PSY111 Research Methods Scenario Rubric – 50 Points

Student Name_______________________

Excellent/Exceeds Expectations

Good/Meets Most Expectations

Incomplete/Meets Partial Expectations

Points Possible

15

14-11

10-1

POINTS EARNED =

(15 points)

(a) Select only one of the research questions. Describe how the research question you chose could be studied using the steps of the scientific method.

Complete discussion of how the scientific method could be used to explain how psychologists conduct research and gather data. Fully supports discussion.

Discusses how the scientific method could be used to explain how psychologists conduct research and gather data. Needs minor additional detail or support to be complete.

Partial discussion of how the scientific method could be used to explain how psychologists conduct research and gather data. OR needs significant detail was to be complete.

Feedback Comments:

Points Possible

5

4-3

2-1

POINTS EARNED =

(5 points)

(b) Based on the one research question that you selected in (a), what hypothesis would you make? (i.e. What do you think the answer to the question might be?)

Clearly formulates a hypothesis based on the research question chosen. Demonstrates understanding of what a hypothesis is, and its role in research.

Presents a hypothesis based on research question. Needs some additional detail to be fully clear or in correct format to demonstrate understanding of what a hypothesis is, and its role in research.

Attempts to present a hypothesis based on research question. Needs additional detail, or presents in a format that did not demonstrate understanding of what a hypothesis is, and its role in research.

Feedback Comments:

Points Possible

15

14-11

10-1

POINTS EARNED =

(15 points)

(c) Selects two research methods that could be used to test hypothesis. Explains why and how these research methods will help. What are the pros and cons of the methods selected?

Complete discussion of how two research methods could be used to test hypothesis. Compares and contrasts pros and cons of methods selected. Fully supports discussion.

Presents discussion of two research methods, and how they could be used to test hypothesis. Includes some compare/contrast of pros and cons. Needs minor additional detail or more support to be complete.

Partial discussion of how two research methods could be used to test hypothesis. May have some compare and contrast of pros/cons, but is not complete. Needs significant support and detail to be complete.

Feedback Comments:

Points Possible

10

9-7

6-1

POINTS EARNED =

(10 points)

(d) Discusses ethical issues you would need to consider if you were conducting the study described in the research scenario above.

Reviews and applies the ethical issues related to research covered in the Chapter 1 reading assignment that were applicable to the research methods/procedures indicated in the above sections.

Reviews and applies some ethical issues from reading that are applicable to the research methods/procedures indicated in above sections. Needs minor additional detail or more support to be complete.

Partial discussion of ethical issues from reading. Needs significant support and detail to be complete.

Feedback Comments:

Excellent/Exceeds Expectations

Good/Meets Most Expectations

Incomplete/Meets Partial Expectations

Points Possible

5

4

3-1

POINTS EARNED =

Writing Mechanics (5 points) sentence structure, run-ons, fragments, agreement, punctuation, capitalization, spelling, etc.

Demonstrates knowledge and use of writing mechanics, enhances the readability

Demonstrates knowledge and use of writing mechanics but with errors that may detract from the readability

Difficulties with readability due to inappropriate use of writing mechanics

Feedback Comments:

For each requirement not completed, points(s) will be deducted as explained below.

POINTS DEDUCTED:

Requirements for basic APA document formatting and citations

(Maximum Deduction 10 Points)

Your assignment requires the following:

- Name at top of document (-1 point)

- 1 inch margins (-1 point)

- Times/Times New Roman font (-1 point)

- 12 point font (-1 point)

- Double spaced (-1 point)

- Informal citations within the text (-1 point)

- Informal list of references (-2 points)

- Quotation marks when directly quoting a source (-2 points)

Feedback Comments:

FINAL SCORE:

Additional Feedback Comments:

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The Biological Basis of Behavior

Chapter 2

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ENDURING ISSUES

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ENDURING ISSUES

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ENDURING ISSUES

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ENDURING ