperation and societal level group identity are highly valued by the ordic people.
Southern Asia
T he Philippin es, Indones ia , Malaysia , India, T hailand, and Iran form the Southern Asia cluster. These countries exhibited high scores on humane ori entation and in-group collectivism. Southern As ia could be characteri zed as countries that demonstrate strong family loyalty and deep concern for their communities .
Sub-Saharan Africa
The Sub-Saharan Africa cluster consisted of Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Nigeria, and South Africa (Black sample) . These countries or populations expressed high scores on humane ori entation. In Sub-Saharan Africa, people generally are very concerned for and sensitive to oth ers. Concern for family and fri ends is more important than concern for self.
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Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters
The overall purpose of the GLOBE project was to determine how people from different cultures viewed leadership. In addition, researchers wanted to determine the ways in which cultural characteristics were related to culturally endorsed leadership behaviors. In short, they wanted to find out how differ ences in cultures were related to differences in approaches to leadership.
The conceptualization of leadership used by GLOBE researchers was derived in part from the work of Lord and Maher (1991) on implicit lead ership theory. According to implicit leadership theory, individuals have implicit beliefs and convictions about the attributes and beliefs that distin guish leaders from nonleaders and effective leaders from ineffective lead ers. From the perspective of this theon·, leadership is in the eye of the beholder (Dorfman, Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004) . Leadership refers to what people see in others \\'hen they are exhibiting leadership behaviors.
To describe how different cultures view leadership behaviors in others, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behaviors: charismatic/ value based, team oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomous, and self-protective (House & Javidan, 2004). These global leadership behaviors were defined in these studies as follows:
Charismatic/value-based leadership reflects the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance from others based on strongly held core values. This kind of leadersh ip includes being vis ionary, inspirational, self-sacrificing, trustworthy, decisive, and per formance oriented.
Team-oriented leadership emphasizes team building and a common purpose among team members. This kind of leadership includes being collaborative, integrative, diplomatic , nonmalevolent, and administratively competent.
Participative leadership reflects the degree to which leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions. lt includes being participative and nonautocratic .
Humane-oriented leadership emphas izes being supportive, consider ate, compassionate, and generous. This type of leadership includes modesty and sensitivity to other people.
Autonomous leadership refers to independent and individualistic leadership, which includes being autonomous and unique.
~ 15.2 Global Leaders
396 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Self-protective leadership reflects behaviors that ensure the safety and security of the leader and the group . It includes leadership that is self-centered, status conscious, conflict inducing, face saving, and procedural.
These six global leadership behaviors emerged from the GLOBE research and were used to assess the different ways in which various cultural clusters viewed leadership. From thi s analysis, the researchers were able to identify a leadership profile for each cluster. Each profile describes the relative impor tance and desirabili ty that different cultures ascribe to different leadership behaviors. The leadership profiles for each of the 10 culhire clusters follow.
Eastern Europe leadership Profile
For the Eastern European countries, an ideal example of a leader would be a person who was first and foremost independent while maintaining a strong interest in protecting his or her position as a leader (F igure 15.2). In addition , the leader would be moderately charismatic/value based, team oriented, and humane oriented, yet largely uninterested in involving others in the decision-making process . To sum up, this culture describes a leader as one who is highly autonomous, makes decisions independently, and is to a certain degree inspiring, team oriented, and attentive to human needs.
Figure 15.2 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Eastern Europe
IAutonomous Leadership w ~ ISelf-Protective Leadership a: ~ ICharismaticNalue-Based Leadership z ~ ITeam-Oriented Leadership Ill
;:5 IHumane-Oriented Leadership
IParticipative Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 397
Latin America Leadership Profile
Quite different from the Eastern European countries, the Latin Ameri can countries place the most importance on charismatic/value-based, team-orien ted, and self-protective leadership, and the least importance on autonomous leadersh ip (Figure 15. 3). In addition , this cluster is moder ately interested in leadership that is participative and humane oriented. The profile for the Latin America cluster is of a leader who is charismatic/ value based but somewhat self-serving, collaborative, and inspiring. These leaders tend to be moderately interested in people and their participation in deci sion making.
Figure 15.3 Culture C lusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Latin America
[ Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
<( ! U [ Team-Oriented Leadership
ii2 w :t [ Self-Protective Leadership <(
[ Participative Leadership
[ Humane-Oriented Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Latin Europe Leadership Profile
The Latin Europe cluster values leadership that is charismatic/value based , team oriented, participative, and self-p rotective (Figure 15.4 ). Inde pendent leadership and the human side of leadership are downplayed in this cluster. In short, the profile of the Latin Europe cluster centers on leadership that is inspiring, collaborative, participative, and self-oriented, but not highly compassionate.
398 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Figure 15.4 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Latin Europe
ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership w ITeam-Oriented LeadershipII.. 0a:: IParticipative Leadership :J w z i= ISelf-Protective Leadership <( ..J I Humane-Oriented Leadership
IAutonomous Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Confucian Asia Leadership Profile
The leadership profile of the Confucian Asia countries describes a leader who is self-protective, team oriented, and humane oriented (Figure 15.5). Though independent and to some extent inspiring, this type of leader typically does not invite others to be involved in goal setting or decision making. In sum, the Confucian Asia profile describes a leader who works and cares about others but who uses status and position to make indepen dent decisions without the input of others.
Nordic Europe Leadership Profile
An ideal example of leadership for the Nordic European countries is leadership that is highly visionary and participative, while being somewhat independent and diplomatic (Figure 15 .6). For these countries, it is of less importance that their leaders be humane oriented or self-protective. Nor dic Europeans prefer leaders who are inspiring, and who involve others in decision making. They do not expect their leaders to be exceedingly com passionate, nor do they expect them to be concerned with status and other self-centered attributes.
I ~ 15.3 Chinese Culture and Leadership
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 399
Figure I 5.5 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Confucian Asia
[ Self-Protective Leadership
~ ~--------------------------------------------~ ~ [ Team-Oriented Leadership
~ [ Humane-Oriented Leadership u ~ [ CharismaticNalue-Based Leadership z 8 [Autonomous Leadership
[ Participative Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Figure I 5.6 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Nordic Europe
__~~~ a-~_i~V~a_- - se:~~ __rsh iP[~c-harism~ c l u~e_- B~a~ d Le_ade_____________________________~] I a.. 0 w
[~Pa rtic i pative__ade rsh i p----------------------------------~1 I____~___ Le_____~ cr:: :::> [ T earn-Oriented Leadership w u 0 IAutonomous Leadership cr:: 0 z IHumane-Oriented Leadership
ISelf-Protective Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
Anglo Leadership Profile
The profile of leadership for the Anglo countries emphasizes that lead ers are especially charismatic/value based, participative, and sensitive to
400 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
people (Figure 15.7). Stated another way, Anglo countri es want leaders to be exceedingly motivating and visionary, not autocratic, and considerate of others. Furthermore, they report that leaders should be team oriented and autonomous. The least important characteristic for Anglo countri es is self protective leadership. They believe it is ineffective if leaders are status conscious or prone to face saving.
Figure 15.7 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors:Anglo
ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership IParticipative Leadership
~ IHumane-Oriented Leadership z <1: ITearn-Oriented Leadership
IAutonomous Leadership ISelf-Protective Leadership J --
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile
For countries in Sub-Saharan Mrica , an ideal leader is modest, compas sionate, and sensitive to the people (Figure 15.8). In addition, they believe a leader should be relati\·ely charismatic/value based, team oriented, participa tive, and self-protecti\e. Leaders who act independently or act alone are viewed as less effecti\e in these countries. In short, the Sub-Saharan Mrica profile characteri zes effective leadership as caring leadership. Like many other countries, these countries or populations believe leaders should be inspirational, collaborative, and not excessi\ ely self-centered. Leaders who act autonomously are seen as ineffective in Sub-Saharan Mrica countries.
Southern Asia Leadership Profile
The Southern Asia leadership profile is similar to the profile of Confu cian Asia. They both place importance on self-protective, charismatic/ value-based, humane-oriented, and team-oriented leadership, and they both find participative leadership ineffective (Figure 15 .9). Southern Asia
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 401
Figure 15.8 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Sub-Saharan Africa
[~H____ _ O r_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _rs_ _ ______________________________~] I_umane-_ _ iented_Leade _ hi P ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership ITeam-Oriented Leadership
IParticipative Leadership ISelf-Protective Leadership IAutonomous Leadership
--- -----------1
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
Figure 15.9 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Southern Asia
~~Self-Pr:ective - ~e=r~:p ~ ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership <C ~ [Humane-Oriented Leadership w
~ ITeam-Oriented Leadership 0 Ill IAutonomous Leadership ~ctidp><;"' C.•doc•h;p
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
countri es differ from Confucian Asia countri es in believing that charisma is an important leader attribute. The Southern As ia countries charac terize effective leadership as especially collaborative, inspirational, sensitive to people's needs, and concerned \\·ith status and face saving. F urthermore, they believe leaders who tend to be autocrati c are more effective than those who lead by inviting others into the decision-making process .
402 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Germanic Europe Leadership Profile
The ideal leader in the Germanic Europe cluster has a style that is very participative while also being inspirational and independent (Figure 15.1 0). The ideal leader would be a unique, visionary person who is autonomous, charismatic/value based, participative, humane oriented, and team ori ented, but not status conscious or concerned with face saving. In short, the Germanic European countries think effective leadership is based on participation, charisma, and autonomy but not on face saving and other self-centered attributes.
Figure 15.10 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Germanic Europe
[ Autonomous Leadership w a.. 0 [ Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership a:: ::::> w [ Participative Leadership u z <( [ Humane-Oriented Leadership I: a:: w [ T earn-Oriented Leadership C)
[ Self-Protective Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Middle East Leadership Profile
The leadership profile for the M iddle Eastern countries differs signifi cantly from the profiles of the other cultural clusters (Figure 15.11 ). Mid dle Eastern countries find self-attributes such as face saving and status are important characteristics of effective leadership. They also value being independent and familial. However, they find charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, and participative decision making less essential for effective leadership. To sum up , the Middle Eastern profile of leadership empha sizes status and fa ce saving, and deemphasizes charismatic/value-based and team-oriented leadership.
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 403
Figure 15.1 I Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Middle East
~_I~Prote_ ive__aders h iP_________________________________Jj I[se_____ct__ Le_____ t [ Humane-Oriented Leadership I Ill <1: w
[Autonomous Leadership w ..J c
[ Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership c I:
[Team-Oriented Leadership
[ Participative Leadership
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Universally Desirable and Undesirable Leadership Attributes
One of the most interesting outcomes of the GLOBE project was the identification of a list of leadership attributes that were universally endorsed by 17,000 people in 62 countries as positive aspects of effective leadership. Respondents in the GLOBE studies identified 22 valued lead ership attributes (Table 15.2). These attributes were universally endorsed as characteristics that facilitate outstanding leadership.
Based on th e list of endorsed attributes, a portrait can be drawn of a leader whom almost everyone would see as exceptional. That portrait is of a leader who is high in integrity, is charismaticF alue based, and has inter personal skills (Dorfman eta!., 2004).
The GLOBE project also identified a li st of leaders hip attributes that were uni versa lly viewed as obstacles to effective leadership (Tabl e 15.3). These characteristics suggest that the portrait of an inef fective leader is someone who is asocial, malevolent, and self-focused. Clearly, people from all cultures find th ese characteristics to hinder effective leadersh ip.
404 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Table 15.2 Universally Desirable Leadership Attributes
Positive Leader Attributes
Trustworthy Just Honest
Has foresight Plans ahead Encouraging
Positive Dynamic Motive arouser
Confidence builder Motivational Dependable
Intelligent Decisive Effective bargainer
Win-win problem solver Communicative Informed
Administratively skilled Coordinative Team builder
Excellence oriented
SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
Table 15.3 Universally Undesirable Leadership Attributes
Negative Leader Attributes
Loner Asocial Noncooperative
Irritable Nonexplicit Egocentric
Ruthless Dictatorial
STRENGTHS
Although this chapter on culture and leadership does not represent a sin gle unified theory of leadership, it does present findings that have several strengths. First, the scope of this study is a major strength. For this study, data were collected by 170 social scientists, representing 62 countries from all regions of the world, and included responses from 17,300 managers in 951 organizations. The GLOBE project has been a massive undertaking; the findings that have emerged from this work make a powerful statement about how cultures around the world view leadership.
Second, the findings from GLOBE are valuable because they emerge from a well-developed quantitative research design. In the leadership lit erature, there are many qualitative studies that focus more narrowly on how people in certain countries view a small number of leadership con cepts. Although these studies have contributed to our understanding of culture and leadership, they are limited in scope and generalizability. In contrast, the strength of the GLOBE project is that researchers used a
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 405
quantitative design and administered standardized instruments to assess leadership and cultural dimensions in 62 countries. Thus, the results from the GLOBE studies about leadership are generalizable between cultures and within cultures around the world.
Third, the GLOBE studies provide a classification of cultural dimensions that is more expansive than the commonly used Hofstede classification sys tem. \Vhereas Hofstede distinguishes between cultures based on five dimen sions (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and long-term-short-term orientation), the GLOBE studies identify nine cultural dimensions (uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarian ism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation). Although seven of the nine dimensions identified in the GLOBE studies have their origins in the dimensions identified by Hofstede, by expanding the classification system the GLOBE studies provide a broader and more elaborate way of describing dimensions of culture.
Fourth, the GLOBE studies provide useful information about what is universally accepted as good and bad leadership. Clearly, people from most cultures view good leadership as based on integrity, charisma, and interpersonal ability. Conversely, they see bad leadership emerging from leaders who are self-focused, dictatorial, and asocial. These lists of positive and negative attributes provide a useful portrait of hmY people around the world conceptualize leadership.
Last, the study of culture and leadership underscores the complexity of the leadership process and how it is influenced by culture. Data from the GLOBE studies highlight the need for each of us to expand our ethno centric tendencies to view leadership from only our own perspective, and instead to "open our window" to the diverse ways in which leadership is viewed by people from different regions around the world. There are many ways to view leadership and the integration of culture; studies of leadership help us to expand and de\·elop a richer understanding of the leadership process.
CRITICISMS
The body of research on culture and leadership also has several weak nesses. First, although the GLOBE research has resulted in a multitude of findings about perceptions of leadership in different cultures, this research
406 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
does not provide a clear set of assumptions and propositions that can form a single theory about the way culture relates to leadership or influences the leadership process.
A second criticism, more narrow in scope, concerns the way researchers have labeled and defined certain cultural dimensions and leadership behaviors. For example, it is not easy to understand what power distance means, nor is the meaning of self-protective leadership clear. Because the meanings of these terms are somewhat vague, it is difficult at times to interpret or fully comprehend the findings about culture and leadership.
Another criticism concerns the way in which leadership was conceptual ized in the GLOBE studies . In these studies, researchers used a conceptual ization of leadership that was based on the ideas set forth by Lord and Maher (1991) in their work on implicit leadership theory. This approach frames leadership from an information-processing perspective, as the implicit beliefs and convictions that individuals ha1·e about leaders. In other words, according to this theory, leadership is the process of being perceived by others as being a leader. However, conceptualizing leadership in this way is limited: It focuses on what people perceive to be leadership and ignores a large body of research that frames leadership in terms of what leaders do (e .g., transforma tional leadership, path-goal theory, skills approach). Research on how people from different cultures vie11 leadership is valuable, but there is a need for further research on how leadership functions in different cultures2
A related criticism concerns the way in which researchers in the GLOBE studies measured leadership. They selected six global leadership behaviors (i. e. , cha ri sma ti c/1·alue-based, team-oriented, participative, humane-oriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership) that were derived from an analysis of subjects' responses to hundreds of other attri butes bel ieved to be related to outstanding leadership. Each of the six global leadership beha1 iors 11·as measured by a series of subscales. How ever, the subscales represented a very broad range of behaviors, and as a resu lt compromised the precision and validity of the leadership measures.
Finally·, the GLOBE studies provide a provocative list of universally endorsed desirable and undesirable leadership attributes. The attr ibutes identified in the GLOBE studies are comparable to the list of traits we discussed in Chapter 2. As with the trait approach, however, it is difficult to identify a set of universal attributes in isolation from the context in which the leadership occurs. The GLOBE studies tend to isolate a set of attributes that are characteristi c of effective leaders without considering the influence of the situational effects.
Chapter 15 1 Culture and Leadership 407
APPLICATION
Training programs about culture and diversity have been popular for many years. For example, in th e training and development fi eld, a wide variety of programs teach cultural sensitivity and address issues related to cultural differences. At the core of these programs, people are taught about the nuances and characteristics of different cultures, and how to be sensitive to people in other countries and cultures .
The findings in this chapter have implications for leadership training. Understanding issues about culture is useful in several ways (Bing, 2004). First, the findings about culture can help leaders understand their own cultural biases and preferences. Understanding their own preferences is the first step in understanding that people in other cultures might have different preferences.
Second, the findings help leaders to understand what it means to be a good leader. Different cultures ha1·e different ideas about what they want from their leaders. These findings help our leaders adapt their style to be more effective in different cultural settings.
Third, this chapter's findings can help global leaders communicate more effec tively across cultural and geographic boundari es. By understanding cultural differences, leaders can become more empathic and accurate in their communication with others.
Information on culture and leadership has also been applied in very practical ways (Bing, 2004). It has been used to build culturally sensitive websites, design new employee orientation programs, conduct programs in relocation training, improve global team effecti1 eness, and facilitate mul tinational merger implementation , to name a few. These examples clearly indicate the wide range of applications for resea rch on culture and leader sh ip in the workplace.
------CASESTUDIES-----
This section provides three case studies (Cases 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3) that describe leadership in various cultural contexts. The first case is about a col lege student who takes an internship at a Japanese-based automotive com pany. The second case describes how a small Mid\-1 estern bank developed a
408 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
unique Islamic financing program. T he final case describes how two board members from a nonprofit organization developed a capital campaign to renovate a fire station for a H ispanic community. After each of the cases, questions are provided to help you think about how cultural issues are related to the leadership process.
CASE 15.1
A Challenging Workplace
As a leader in campus organizations, Samira Tanaka, a student, often led projects and took deadlines very seriously. Her strong work ethic led to an internship offer at a Japanese automotive company.
At orientation for her internship, Samira learned that Japanese com panies historically had little diversity in terms of race and gender. Women in Japan were not as prevalent in the workforce as in North America. In an effort to adapt to North American norms, Japanese subsidiaries had well-developed diversity policies. For example, Samira tracked the usage of minority-owned businesses in the company's supply base. This ensured that the company invested in local businesses that operated in tradition ally economically disadvantaged areas. Investing in the local community was already an important business value in Japan, so this was a simple adaptation for Samira's company.
The company culture was a unique blend of Japanese and North American work styles. The employees in North America worked fewer hours than the employees in Japan. Around the office, it was common for employees to hear Japanese and English. However, management still had some internal conflict. Japanese advisers were perceived as focusing on the creation of consensus in teams, often leading to slow decision making. North American workers were seen as rushing into projects without enough planning. Feedback was indirect from both Japanese and North American managers.
Samira successfully completed two internship rotations and was about to graduate from college. Her new manager often asked her to follow up with other team members to complete late tasks. As she had been taught in school , she was proactive with team members about completing their work. Samira thought she was great at consistently inviting others to participate in the decision-making process. She always offered her opinion on how things could be done better, and sometimes even initiated tasks to improve processes on her own.Aithough she saw
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 409
herself as an emerging take-charge leader, Samira always downplayed her ambitions. In school, she was often stereotyped in negative ways for being an assertive female leader, and she didn't want to be seen in that way at work.
Some of her peers at work advised her that it was important to consider working at a plant near her hometown because it would be closer to her family. However, she was not interested in following that advice. Samira thought it was more exciting to work near a large city or to take a job that involved travel. She didn't think it was appropriate to discuss with her peers her family concerns in relation to her future job needs.
Toward the end of her final internship, Samira received a performance evaluation from a senior manager. Her manager praised her as being very dependable, as planning deadlines well, and as being very competent at her tasks overall. However, he also told her she was increasingly per ceived as too pushy, not a team player, and often speaking out of turn. This often irritated her peers.
Samira had never seen herself this way at work and did not under stand why she was not seen as aligning with the company's core value of working with others. Good grades and campus leadership activities had gotten her this far, but this evaluation led her to question whether she could work for this company after graduation.
Samira ultimately realized that her workplace was different from the campus atmosphere she was used to. If she wanted to be an emerging leader in the workplace, she had to better adapt to her new environment.
Questions
I. What similarities and differences can you identify between North American and Japanese working styles?
2. In what way did this company reflect the characteristics of other Confucian Asia countries?
3. Why do you think Samira was not seen as a team player?
4. What universal leadership attributes did Samira exhibit?
5. What other suggestions would you have for Samira in this situation?
410 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
CASE 15.2
A Special Kind of Financing
Central Bank is a small Midwestern savings and loan institution that manages $3 billion in assets. It competes with 16 other financial institutions for cus tomers; most of those other institutions have substantially larger holdings. To better serve its customers and attract a larger customer base, Central Bank conducted a financial-need survey of the people who lived in the area.
The survey revealed some interesting and culturally relevant informa tion. Muslims represented a sizable minority in the community, making up about 8% of the overall population. However, a review of the bank regis try revealed that few Muslims, if any, banked at Central Bank. The results of the survey were puzzling. Given the large numbers of Muslims in the community, the management wondered why there were no Muslim customers at Central Bank.
To answer this question, Central Bank invited a group of local Muslims to meet and discuss their thoughts about financing and how their ideas related to the financial services offered by the bank. The meeting was a real eye-opener for the bank management. The Muslims' ideas about banking were very different from the traditional Western beliefs about banking.
During the discussion, the management learned that the principles of Islam strongly influence the banking attitudes and behaviors of Muslims. The principles of Islamic finance were set forth in the Koran more than 14 centuries ago. For instance, Koranic law forbids paying or receiving interest.These principles stress that money is only a medium of exchange and should not be used to make more money. From the Islamic point of view, the human element in a business venture is more important than the money used to finance the venture. Furthermore, according to Islamic finance, the provider of capital and the user of capital should share equally in the risk of a business venture.
These ideas about finance were different from the way Central Bank thought about them. Central Bank was not accustomed to the way Muslims viewed money as a medium of exchange. Having been enlight ened through these discussions, the management at Central Bank felt challenged to develop a financing program that was more in line with the attitudes and values of Islamic finance principles.
In order to attract the business of Muslim customers, Central Bank created and began offering two new types of mortgage financing, called ijara and murabaha. ljara is a finance plan in which the bank buys a home for a customer and leases it to the customer, who pays rent plus a portion
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 411
of the property purchase. Murabaha is a transaction in which the bank buys the home and sells it to the customer at an agreed-upon markup, and the customer pays for the home in installments over IS to 30 years. Both ijara and murabaha are consistent with Islamic beliefs that prohibit Muslims from paying or receiving interest. In these two types of transac tions, money is used to purchase something tangible, but money is not used to make money. Central Bank received favorable legal rulings (fatwas) from some of the leading Islamic legal scholars in the United States and the world to validate these types of financing.
Central Bank's Islamic finance plans have become quite popular.Aithough Central Bank has been successful with these plans, it has also met resistance. Some people have expressed strong disapproval of special finance programs specifically geared to the Muslim population. Others are against it because it mixes issues of faith and public finance. However, the resistance has not stopped Central Bank. Central Bank is very proud to be the only bank in the country to serve the needs of the Muslim community in this way.
Questions
I. Why do you think banks in the United States have been slow to offer financing expressly for Muslims?
2. Do you think it is fair to offer one minority group a special banking opportunity?
3. How does ethnocentrism come into play in this case?
4. How does in-group collectivism relate to Central Bank's finance plans?
5. How do you think the other banks in the community will react to Central Bank?
CASE 15.3
Whose Hispanic Center Is It?
River City is a rapidly growing city in the Midwest with a population of 200,000 people, growing at about 5% annually. It is a diverse community with a racial composition that is 65% White, 20% African American, 13% Hispanic, and 2% NativeAmerican.The Hispanic population in River City is one of the fastest growing of all segments, growing at about I0% annually.
(Continued)
412 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
(Continued)
The Hispanic community is represented by the Hispanic Center, a nonprofit organization that serves the needs of the Hispanic community and broader River City community through a variety of programs and services. A board of directors and an executive director manage the Hispanic Center. Two newly appointed board members have led a trans formation of the center, including renovating the physical facilities and shifting the focus of program services. The new members are Mary Davis, who has experience in neighborhood development, and Jose Reyna, who has experience in city government. The board of directors is made up of 15 people, I 0 of whom identify themselves as Hispanic and 5 of whom identify themselves as non-Hispanic.
The Hispanic Center owned an old building that was slated for reno vation so the center could have more space for offices and community programs (e.g., educational programming, cultural competence and lead ership training, and legal services).The need for the building was validated by what people expressed at a series of community forums. The building was an old fire station that had been mothballed for 15 years, and the Hispanic Center bought the building from River City for $!.Although the fire station needed a lot of renovation, it was located in a perfect place, at the center of the Hispanic community. However, a complete renovation of the building was needed.
To raise funds for the renovation, the board of directors initiated a city wide capital campaign. The goal of the campaign was to raise $1.4 million, the estimated amount for a complete, first-class renovation of the building.
Along with their regular jobs, Mary and Jose tackled the fund-raising campaign with a full head of steam. in just 6 months, using their wide array of skills, they successfully raised $1.3 million for the project (most of which came from private foundations and corporations) . With just $1 00,000 still to be raised, the leaders and some board members were getting excited about the possibility of the new community center. This excitement was heightened because the renovated building was going to be constructed using the latest green building techniques. These tech niques were environmentally sound and incorporated healthful and highly efficient models of construction.
In order to raise the final $100,000, Mary and Jose proposed a new series of fund-raising initiatives that would focus on smaller donors (e.g., $10, $20, or $30 donors), primarily from the Hispanic community. To kick off a series of events, a formal event at a local hotel was proposed, with tickets costing $75 per person. Just before this event, Mary and Jose encountered some resistance and found out that their excitement about the renovation needed to be tempered.
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 413
During a scheduled board meeting, several members of the board expressed concern with the latest fund-raising efforts. Some board mem bers questioned the wisdom of targeting the fund-raising to the Hispanic community, believing that Hispanic people tended to give to their churches rather than to public not-for-profit organizations. Others ques tioned the price of the tickets to fund-raising events that was being sought from small donors, $75. These members argued for a smaller admission fee (e.g., $20) that would allow more members of the com munity to attend. As the discussion proceeded, other board members expressed discontent with the fancy plans for the new green building. They argued that the renovation was becoming a special interest project and a pet project of a few ambitious visionaries.
Board members also started to question the transformation of the Hispanic Center under Mary and Jose's leadership. Board members expressed frustrations about the new goals of the center and about how things were proceeding. There was a sense that the request for commu nity-based support was unreasonable and in conflict with cultural norms. In the past, the center moved slowly toward change, keeping the focus on one goal: to provide emergency services to the local community. When change came in the past, it was incremental. People were not aggressive, and they did not make trouble.
Under the leadership of Mary and Jose, there was a perception that the new center and programs were too grand and refined for the com munity they were intended to serve. The vision for the new center seemed to take things to a new sophisticated level that was not grounded in the common work or the people-oriented values of the center.
Questions
I. How would you describe the strengths and weaknesses of Mary's and Jose's leadership on this project?
2. Do you see any problem in targeting part of the fund-raising campaign directly toward the Hispanic community?
3. The Latin America leadership profile stresses the importance of team oriented leadership and deemphasizes individualistic leadership. How does the leadership of Mary and Jose compare with the Latin America profile?
4. How do Hispanic cultural dimensions help explain the resistance some people felt and expressed toward the renovation project?
5. If you were Mary or Jose, how would you temper your excitement about renovating the new fire station?
414 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
LEADERSHIP INSTRUMENT
Culture and leadership are different concepts; when they are measured, they are measured in different ways using different questionnaires. Currently, there are no measures that assess culture and leadership simultaneously, nor are there measures of cultural leadership. There are questionnaires that measure culture, and, as shown throughout the book, there are many mea sures of leadership.
Perhaps the best-known measure of culture is Hofstede's Culture in the WorkplaceTM questionnaire. This questionnaire measures a person's cul tural preferences on four dimensions: individualism, power distance, cer tainty, and achievement. People can use their profiles on these dimensions to learn about themselves and to compare themselves with the profiles of people in other cultures.
The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire that follows is an abbreviated version of the original culture questionnaire used in the GLOBE studies. This questionnaire is included in the chapter for illustrative purposes only and should not be used for research. The scores you receive on the question naire are individual-level scores rather than societal- or organization-level scores. People who are interested in using the GLOBE scales for research should use the complete questionnaire, as referenced in House eta!. (2004).
The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire will help you examine your perceptions about various characteristics of your culture. This question naire is not a personality measure (such as the Myers-Briggs instrument) but rather a measure of your attitudes and perceptions about culture.
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 415
Dimensions of Culture Questionnaire
Instructions: Using the following scales, circle the number that most accurately reflects your response to each of the 18 statements. There are no right or wrong answers, so provide your immediate impressions. (The items on this questionnaire are adapted from the items used in the GLOBE studies to assess the dimensions of culture, but the GLOBE studies used five items to analyze each of the cultural dimensions.)
Uncertainty Avoidance
I. In this society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense of experimentation and innovation.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, societal requirements and instructions are spelled out in detail so citizens know what they are expected to do.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
Power Distance
I. In this society, followers are expected to:
Question their leaders when in disagreement
Obey their leaders without question
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, power is:
Shared throughout the society
Concentrated at the top
2 3 4 5 6 7
Institutional Collectivism
I. In this society, leaders encourage group loyalty even if individual goals suffer.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. The economic system in this society is designed to maximize:
Individual interests Collective interests
72 3 4 5 6
416 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
In-Group Collectivism
I. In this society, children take pride in the individual accomplishments of their parents.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, parents take pride in the individual accomplishments of their children.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
Gender Egalitarianism
I. In this society, boys are encouraged more than girls to attain a higher education.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, who is more likely to serve in a position of high office?
Men
2 3 4 5 6
Women
7
Assertiveness
I. In this society, people are generally:
Nonassertive
2 3 4 5 6
Assertive
7
2. In this society, people are generally:
Tender
2 3 4 5 6
Tough
7
Future Orientation
I. In this society the accepted norm is
Accept the status quo
2 3
to:
4 5
Plan f
6
or the future
7
2. In this society, people place more emphasis on:
Solving current problems Planning for the future
2 3 4 5 6 7
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 417
Performance Orientation
I. In this society, students are encouraged to strive for continuously improved performance.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, people are rewarded for excellent performance.
Strongly disagree Strongly agree
2 3 4 5 6 7
Humane Orientation
I. In this society, people are generally:
Not at all Very concerned concerned about others about others
2 3 4 5 6 7
2. In this society, people are generally:
Not at all Very sensitive sensitive to others toward others
2 3 4 5 6 7
SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges , P. J., Javidan , M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications.
418 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
Scoring
The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire is designed to measure your perceptions of the different dimensions of your culture. Score the question naire by doing the following. First, sum the two responses you gave for each of the items on each of the dimensions. Second, divide the sum of the responses by two. The result is your mean score for the dimension.
Example. If for power distance you circled 3 in response to Question I and 4 in response to Question 2, you would score the dimension as follows:
3+4=7 7.,. 2 = 3.5
Power distance mean score = 3.5
When you are finished scoring, you should have nine mean scores. After you have scored the questionnaire, place your mean scores for each of the dimen sions in the table in "Scoring Interpretation."
Scoring Interpretation
Your scores on the Dimensions of Culture questionnaire provide data on how you see the culture in which you live and work. Table 15.4 provides infor mation from the GLOBE project about how subjects from different cultures describe the dimensions of those cultures. The table also provides an overall mean for how these dimensions were viewed by people from all of the cultures.
By entering your scores in the last column in Table 15.4, you can get a bet ter understanding of how your perception of your own culture compares to that of others. You can also compare your scores to other specific cultures (e.g., Middle East or Latin America) . Do you see your culture as more or less egalitarian than others? Do you think your culture emphasizes the future more than others? Do people from other cultures stress performance less or more than your own culture? Like these questions, the table and your scores can be used to bring to the surface the ways in which your culture and the cultures of others are compatible or incompatible with each other. Understanding how your culture relates to other cultures is the first step to improved understand ing between you and people from other cultures.
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Table 15.4 Cultural Dimensions and Mean Scores for Selected Cultural Clusters
Mean Scores* of Selected Cultural Clusters
GLOBE Cultural Latin Middle Southern Latin GLOBE Your Dimensions Anglo America East Asia Europe Overall Score
Uncertainty 4.42 3.62 3.91 4.10 4.18 4. 16 avoidance
Power na na na na na 5.17 distance
Institutional 4.46 3.86 4.28 4.35 4.01 4.25 collectivism
In-group 4.30 5.52 5.58 5.87 4.80 5.13 collectivism
Gender 3.40 3.41 2.95 3.28 3.36 3.37 egalitarianism
Assertiveness 4. 14 4.15 4.14 3.86 3.99 4. 14
Future 4.08 3.54 3.58 3.98 3.68 3.85 orientation
Performance 4.37 3.85 3.90 4.33 3.94 4.10 orientation
Humane 4.20 4.03 4.36 4.71 3.71 4.09 orientation
SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J. , Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with Permission.
*The mean scores in this table represent societal practice scores for selected cultures on each of the nine cultural dimensions . In the GLOBE studies , mean scores were derived
from subjects' responses to five questions for each of the dimensions.
na = not available
420 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
SUMMARY
Since World War II, there has been a dramatic increase in globalization throughout the world. Globalization has created a need for leaders with greater understanding of cultural differences and increased competencies in cross-cultural communication and practice. This chapter discusses research on culture, its dimensions, and its effects on the leadership process.
Culture is defined as the commonly shared beliefs, values, and norms of a group of people. Two factors that can inhibit cultural awareness are ethnocentrism and prejudice. Ethnocentrism is the human tendency to place one's own group at the center of one's observations of others and the world. It is problematic for leaders because it prevents them from fully understanding the world of others. Similarly, prejudice consists of judg ments about others based on fixed attitudes and unsubstantiated data. Prejudice has a negative impact because it is self-oriented and inhibits leaders from seeing the many facets and qualities of others.
In the past 30 years, many studies have focused on identifying various dimensions of culture. The best known is the work of Hofstede ( 1980, 2001 ), who identified five major dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and long term-short-term orientation. Expanding on Hofstede's work, House and his colleagues (2004) delineated additional dimensions of culture, includ ing in-group collectivism, institutional collectivism, future orientation, assertiveness, performance orientation, and humane orientation.
The GLOBE studies offer the strongest body of findings to elate on culture and leadership. Using established quantitative research methods, GLOBE researchers studied how 17,000 managers from 62 different coun tries viewed leadership. They analyzed the similarities and differences between regional clusters of cultural groups by grouping countries into 10 distinct clusters: Anglo, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe, Germanic Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, and Confucian Asia. An analysis of each of the 10 clusters revealed the particular dimensions on which each region was strong or weak and unique from other regions.
In addition, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behav iors that could be used to characterize how different cultural groups view leadership: charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership. Based on these
Chapter 15 I Culture and Leadership 421
behaviors, researchers created leadership profiles for each of the l 0 cul tural clusters that delineate the relative importance and desirability differ ent cultures ascribe to different attributes and characteristics of leadership.
One outcome of the GLOBE projec t was the identification of a list of leadership attributes that were universally endorsed as positive and nega tive attributes of leadership. From this list, it appears that the universally endorsed portrait of an exceptional leader has a high degree of integrity, charisma, and interpersonal skill. The portrait of an ineffective leader is someone who is asocial, malevolent, self-focused, and autocratic.
The scope of the GLOBE project is its main strength . The findings from this project make a major statement about how cultures around the world view leadership. Other strengths are its quantitative research design, an expanded classification of cultural dimensions, a list of universally accepted leadership attributes, and the contribution it makes to a richer understanding of the leadership process. On the negative side, the GLOBE studies do not provide findings that form a single theory about the way culture relates to leadership. Furthermore, the definitions of the core cultural dimensions are unclear, the conceptualization of leadership used in the studies is limiting, the leadership measures are not exact, and the list of universally endorsed leadership attributes does not account for the var i ous situations in which leaders operate. Regardless of these limitations, the GLOBE studies stand ou t because they offer so much ,·aluable informa tion about the unique wa,·s culture influences the leadership process.
Visit the Student Study Site at www.sagepub.com/northouse6e for web quizzes, leadership questionnaires, and media links repre sented by the icons.
NOTES
l. The Czech Republi c was excluded from the analysis because of problems in the data.
2. Researchers from the GLOBE studies (Phase 3) are collecting data from 40 CEOs in 20 countries. These findings may address how the behav iors of leaders (what they do) conform to the beli efs about leadership in va rious cultures.
422 LEADERSHIP I THEORY AND PRACTICE
REFERENCES
Adler, N. J., & Bartholomew, S. ( 1992). Managing globall y competent people. Academy of Management Executive, 6, 52-65.
Bing, J. W. (2004). Hofstede's consequences: The impact of his work on consulting and business practices. Academy of Management Executive, 18( 1), 80-87.
Dorfman, P. W., Hanges, P. J., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2004). Leadership and cul tural variation: The identification of culturally endorsed leadership profiles. In R. J. Home, P. J. Hanges, M. Jm·idan , P. W. Dorfman , V. Gupta, & Associ ates (Eels. ), Culture, leadershifJ , and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 669-722). Thousand Oaks , CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B. , & Kim, Y. Y. (1997). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (3rd eel. ). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Ting-Toomey, S. ( 1988). Culture and interpersonal comnw nication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: Intemational differences in work- related
values. Beverly IIills, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. (200 1 ). Culture 's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institu
tions, and organi;::ations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. House, R. )., Hanges, P. ). , Javidan, M. , Dorfman, P. \V. , & Gupta , V. (Eels. ).
(2004). Culture, leadership, and organi;::ations: The GLOBE study of 62 societ ies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
House, R. J. , & Javiclan , t-1. (200-+). 01 enim ofGLOBE.1n R. J. House, P. j. Hanges, M. Javiclan, P. W. Dorfman, \ '- Gupta, & Associates (Eels. ), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 9-28) . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kluckhohn , R. R. , & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961 ). Variation s in valu.e orientations. Ne11 York: HarperCollins.
Lord , R. , & 'daher, K. J. (1991 ). Leadership and infonnation fJTocessing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin-E1·emnan.
McClelland, D. C . ( 196 1 ). Th e achieving society Princeton , NJ: Van Nostrand. Ponterotto, J. G., & Pedersen. P. B. (1993). Prerenting prejudice: A guide for cow1
selors and educators. :\'e 1·bun Park, CA: Sage. Porter, R. E.. & SamOI"<H, L.A. ( 1997). An introduction to intercultural communi
cation. In L.A.. Samo1·ar & R. E. Porter (Eels.), lntercu.ltural communication: A reader (8th eel. , pp. 5-26). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Ronen, S., & Shenkar, 0. (1985) Clustering countri es on attitudinal dimensions: A revie11 and synthesis. Academy ofJ\Ianagement Review, 10(3), -+35--+5-+.
Ting-Toome;, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. Ne11· York: Guilford. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: West\ ie11·. Trompenaars, F. ( 1994 ). Riding the waves of culture. Ne11· York: lrwin.
- Structure Bookmarks
- --------15 .
- Culture and .Leadership .
- Culture and .Leadership .
- DESCRIPTION
- DESCRIPTION
- As the title suggests, this chapter is about culture and leadership. Like the previous chapter, this one is multifaceted and focuses on a collection of related ideas rather than on a single unified theory. Our discussion in this chapter will center on research that describes culture, its dimensions, and the effects of culture on the leadership process.
- Since World War II, globalization has been advancing throughout the world. Globalization is the increased interdependence (economic, social, technical, and political) between nations. People are becoming more interconnected. There is more international trade, cultural exchange, and use of worldwide telecommunication systems. In the past I 0 years, our schools, organizations, and communities have become far more global than in the past. Increased globalization has created many challenges, including the need
- Globalization has also created the need for leaders to become competent in cross-cultural awareness and practice. Adler and Bartholomew ( 1992) contended that global leaders need to develop five cross-cultural competencies: First, leaders need to understand business, political, and cultural environments worldwide. Second, they need to learn the perspectives, tastes, trends, and technologies of many other cultures. Third, they need to be able to work simultaneously with people from many cultures.
- I 0 15.1 Globalization I ~15.1 Global vs. Local
- Fourth, leaders must be able to adapt to living and communicating in other cultures. Fifth, they need to learn to relate to people from other cultures from a position of equality rather than cultural superiority (Adler & Bartholomew, 1992, p. 53). Additionally, Ting-Toomey ( 1999) said that global leaders need to be skilled in creating transcultural visions. They need to develop communication competencies that will enable them to articulate and implement their vision in a diverse workplace. In sum, today's
- Culture Defined
- Culture Defined
- Anthropologists, sociologists, and many others have debated the meaning of the word culture. Because it is an abstract term, it is hard to define, and different people often define it in dissimilar ways. For our purposes, culture is defined as the learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of people. It is these shared qualities of a group that make them unique. Culture is dynamic and transmitted to others. In short, culture is the way of 1ife, customs, and sc
- Related to culture are the terms multicultural and diversity. Multicultural implies an approach or a system that takes more than one culture into account. It refers to the existence of multiple cultures such as African, American, Asian, European, and Middle Eastern. Multicultural can also refer to a set of subcultures defined by race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or age. Diversity refers to the existence of different cultures or ethnicities within a group or an organization.
- Related Concepts
- Related Concepts
- Before beginning our discussion of the various facets of culture, this section describes two concepts that are closely related to culture and leadership: ethnocentrism and prejudice. Both of these concepts can have impacts on how leaders influence others.
- Ethnocentrism
- Ethnocentrism
- As the word suggests, ethnocentrism is the tendency for individuals to place their own group (ethnic, racial, or cultural) at the center of their
- As the word suggests, ethnocentrism is the tendency for individuals to place their own group (ethnic, racial, or cultural) at the center of their
- observations of others and the world. People tend to give priority and value to their own beliefs, attitudes, and values, over and above those of other groups. Ethnocentrism is the perception that one's own culture is better or more natural than the culture of others. It may include the failure to recognize the unique perspectives of others. Ethnocentrism is a universal tendency, and each of us is ethnocentric to some degree.
- Ethnocentrism is like a perceptual window through which people from one culture make subjective or critical evaluations of people from another culture (Porter & Samovar, 1997). For example, some Americans think that the democratic principles of the United States are superior to the political beliefs of other cultures; they often fail to understand the complexities of other cultures. Ethnocentrism accounts for our tendency to think our own cultural values and ways of doing things are right and natural (Gudyk
- Ethnocentrism can be a major obstacle to effective leadership because it prevents people from fully understanding or respecting the viewpoints of others. For example, if one person's culture values individual achievement, it may be difficult for that person to understand another person whose culture emphasizes collectivity (i.e., people working together as a whole). Similarly, if one person believes strongly in respecting authority, that person may find it difficult to understand someone who challenges aut
- A skilled leader cannot avoid issues related to ethnocentrism. Even though she recognizes her own ethnocentrism, a leader also needs to understand-and to a degree tolerate-the ethnocentrism of others. In reality, it is a balancing act for leaders. On the one hand, they need to promote and be confident in their own ways of doing things; on the other hand, they need to be sensitive to the legitimacy of the ways of other cultures. Skilled leaders are able to negotiate the fine line between trying to overcome
- Prejudice
- Prejudice
- Closely related to ethnocentrism is prejudice. Preiudice is a largely fixed attitude, belief, or emotion held by an individual about another individual or group that is based on faulty or unsubstantiated data. It refers to judgments about others based on previous decisions or experiences. Prejudice
- I 0
- 15.2 Reducing Ethnocentrism
- involves inflexible generalizations that are resistant to change or evidence to the contrary (Ponterotto & Pedersen, 1993 ). Prejudice often is thought of in the context of race (e.g., European American vs. African American), but it also applies in areas such as gender, age, sexual orientation, and other independent contexts. Although prejudice can be positive (e.g., thinking highly of another culture without sufficient evidence), it is usually negative.
- As \Yith ethnocentrism, we all hold prejudices to some degree. Sometimes our prejudices alJo,,· us to keep our partially fixed attitudes undisturbed and constant. Sometimes prejudice can reduce our anxiety because it gives us a familiar way to structure our observations of others. One of the main problems with prejudice is that it is self-oriented rather than otheroriented. It helps us to achieve balance for ourselves at the expense of others. Moreover, attitudes of prejudice inhibit understanding by cre
- Jn addition to fighting their own prejudice, leaders also face the challenge of dealing with the prejudice of followers. These prejudices can be toward the leader or the leader's culture. Furthermore, it is not uncommon for the leader to face followers who represent several culturally different groups, and these groups have their own prejudices toward each other. A skilled leader needs to find ,,.a,·s to negotiate ,,·ith followers from various cultural backgrounds.
- Dimensions of Culture
- Dimensions of Culture
- Culture has been the focus of many studies across a variety of disciplines. In the past 30 years, a substantial number of studies have focused specifically on ways to identi~r and classi~r the various dimensions of culture. Determining the basic dimensions or characteristics of different cultures is the first step in being able to understand the relationships between them.
- Several well-known studies have addressed the question of hmv to characterize cultures. For example, Hall ( 1976) reported that a primary characteristic of cultures is the degree to which they are focused on the individual (individualistic cultures) or on the group (collecti,·istic cultures). Taking a
- Several well-known studies have addressed the question of hmv to characterize cultures. For example, Hall ( 1976) reported that a primary characteristic of cultures is the degree to which they are focused on the individual (individualistic cultures) or on the group (collecti,·istic cultures). Taking a
- different approach, Trompenaars ( 1994) surveyed more than 15,000 people in 47 different countries and determined that organizational cultures could be classified effectively into t\\·o dimensions: egalitarian versus hierarchical, and person versus task orientation. The egalitarian-hierarchical dimension refers to the degree to which cultures exhibit shared power as opposed to hierarchical power. Person-task orientation refers to the extent to which cultures emphasize human interaction and not tasks to acco
- Of all the research on dimensions of culture, perhaps the most referenced is the research of Hofstede ( 1980, 2001 ). Based on an analysis of questionnaires obtained from more than 100,000 respondents in more than 50 countries, Hofstede identified five major dimensions on which cultures differ: power distance, uncertaintv avoidance, inclividualism-collecti\·ism, masculinity-femininity, and long-term-short-term orientation. Hofstede's work has been the benchmark for much of the research on world cultures.
- In the specific area of culture and leadershifJ, the studies by House, Hanges, Javiclan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004) offer the strongest body of findings to elate, as published in the 800-page Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. These studies are called the GLOBE studies, named for the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness research program. The GLOBE studies ha\·e generated a very large number of findings on the relationship between culture and leade
- The GLOBE research program, \\hich \\as initiated by Robert House in 1991, is an ongoing program that has im·ohecl more than 160 investigators to date. The primary purpose of the project is to increase our understanding of cross-cultural interactions and the impact of culture on leadership effectiveness. GLOBF. researchers have used quantitative methods to study the responses of 17,000 managers in more than 950 organizations, representing 62 different cultures throughout the world. GLOBF. researchers have
- As a part of their study of culture and leadership, GLOBE researchers developed their om1 classification of cultural dimensions. Based on their research and the work of others (e.g., Hofstede, 1980, 2001 ; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961; McClelland, 1961; Triamlis, 1995), GLOBF. researchers identified nine cultural dimensions: uncertainty avoidance, pO\\·er distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism,
- I ~ 15.1 Cross-Cultural Leadership
- assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation. In the following section, each of the dimensions is described.
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- This dimension refers to the extent to which a society, an organization, or a group relies on established social norms, rituals, and procedures to avoid uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is concerned with the way cultures use rules, structures, and laws to make things more predictable and less uncertain.
- Power Distance
- Power Distance
- This dimension refers to the degree to which members of a group expect and agree that power should be shared unequally. Power distance is concerned with the way cultures are stratified, thus creating levels between people based on power, authority, prestige, status, wealth, and material possessions.
- Institutional Collectivism
- Institutional Collectivism
- This dimension describes the degree to which an organization or a society encourages institutional or societal collective action. Institutional collectivism is concerned with whether cultures identify with broader societal interests rather than with individual goals and accomplishments.
- In-Group Collectivism
- In-Group Collectivism
- This dimension refers to the degree to which people express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. In-group collectivism is concerned with the extent to which people are devoted to their organizations or families.
- Gender Egalitarianism
- Gender Egalitarianism
- This dimension measures the degree to which an organization or a society minimizes gender role differences and promotes gender equality.
- I 0 15.3 Leader and Gender Egalitarianism
- Gender egalitarianism is concerned with how much societies deemphasize members' biological sex in determining the roles that members play in their homes, organizations, and communities.
- Assertiveness
- Assertiveness
- This dimension refers to the degree to which people in a culture are determined, assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their social relationships. Assertiveness is concerned with how much a culture or society encourages people to be forceful, aggressive, and tough, as opposed to encouraging them to be timid, submissive, and tender in social relationships.
- Future Orientation
- Future Orientation
- This concept refers to the extent to which people engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying gratification. Future orientation emphasizes that people in a culture prepare for the fuh1re as opposed to enjoying the present and being spontaneous.
- Performance Orientation
- Performance Orientation
- This dimension describes the extent to which an organization or a society encourages and rewards group members for improved performance and excellence. Performance orientation is concerned with whether people in a culture are rewarded for setting and meeting challenging goals.
- Humane Orientation
- Humane Orientation
- The ninth dimension refers to the degree to which a culture encourages and rewards people for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others. Humane orientati on is concerned with how much a society or an organization emphasizes sensitivity to others, social support, and community values.
- GLOBE researchers used these nine cultural dimensions to analyze the attributes of the 62 different countries in the study. These cultural dimensions formed the basis for studying how the countries varied in their approach to leadership.
- I ~15.1 Cross-Cultural Management I ~15.2 Interpreting GLOBE Dimensions
- Clusters ofWorld Cultures
- Clusters ofWorld Cultures
- GLOBE researchers divided the data from the 62 countries they studied into regional clusters. These clusters provided a convenient way to analyze the similarities and differences between cultural groups (clusters), and to make meaningful generalizations about culture and leadership.
- 1
- To create regional clusters, GLOBE researchers used prior research (e.g., Ronen & Shenkar, 1985), common language, geography, religion, and historical accounts. Based on these factors, they grouped countries into 10 distinct clusters: Anglo, Germanic Europe, Latin Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, Middle East, Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, Latin America, and Nordic Europe (Figure 15.1 ). These 10 regional clusters are the groupings that were used in all of the GLOBE studies.
- Figure 15.1 Country Clusters According to GLOBE
- Switzerland .(Francophone) .Spain .Portugal .
- SOURCE: Adapted from House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, copyright© 2004, Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
- I jl 15.2 Leadership and Culture
- To test whether the clusters, or groups of countries, were valid, researchers did a statistical analysis of questionnaire data collected from individuals in each of the clusters. Their results indicated that the scores of respondents within a cluster correlated with one another but were unrelated to the scores of responden ts in different clusters. From these findings, they concluded that each cluster was unique. In sum, these regional clusters represented a valid and reliable way to differentiate countri
- Characteristics of Clusters
- Characteristics of Clusters
- In an effort to characterize the regional clusters, GLOBE researchers analyzed data from each of the regions using the dimensions of culture described earlier. Table 15 .l provides a classification of the cultural clusters in regard to how they scored on each cultural dimension. In the table, the nine cultural dimensions are listed in the left-hand column; the highscore and low-scorc regional clusters are provided in the next two columns. These are the regional clusters that were significantly higher or l
- Anglo
- Anglo
- The Anglo cluster consists of Canada, the United States, Australia, Ireland, England, South Africa (\Vhite sample), and New Zealand. These countries or populations were high in performance orientation and low in in-group collecti\·ism. This means it is characteristic of these countries to be competitive and results oriented, but less attached to their famili es or similar groups than other countries.
- Confucian Asia
- Confucian Asia
- This cluster, which includes Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, South Korea, and Japan, exhibited high scores in performance orientation, institutional collectivism, and in-group collectivism. These countries are results driven, and they encourage the group working together over individual goals. People in these countries are devoted and loyal to their families.
- jl 15.2 Leadership and Cultural Diversity
- I
- Table 15.1 Cultural Clusters Classified on Cultural Dimensions
- Cultural Dimension
- Cultural Dimension
- Assertiveness orientation Future orientation
- Gender egalitarianism Humane orientation In-group collectivism
- Institutional collectivism
- Performance
- orientation
- orientation
- Power distance Uncertainty avoidance
- Power distance Uncertainty avoidance
- High-Score Clusters
- Eastern Europe Germanic Europe
- Germanic Europe Nordic Europe
- Eastern Europe Nordic Europe
- Southern Asia Sub-Saharan Africa
- Confucian Asia Eastern Europe
- Latin America
- Middle East Southern Asia
- Nordic Europe Confucian Asia
- Anglo
- Confucian Asia
- Germanic Europe
- No clusters
- Germanic Europe
- Nordic Europe
- Low-Score Clusters
- Nordic Europe
- Eastern Europe Latin America Middle East
- Middle East
- Germanic Europe Latin Europe
- Anglo Germanic Europe Nordic Europe
- Germanic Europe
- Latin America Latin Europe
- Eastern Europe
- Latin America
- Nordic Europe
- Eastern Europe
- Latin America
- Middle East
- SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
- Eastern Europe
- Eastern Europe
- Included in this cluster are Greece, Hungary, Albania, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, Georgia, and Kazakhstan. These countries scored high on assertiveness, in-group collectivism, and gender egalitarianism. They scored low on performance orientation, future orientation, and uncertainty avoidance. People in this cluster tend to be forceful and supportive of their coworkers and to treat men and women equally. They are less
- Included in this cluster are Greece, Hungary, Albania, Slovenia, Poland, Russia, Georgia, and Kazakhstan. These countries scored high on assertiveness, in-group collectivism, and gender egalitarianism. They scored low on performance orientation, future orientation, and uncertainty avoidance. People in this cluster tend to be forceful and supportive of their coworkers and to treat men and women equally. They are less
- likely to be achievement driven, to emphasize strategic planning, and to stress rules and laws as a way to maintain order.
- Germanic Europe
- Germanic Europe
- The Germanic Europe countries, which include Austria, The Netherlands, Switzerland, and Germany, scored high in performance orientation, assertiveness, future orientation, and uncertainty avoidance. They were low in humane orientation, institutional collectivism, and in-group collectivism. These countries value competition and aggressiveness and are more results oriented than people oriented. They enjoy planning and investing in the future and using rules and laws to give them control over their environmen
- Latin America
- Latin America
- The Latin America cluster is made up of Ecuador, El Salvador, Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Argentina, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Mexico. People in these countries scored high on in-group collectivism and low on performance orientation, future orientation, institutional collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance. People in these countries tend to be loyal and devoted to their families and similar groups but less interested in overall institutional and societal groups.
- Latin Europe
- Latin Europe
- Comprising Israel, Italy, Francophone Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and France, the Latin Europe cluster exhibited more moderate and fewer high scores on any of the cultural dimensions, but they scored low on humane orientation and institutional collectivism. It is characteristic of these countries to value individual autonomy and to place less value on the greater societal collective. Individuals are encouraged to watch out for themselves and to pursue individual rather than societal goals.
- Middle East
- Middle East
- This cluster was made up of Qatar, Morocco, Egypt, Kuwait, and Turkey. These countries scored high on in-group collectivism and low on
- This cluster was made up of Qatar, Morocco, Egypt, Kuwait, and Turkey. These countries scored high on in-group collectivism and low on
- future orientation, gender egalitarianism, and uncertainty avoidance. People in these countries tend to show great pride in their families and organizations. They are devoted and loyal to their own people. Furthermore, it is common for these countries to treat people of different genders in distinctly different ways. Women often are afforded less status than men, and fewer women are in positions of authority than men. In the Middle East, orderliness and consistency are not stressed, and people do not place
- Nordic Europe
- Nordic Europe
- The Nordic Europe cluster, which includes Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, exhibited several distinctive characteristics. This cluster scored high on future orientation, gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance, and low on assertiveness, in-group collectivism, and pm' er distance. The Nordic people place a high priority on long-term success. Women are treated with greater equality. The Nordic people identify with the broader society and far less with family groups. In Nord
- Southern Asia
- Southern Asia
- The Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Thailand, and Iran form the Southern Asia cluster. These countries exhibited high scores on humane orientation and in-group collectivism. Southern Asia could be characterized as countries that demonstrate strong family loyalty and deep concern for their communities.
- Sub-Saharan Africa
- Sub-Saharan Africa
- The Sub-Saharan Africa cluster consisted of Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, Nigeria, and South Africa (Black sample). These countries or populations expressed high scores on humane orientation. In Sub-Saharan Africa, people generally are very concerned for and sensitive to others. Concern for family and friends is more important than concern for self.
- Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters
- Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters
- The overall purpose of the GLOBE project was to determine how people from different cultures viewed leadership. In addition, researchers wanted to determine the ways in which cultural characteristics were related to culturally endorsed leadership behaviors. In short, they wanted to find out how differences in cultures were related to differences in approaches to leadership.
- The conceptualization of leadership used by GLOBE researchers was derived in part from the work of Lord and Maher (1991) on implicit leadership theory. According to implicit leadership theory, individuals have implicit beliefs and convictions about the attributes and beliefs that distinguish leaders from nonleaders and effective leaders from ineffective leaders. From the perspective of this theon·, leadership is in the eye of the beholder (Dorfman, Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004) . Leadership refers to what pe
- To describe how different cultures view leadership behaviors in others, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behaviors: charismatic/ value based, team oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomous, and self-protective (House & Javidan, 2004). These global leadership behaviors were defined in these studies as follows:
- Charismatic/value-based leadership reflects the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance from others based on strongly held core values. This kind of leadership includes being visionary, inspirational, self-sacrificing, trustworthy, decisive, and performance oriented.
- Team-oriented leadership emphasizes team building and a common purpose among team members. This kind of leadership includes being collaborative, integrative, diplomatic , nonmalevolent, and administratively competent.
- Participative leadership reflects the degree to which leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions. lt includes being participative and nonautocratic.
- Humane-oriented leadership emphasizes being supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous. This type of leadership includes modesty and sensitivity to other people.
- Autonomous leadership refers to independent and individualistic leadership, which includes being autonomous and unique.
- 15.2 Global Leaders
- 15.2 Global Leaders
- ~
- 396 LEADERSHIP ITHEORY AND PRACTICE
- Self-protective leadership reflects behaviors that ensure the safety and security of the leader and the group. It includes leadership that is self-centered, status conscious, conflict inducing, face saving, and procedural.
- These six global leadership behaviors emerged from the GLOBE research and were used to assess the different ways in which various cultural clusters viewed leadership. From this analysis, the researchers were able to identify a leadership profile for each cluster. Each profile describes the relative importance and desirability that different cultures ascribe to different leadership behaviors. The leadership profiles for each of the 10 culhire clusters follow.
- Eastern Europe leadership Profile
- Eastern Europe leadership Profile
- For the Eastern European countries, an ideal example of a leader would be a person who was first and foremost independent while maintaining a strong interest in protecting his or her position as a leader (Figure 15.2). In addition, the leader would be moderately charismatic/value based, team oriented, and humane oriented, yet largely uninterested in involving others in the decision-making process. To sum up, this culture describes a leader as one who is highly autonomous, makes decisions independently, and
- Figure 15.2 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Eastern Europe
- Autonomous Leadership
- I
- w
- ~ ISelf-Protective Leadership
- a:
- ~ ICharismaticNalue-Based Leadership
- z
- ~ ITeam-Oriented Leadership
- Ill
- ;:5 IHumane-Oriented Leadership
- Participative Leadership
- I
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
- Latin America Leadership Profile
- Quite different from the Eastern European countries, the Latin American countries place the most importance on charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, and self-protective leadership, and the least importance on autonomous leadership (Figure 15. 3). In addition, this cluster is moderately interested in leadership that is participative and humane oriented. The profile for the Latin America cluster is of a leader who is charismatic/ value based but somewhat self-serving, collaborative, and inspiring. These l
- Figure 15.3 .Culture C lusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Latin America
- [ Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- <(!U [ Team-Oriented Leadership
- ii2
- w
- :t [ Self-Protective Leadership
- <(
- [ Participative Leadership
- [ Humane-Oriented Leadership
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Latin Europe Leadership Profile
- Latin Europe Leadership Profile
- The Latin Europe cluster values leadership that is charismatic/value based, team oriented, participative, and self-protective (Figure 15.4 ). Independent leadership and the human side of leadership are downplayed in this cluster. In short, the profile of the Latin Europe cluster centers on leadership that is inspiring, collaborative, participative, and self-oriented, but not highly compassionate.
- Figure 15.4 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Latin Europe
- Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- I
- w
- Team-Oriented Leadership
- I
- II..
- 0
- a::
- Participative Leadership
- I
- :J
- w
- z
- ISelf-Protective Leadership
- i=
- <(
- ..J
- Humane-Oriented Leadership
- I
- Autonomous Leadership
- I
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Confucian Asia Leadership Profile
- The leadership profile of the Confucian Asia countries describes a leader who is self-protective, team oriented, and humane oriented (Figure 15.5). Though independent and to some extent inspiring, this type of leader typically does not invite others to be involved in goal setting or decision making. In sum, the Confucian Asia profile describes a leader who works and cares about others but who uses status and position to make independent decisions without the input of others.
- Nordic Europe Leadership Profile
- An ideal example of leadership for the Nordic European countries is leadership that is highly visionary and participative, while being somewhat independent and diplomatic (Figure 15.6). For these countries, it is of less importance that their leaders be humane oriented or self-protective. Nordic Europeans prefer leaders who are inspiring, and who involve others in decision making. They do not expect their leaders to be exceedingly compassionate, nor do they expect them to be concerned with status and othe
- I ~15.3 Chinese Culture and Leadership
- Figure I 5.5 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Confucian Asia
- [ Self-Protective Leadership
- ~ ~--------------------------------------------~
- ~ [ Team-Oriented Leadership
- [ Humane-Oriented Leadership
- ~
- u
- ~ [ CharismaticNalue-Based Leadership
- z
- Autonomous Leadership
- 8
- [
- [ Participative Leadership
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Figure I 5.6 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Nordic Europe
- __~~~a-~_i~V~a_-.-se:~~__rshiP
- __________________________~] I
- [~c-harism~c.lu~e_-B~a~dLe_ade___
- a..
- [~Participative__adership----------------------------------~1 I
- [~Participative__adership----------------------------------~1 I
- 0
- w
- ____~___Le_____~
- cr::
- cr::
- :::>
- [ T earn-Oriented Leadership
- w
- u
- 0 IAutonomous Leadership
- cr::
- cr::
- 0
- IHumane-Oriented Leadership
- z
- Self-Protective Leadership
- I
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
- Anglo Leadership Profile
- Anglo Leadership Profile
- The profile of leadership for the Anglo countries emphasizes that leaders are especially charismatic/value based, participative, and sensitive to
- The profile of leadership for the Anglo countries emphasizes that leaders are especially charismatic/value based, participative, and sensitive to
- people (Figure 15.7). Stated another way, Anglo countri es want leaders to be exceedingly motivating and visionary, not autocratic, and considerate of others. Furthermore, they report that leaders should be team oriented and autonomous. The least important characteristic for Anglo countries is selfprotective leadership. They believe it is ineffective if leaders are status conscious or prone to face saving.
- Figure 15.7 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors:Anglo
- Figure 15.7 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors:Anglo
- Figure 15.7 Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors:Anglo
- ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- IParticipative Leadership
- IParticipative Leadership
- ~
- ~
- IHumane-Oriented Leadership
- z <1:
- z <1:
- ITearn-Oriented Leadership
- TR
- IAutonomous Leadership
- TR
- ISelf-Protective Leadership
- J
- TR
- --
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile
- Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile
- For countries in Sub-Saharan Mrica, an ideal leader is modest, compassionate, and sensitive to the people (Figure 15.8). In addition, they believe a leader should be relati\·ely charismatic/value based, team oriented, participative, and self-protecti\e. Leaders who act independently or act alone are viewed as less effecti\e in these countries. In short, the Sub-Saharan Mrica profile characteri zes effective leadership as caring leadership. Like many other countries, these countries or populations believe
- Southern Asia Leadership Profile
- Southern Asia Leadership Profile
- The Southern Asia leadership profile is similar to the profile of Confucian Asia. They both place importance on self-protective, charismatic/ value-based, humane-oriented, and team-oriented leadership, and they both find participative leadership ineffective (Figure 15.9). Southern Asia
- Figure 15.8 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Sub-Saharan Africa
- [~H_____Or________rs________________________________~] I
- _umane-__iented_Leade_hiP
- Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- I
- Team-Oriented Leadership
- I
- Participative Leadership
- I
- Self-Protective Leadership
- I
- Autonomous Leadership
- I
- --------------1
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004) .
- Figure 15.9 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Southern Asia
- ~~Self-Pr:ective-~e=r~:p
- ~ ICharismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- <C
- ~ [Humane-Oriented Leadership
- w
- ~ ITeam-Oriented Leadership
- 0
- Ill IAutonomous Leadership
- C.•doc•h;p
- C.•doc•h;p
- ~ctidp><;"'
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- countries differ from Confucian Asia countries in believing that charisma is an important leader attribute. The Southern Asia countries characterize effective leadership as especially collaborative, inspirational, sensitive to people's needs, and concerned \\·ith status and face saving. Furthermore, they believe leaders who tend to be autocratic are more effective than those who lead by inviting others into the decision-making process.
- Germanic Europe Leadership Profile
- Germanic Europe Leadership Profile
- The ideal leader in the Germanic Europe cluster has a style that is very participative while also being inspirational and independent (Figure 15.1 0). The ideal leader would be a unique, visionary person who is autonomous, charismatic/value based, participative, humane oriented, and team oriented, but not status conscious or concerned with face saving. In short, the Germanic European countries think effective leadership is based on participation, charisma, and autonomy but not on face saving and other self
- Figure 15.10 .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Germanic Europe
- [ Autonomous Leadership
- w
- a..
- 0 [ Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- a::
- ::::>
- [ Participative Leadership
- w
- u
- z
- <( [ Humane-Oriented Leadership
- I:
- a::
- [ T earn-Oriented Leadership
- w
- C)
- [ Self-Protective Leadership
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Middle East Leadership Profile
- Middle East Leadership Profile
- The leadership profile for the Middle Eastern countries differs significantly from the profiles of the other cultural clusters (Figure 15.11 ). Middle Eastern countries find self-attributes such as face saving and status are important characteristics of effective leadership. They also value being independent and familial. However, they find charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, and participative decision making less essential for effective leadership. To sum up, the Middle Eastern profile of leadership
- Figure 15.1 I .Culture Clusters and Desired Leadership Behaviors: Middle East
- _________________________________Jj I
- ~_I~Prote_ive__adershiP
- [se_____ct__Le_____
- [se_____ct__Le_____
- t[ Humane-Oriented Leadership
- I
- Ill
- <1:
- w
- [Autonomous Leadership
- w
- ..J
- c
- [Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership
- c
- I:
- [Team-Oriented Leadership
- [ Participative Leadership
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Universally Desirable and Undesirable Leadership Attributes
- Universally Desirable and Undesirable Leadership Attributes
- One of the most interesting outcomes of the GLOBE project was the identification of a list of leadership attributes that were universally endorsed by 17,000 people in 62 countries as positive aspects of effective leadership. Respondents in the GLOBE studies identified 22 valued leadership attributes (Table 15.2). These attributes were universally endorsed as characteristics that facilitate outstanding leadership.
- Based on th e list of endorsed attributes, a portrait can be drawn of a leader whom almost everyone would see as exceptional. That portrait is of a leader who is high in integrity, is charismaticF alue based, and has interpersonal skills (Dorfman eta!., 2004).
- The GLOBE project also identified a list of leadership attributes that were universally viewed as obstacles to effective leadership (Tabl e 15.3). These characteristics suggest that the portrait of an ineffective leader is someone who is asocial, malevolent, and self-focused. Clearly, people from all cultures find these characteristics to hinder effective leadership.
- Table 15.2 Universally Desirable Leadership Attributes
- Positive Leader Attributes
- Trustworthy Just Honest
- Has foresight Plans ahead Encouraging
- Positive Dynamic Motive arouser
- Confidence builder Motivational Dependable
- Intelligent Decisive Effective bargainer
- Win-win problem solver Communicative Informed
- Administratively skilled Coordinative Team builder
- Excellence oriented
- SOURCE: Adapted from House et al. (2004).
- Table 15.3 Universally Undesirable Leadership Attributes
- Negative Leader Attributes
- Loner Asocial Noncooperative
- Irritable Nonexplicit Egocentric
- Ruthless Dictatorial
- STRENGTHS
- STRENGTHS
- Although this chapter on culture and leadership does not represent a single unified theory of leadership, it does present findings that have several strengths. First, the scope of this study is a major strength. For this study, data were collected by 170 social scientists, representing 62 countries from all regions of the world, and included responses from 17,300 managers in 951 organizations. The GLOBE project has been a massive undertaking; the findings that have emerged from this work make a powerful st
- Second, the findings from GLOBE are valuable because they emerge from a well-developed quantitative research design. In the leadership literature, there are many qualitative studies that focus more narrowly on how people in certain countries view a small number of leadership concepts. Although these studies have contributed to our understanding of culture and leadership, they are limited in scope and generalizability. In contrast, the strength of the GLOBE project is that researchers used a
- Second, the findings from GLOBE are valuable because they emerge from a well-developed quantitative research design. In the leadership literature, there are many qualitative studies that focus more narrowly on how people in certain countries view a small number of leadership concepts. Although these studies have contributed to our understanding of culture and leadership, they are limited in scope and generalizability. In contrast, the strength of the GLOBE project is that researchers used a
- quantitative design and administered standardized instruments to assess leadership and cultural dimensions in 62 countries. Thus, the results from the GLOBE studies about leadership are generalizable between cultures and within cultures around the world.
- Third, the GLOBE studies provide a classification of cultural dimensions that is more expansive than the commonly used Hofstede classification system. \Vhereas Hofstede distinguishes between cultures based on five dimensions (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and long-term-short-term orientation), the GLOBE studies identify nine cultural dimensions (uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egal
- Fourth, the GLOBE studies provide useful information about what is universally accepted as good and bad leadership. Clearly, people from most cultures view good leadership as based on integrity, charisma, and interpersonal ability. Conversely, they see bad leadership emerging from leaders who are self-focused, dictatorial, and asocial. These lists of positive and negative attributes provide a useful portrait of hmY people around the world conceptualize leadership.
- Last, the study of culture and leadership underscores the complexity of the leadership process and how it is influenced by culture. Data from the GLOBE studies highlight the need for each of us to expand our ethnocentric tendencies to view leadership from only our own perspective, and instead to "open our window" to the diverse ways in which leadership is viewed by people from different regions around the world. There are many ways to view leadership and the integration of culture; studies of leadership he
- CRITICISMS
- CRITICISMS
- The body of research on culture and leadership also has several weaknesses. First, although the GLOBE research has resulted in a multitude of findings about perceptions of leadership in different cultures, this research
- The body of research on culture and leadership also has several weaknesses. First, although the GLOBE research has resulted in a multitude of findings about perceptions of leadership in different cultures, this research
- does not provide a clear set of assumptions and propositions that can form a single theory about the way culture relates to leadership or influences the leadership process.
- A second criticism, more narrow in scope, concerns the way researchers have labeled and defined certain cultural dimensions and leadership behaviors. For example, it is not easy to understand what power distance means, nor is the meaning of self-protective leadership clear. Because the meanings of these terms are somewhat vague, it is difficult at times to interpret or fully comprehend the findings about culture and leadership.
- Another criticism concerns the way in which leadership was conceptualized in the GLOBE studies. In these studies, researchers used a conceptualization of leadership that was based on the ideas set forth by Lord and Maher (1991) in their work on implicit leadership theory. This approach frames leadership from an information-processing perspective, as the implicit beliefs and convictions that individuals ha1·e about leaders. In other words, according to this theory, leadership is the process of being percei
- 2
- A related criticism concerns the way in which researchers in the GLOBE studies measured leadership. They selected six global leadership behaviors (i.e., charismatic/1·alue-based, team-oriented, participative, humane-oriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership) that were derived from an analysis of subjects' responses to hundreds of other attributes believed to be related to outstanding leadership. Each of the six global leadership beha1 iors 11·as measured by a series of subscales. However, the s
- Finally·, the GLOBE studies provide a provocative list of universally endorsed desirable and undesirable leadership attributes. The attributes identified in the GLOBE studies are comparable to the list of traits we discussed in Chapter 2. As with the trait approach, however, it is difficult to identify a set of universal attributes in isolation from the context in which the leadership occurs. The GLOBE studies tend to isolate a set of attributes that are characteristic of effective leaders without consideri
- APPLICATION
- APPLICATION
- Training programs about culture and diversity have been popular for many years. For example, in the training and development field, a wide variety of programs teach cultural sensitivity and address issues related to cultural differences. At the core of these programs, people are taught about the nuances and characteristics of different cultures, and how to be sensitive to people in other countries and cultures.
- The findings in this chapter have implications for leadership training. Understanding issues about culture is useful in several ways (Bing, 2004). First, the findings about culture can help leaders understand their own cultural biases and preferences. Understanding their own preferences is the first step in understanding that people in other cultures might have different preferences.
- Second, the findings help leaders to understand what it means to be a good leader. Different cultures ha1·e different ideas about what they want from their leaders. These findings help our leaders adapt their style to be more effective in different cultural settings.
- Third, this chapter's findings can help global leaders communicate more effectively across cultural and geographic boundaries. By understanding cultural differences, leaders can become more empathic and accurate in their communication with others.
- Information on culture and leadership has also been applied in very practical ways (Bing, 2004). It has been used to build culturally sensitive websites, design new employee orientation programs, conduct programs in relocation training, improve global team effecti1 eness, and facilitate multinational merger implementation, to name a few. These examples clearly indicate the wide range of applications for research on culture and leadership in the workplace.
- ------CASESTUDIES-----
- ------CASESTUDIES-----
- This section provides three case studies (Cases 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3) that describe leadership in various cultural contexts. The first case is about a college student who takes an internship at a Japanese-based automotive company. The second case describes how a small Mid\-1 estern bank developed a
- This section provides three case studies (Cases 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3) that describe leadership in various cultural contexts. The first case is about a college student who takes an internship at a Japanese-based automotive company. The second case describes how a small Mid\-1 estern bank developed a
- unique Islamic financing program. The final case describes how two board members from a nonprofit organization developed a capital campaign to renovate a fire station for a Hispanic community. After each of the cases, questions are provided to help you think about how cultural issues are related to the leadership process.
- CASE 15.1
- A Challenging Workplace
- As a leader in campus organizations, Samira Tanaka, a student, often led projects and took deadlines very seriously. Her strong work ethic led to an internship offer at a Japanese automotive company.
- At orientation for her internship, Samira learned that Japanese companies historically had little diversity in terms of race and gender. Women in Japan were not as prevalent in the workforce as in North America. In an effort to adapt to North American norms, Japanese subsidiaries had well-developed diversity policies. For example, Samira tracked the usage of minority-owned businesses in the company's supply base. This ensured that the company invested in local businesses that operated in traditionally eco
- The company culture was a unique blend of Japanese and North American work styles. The employees in North America worked fewer hours than the employees in Japan. Around the office, it was common for employees to hear Japanese and English. However, management still had some internal conflict. Japanese advisers were perceived as focusing on the creation of consensus in teams, often leading to slow decision making. North American workers were seen as rushing into projects without enough planning. Feedback was
- Samira successfully completed two internship rotations and was about to graduate from college. Her new manager often asked her to follow up with other team members to complete late tasks. As she had been taught in school, she was proactive with team members about completing their work. Samira thought she was great at consistently inviting others to participate in the decision-making process. She always offered her opinion on how things could be done better, and sometimes even initiated tasks to improve proc
- Samira successfully completed two internship rotations and was about to graduate from college. Her new manager often asked her to follow up with other team members to complete late tasks. As she had been taught in school, she was proactive with team members about completing their work. Samira thought she was great at consistently inviting others to participate in the decision-making process. She always offered her opinion on how things could be done better, and sometimes even initiated tasks to improve proc
- herself as an emerging take-charge leader, Samira always downplayed her ambitions. In school, she was often stereotyped in negative ways for being an assertive female leader, and she didn't want to be seen in that way at work.
- Some of her peers at work advised her that it was important to consider working at a plant near her hometown because it would be closer to her family. However, she was not interested in following that advice. Samira thought it was more exciting to work near a large city or to take a job that involved travel. She didn't think it was appropriate to discuss with her peers her family concerns in relation to her future job needs.
- Toward the end of her final internship, Samira received a performance evaluation from a senior manager. Her manager praised her as being very dependable, as planning deadlines well, and as being very competent at her tasks overall. However, he also told her she was increasingly perceived as too pushy, not a team player, and often speaking out of turn. This often irritated her peers.
- Samira had never seen herself this way at work and did not understand why she was not seen as aligning with the company's core value of working with others. Good grades and campus leadership activities had gotten her this far, but this evaluation led her to question whether she could work for this company after graduation.
- Samira ultimately realized that her workplace was different from the campus atmosphere she was used to. If she wanted to be an emerging leader in the workplace, she had to better adapt to her new environment.
- Questions
- Questions
- I. .What similarities and differences can you identify between North .American and Japanese working styles? .
- 2. .
- 2. .
- 2. .
- In what way did this company reflect the characteristics of other Confucian Asia countries?
- 3. .
- 3. .
- Why do you think Samira was not seen as a team player?
- 4. .
- 4. .
- What universal leadership attributes did Samira exhibit?
- 5. .
- 5. .
- What other suggestions would you have for Samira in this situation?
- CASE 15.2
- CASE 15.2
- A Special Kind of Financing
- Central Bank is a small Midwestern savings and loan institution that manages $3 billion in assets. It competes with 16 other financial institutions for customers; most of those other institutions have substantially larger holdings. To better serve its customers and attract a larger customer base, Central Bank conducted a financial-need survey of the people who lived in the area.
- The survey revealed some interesting and culturally relevant information. Muslims represented a sizable minority in the community, making up about 8% of the overall population. However, a review of the bank registry revealed that few Muslims, if any, banked at Central Bank. The results of the survey were puzzling. Given the large numbers of Muslims in the community, the management wondered why there were no Muslim customers at Central Bank.
- To answer this question, Central Bank invited a group of local Muslims to meet and discuss their thoughts about financing and how their ideas related to the financial services offered by the bank. The meeting was a real eye-opener for the bank management. The Muslims' ideas about banking were very different from the traditional Western beliefs about banking.
- During the discussion, the management learned that the principles of Islam strongly influence the banking attitudes and behaviors of Muslims. The principles of Islamic finance were set forth in the Koran more than 14 centuries ago. For instance, Koranic law forbids paying or receiving interest.These principles stress that money is only a medium of exchange and should not be used to make more money. From the Islamic point of view, the human element in a business venture is more important than the money used
- These ideas about finance were different from the way Central Bank thought about them. Central Bank was not accustomed to the way Muslims viewed money as a medium of exchange. Having been enlightened through these discussions, the management at Central Bank felt challenged to develop a financing program that was more in line with the attitudes and values of Islamic finance principles.
- In order to attract the business of Muslim customers, Central Bank created and began offering two new types of mortgage financing, called ijara and murabaha. ljara is a finance plan in which the bank buys a home for a customer and leases it to the customer, who pays rent plus a portion
- In order to attract the business of Muslim customers, Central Bank created and began offering two new types of mortgage financing, called ijara and murabaha. ljara is a finance plan in which the bank buys a home for a customer and leases it to the customer, who pays rent plus a portion
- of the property purchase. Murabaha is a transaction in which the bank buys the home and sells it to the customer at an agreed-upon markup, and the customer pays for the home in installments over IS to 30 years. Both ijara and murabaha are consistent with Islamic beliefs that prohibit Muslims from paying or receiving interest. In these two types of transactions, money is used to purchase something tangible, but money is not used to make money. Central Bank received favorable legal rulings (fatwas) from some
- Central Bank's Islamic finance plans have become quite popular.Aithough Central Bank has been successful with these plans, it has also met resistance. Some people have expressed strong disapproval of special finance programs specifically geared to the Muslim population. Others are against it because it mixes issues of faith and public finance. However, the resistance has not stopped Central Bank. Central Bank is very proud to be the only bank in the country to serve the needs of the Muslim community in this
- Questions
- Questions
- I. .Why do you think banks in the United States have been slow to offer financing expressly for Muslims?
- 2. .
- 2. .
- 2. .
- Do you think it is fair to offer one minority group a special banking opportunity?
- 3. .
- 3. .
- How does ethnocentrism come into play in this case?
- 4. .
- 4. .
- How does in-group collectivism relate to Central Bank's finance plans?
- 5. .
- 5. .
- How do you think the other banks in the community will react to Central Bank?
- CASE 15.3
- Whose Hispanic Center Is It?
- River City is a rapidly growing city in the Midwest with a population of 200,000 people, growing at about 5% annually. It is a diverse community with a racial composition that is 65% White, 20% African American, 13% Hispanic, and 2% NativeAmerican.The Hispanic population in River City is one of the fastest growing of all segments, growing at about I0% annually.
- (Continued)
- (Continued)
- The Hispanic community is represented by the Hispanic Center, a nonprofit organization that serves the needs of the Hispanic community and broader River City community through a variety of programs and services. A board of directors and an executive director manage the Hispanic Center. Two newly appointed board members have led a transformation of the center, including renovating the physical facilities and shifting the focus of program services. The new members are Mary Davis, who has experience in neighb
- The Hispanic Center owned an old building that was slated for renovation so the center could have more space for offices and community programs (e.g., educational programming, cultural competence and leadership training, and legal services).The need for the building was validated by what people expressed at a series of community forums. The building was an old fire station that had been mothballed for 15 years, and the Hispanic Center bought the building from River City for $!.Although the fire station ne
- To raise funds for the renovation, the board of directors initiated a citywide capital campaign. The goal of the campaign was to raise $1.4 million, the estimated amount for a complete, first-class renovation of the building.
- Along with their regular jobs, Mary and Jose tackled the fund-raising campaign with a full head of steam. in just 6 months, using their wide array of skills, they successfully raised $1.3 million for the project (most of which came from private foundations and corporations). With just $1 00,000 still to be raised, the leaders and some board members were getting excited about the possibility of the new community center. This excitement was heightened because the renovated building was going to be constructed
- In order to raise the final $100,000, Mary and Jose proposed a new series of fund-raising initiatives that would focus on smaller donors (e.g., $10, $20, or $30 donors), primarily from the Hispanic community. To kick off a series of events, a formal event at a local hotel was proposed, with tickets costing $75 per person. Just before this event, Mary and Jose encountered some resistance and found out that their excitement about the renovation needed to be tempered.
- During a scheduled board meeting, several members of the board expressed concern with the latest fund-raising efforts. Some board members questioned the wisdom of targeting the fund-raising to the Hispanic community, believing that Hispanic people tended to give to their churches rather than to public not-for-profit organizations. Others questioned the price of the tickets to fund-raising events that was being sought from small donors, $75. These members argued for a smaller admission fee (e.g., $20) that
- Board members also started to question the transformation of the Hispanic Center under Mary and Jose's leadership. Board members expressed frustrations about the new goals of the center and about how things were proceeding. There was a sense that the request for community-based support was unreasonable and in conflict with cultural norms. In the past, the center moved slowly toward change, keeping the focus on one goal: to provide emergency services to the local community. When change came in the past, it
- Under the leadership of Mary and Jose, there was a perception that the new center and programs were too grand and refined for the community they were intended to serve. The vision for the new center seemed to take things to a new sophisticated level that was not grounded in the common work or the people-oriented values of the center.
- Questions
- Questions
- I. .How would you describe the strengths and weaknesses of Mary's and .Jose's leadership on this project? .
- 2. .
- 2. .
- 2. .
- Do you see any problem in targeting part of the fund-raising campaign directly toward the Hispanic community?
- 3. .
- 3. .
- The Latin America leadership profile stresses the importance of teamoriented leadership and deemphasizes individualistic leadership. How does the leadership of Mary and Jose compare with the Latin America profile?
- 4. .
- 4. .
- How do Hispanic cultural dimensions help explain the resistance some people felt and expressed toward the renovation project?
- 5. .
- 5. .
- If you were Mary or Jose, how would you temper your excitement about renovating the new fire station?
- LEADERSHIP INSTRUMENT
- Culture and leadership are different concepts; when they are measured, they are measured in different ways using different questionnaires. Currently, there are no measures that assess culture and leadership simultaneously, nor are there measures of cultural leadership. There are questionnaires that measure culture, and, as shown throughout the book, there are many measures of leadership.
- Perhaps the best-known measure of culture is Hofstede's Culture in the WorkplaceTM questionnaire. This questionnaire measures a person's cultural preferences on four dimensions: individualism, power distance, certainty, and achievement. People can use their profiles on these dimensions to learn about themselves and to compare themselves with the profiles of people in other cultures.
- The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire that follows is an abbreviated version of the original culture questionnaire used in the GLOBE studies. This questionnaire is included in the chapter for illustrative purposes only and should not be used for research. The scores you receive on the questionnaire are individual-level scores rather than societal-or organization-level scores. People who are interested in using the GLOBE scales for research should use the complete questionnaire, as referenced in House eta
- The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire will help you examine your perceptions about various characteristics of your culture. This questionnaire is not a personality measure (such as the Myers-Briggs instrument) but rather a measure of your attitudes and perceptions about culture.
- Dimensions of Culture Questionnaire
- Instructions: Using the following scales, circle the number that most accurately reflects your response to each of the 18 statements. There are no right or wrong answers, so provide your immediate impressions. (The items on this questionnaire are adapted from the items used in the GLOBE studies to assess the dimensions of culture, but the GLOBE studies used five items to analyze each of the cultural dimensions.)
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- I. .In this society, orderliness and consistency are stressed, even at the expense of experimentation and innovation.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .In this society, societal requirements and instructions are spelled out in detail so citizens know what they are expected to do.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Power Distance
- I. .In this society, followers are expected to:
- Question their leaders when in disagreement
- Question their leaders when in disagreement
- Question their leaders when in disagreement
- Obey their leaders without question
- 2
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 2. In this society, power is:
- 2. In this society, power is:
- Shared throughout the society
- Shared throughout the society
- Concentrated at the top
- 2
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- Institutional Collectivism
- I. .In this society, leaders encourage group loyalty even if individual goals suffer.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .The economic system in this society is designed to maximize: Individual interests Collective interests
- 7
- 2 3 4 5 6
- In-Group Collectivism
- I. .In this society, children take pride in the individual accomplishments of their parents.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .In this society, parents take pride in the individual accomplishments of their children.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Gender Egalitarianism
- I. .In this society, boys are encouraged more than girls to attain a higher education.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .In this society, who is more likely to serve in a position of high office?
- Men
- Men
- Men
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- Women 7
- Assertiveness
- Assertiveness
- I. In this society, people are generally: Nonassertive 2 3
- I. In this society, people are generally: Nonassertive 2 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- Assertive 7
- 2. In this society, people are generally: Tender 2 3
- 2. In this society, people are generally: Tender 2 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- Tough 7
- Future Orientation
- Future Orientation
- I. In this society the accepted norm is Accept the status quo 2 3
- I. In this society the accepted norm is Accept the status quo 2 3
- to: 4
- 5
- Plan f6
- or the future 7
- 2. In this society, people place more emphasis on: .Solving current problems Planning for the future .
- 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Performance Orientation
- I. .In this society, students are encouraged to strive for continuously improved performance.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .In this society, people are rewarded for excellent performance.
- Strongly disagree .Strongly agree 2 3 4 5 6 7
- Humane Orientation
- I. .In this society, people are generally: Not at all Very concerned
- concerned about others about others 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 2. .In this society, people are generally: Not at all Very sensitive
- sensitive to others toward others 2 3 4 5 6 7
- SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications.
- Scoring
- The Dimensions of Culture questionnaire is designed to measure your perceptions of the different dimensions of your culture. Score the questionnaire by doing the following. First, sum the two responses you gave for each of the items on each of the dimensions. Second, divide the sum of the responses by two.The result is your mean score for the dimension.
- Example. If for power distance you circled 3 in response to Question I and 4 in response to Question 2, you would score the dimension as follows:
- 3+4=7 .7.,. 2 = 3.5 .Power distance mean score = 3.5 .
- When you are finished scoring, you should have nine mean scores. After you have scored the questionnaire, place your mean scores for each of the dimensions in the table in "Scoring Interpretation."
- Scoring Interpretation
- Your scores on the Dimensions of Culture questionnaire provide data on how you see the culture in which you live and work. Table 15.4 provides information from the GLOBE project about how subjects from different cultures describe the dimensions of those cultures. The table also provides an overall mean for how these dimensions were viewed by people from all of the cultures.
- By entering your scores in the last column in Table 15.4, you can get a better understanding of how your perception of your own culture compares to that of others. You can also compare your scores to other specific cultures (e.g., Middle East or Latin America). Do you see your culture as more or less egalitarian than others? Do you think your culture emphasizes the future more than others? Do people from other cultures stress performance less or more than your own culture? Like these questions, the table a
- Table 15.4 .Cultural Dimensions and Mean Scores for Selected Cultural Clusters
- Mean Scores* of Selected Cultural Clusters
- GLOBE Cultural Latin Middle Southern Latin GLOBE Your Dimensions Anglo America East Asia Europe Overall Score
- Uncertainty 4.42 3.62 3.91 4.10 4.18 4.16 avoidance
- Power na na na na na 5.17 distance
- Institutional 4.46 3.86 4.28 4.35 4.01 4.25 collectivism
- In-group 4.30 5.52 5.58 5.87 4.80 5.13 collectivism
- Gender 3.40 3.41 2.95 3.28 3.36 3.37 egalitarianism
- Assertiveness 4.14 4.15 4.14 3.86 3.99 4.14
- Future 4.08 3.54 3.58 3.98 3.68 3.85
- orientation
- Performance 4.37 3.85 3.90 4.33 3.94 4.10
- orientation
- Humane 4.20 4.03 4.36 4.71 3.71 4.09
- orientation
- SOURCE: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta,
- V. (Eds.), Culture Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of62 Societies, © 2004, SAGE Publications, Inc. Reprinted with Permission.
- *The mean scores in this table represent societal practice scores for selected cultures on each of the nine cultural dimensions. In the GLOBE studies, mean scores were derived from subjects' responses to five questions for each of the dimensions.
- na = not available
- SUMMARY
- SUMMARY
- Since World War II, there has been a dramatic increase in globalization throughout the world. Globalization has created a need for leaders with greater understanding of cultural differences and increased competencies in cross-cultural communication and practice. This chapter discusses research on culture, its dimensions, and its effects on the leadership process.
- Culture is defined as the commonly shared beliefs, values, and norms of a group of people. Two factors that can inhibit cultural awareness are ethnocentrism and prejudice. Ethnocentrism is the human tendency to place one's own group at the center of one's observations of others and the world. It is problematic for leaders because it prevents them from fully understanding the world of others. Similarly, prejudice consists of judgments about others based on fixed attitudes and unsubstantiated data. Prejudice
- In the past 30 years, many studies have focused on identifying various dimensions of culture. The best known is the work of Hofstede ( 1980, 2001 ), who identified five major dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and longterm-short-term orientation. Expanding on Hofstede's work, House and his colleagues (2004) delineated additional dimensions of culture, including in-group collectivism, institutional collectivism, future orientation, asserti
- The GLOBE studies offer the strongest body of findings to elate on culture and leadership. Using established quantitative research methods, GLOBE researchers studied how 17,000 managers from 62 different countries viewed leadership. They analyzed the similarities and differences between regional clusters of cultural groups by grouping countries into 10 distinct clusters: Anglo, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe, Germanic Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, a
- In addition, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behaviors that could be used to characterize how different cultural groups view leadership: charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative, humaneoriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership. Based on these
- In addition, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behaviors that could be used to characterize how different cultural groups view leadership: charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative, humaneoriented, autonomous, and self-protective leadership. Based on these
- behaviors, researchers created leadership profiles for each of the l 0 cultural clusters that delineate the relative importance and desirability different cultures ascribe to different attributes and characteristics of leadership.
- One outcome of the GLOBE project was the identification of a list of leadership attributes that were universally endorsed as positive and negative attributes of leadership. From this list, it appears that the universally endorsed portrait of an exceptional leader has a high degree of integrity, charisma, and interpersonal skill. The portrait of an ineffective leader is someone who is asocial, malevolent, self-focused, and autocratic.
- The scope of the GLOBE project is its main strength. The findings from this project make a major statement about how cultures around the world view leadership. Other strengths are its quantitative research design, an expanded classification of cultural dimensions, a list of universally accepted leadership attributes, and the contribution it makes to a richer understanding of the leadership process. On the negative side, the GLOBE studies do not provide findings that form a single theory about the way cultur
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- NOTES
- NOTES
- l. The Czech Republic was excluded from the analysis because of problems in the data.
- 2. Researchers from the GLOBE studies (Phase 3) are collecting data from 40 CEOs in 20 countries. These findings may address how the behaviors of leaders (what they do) conform to the beliefs about leadership in various cultures.
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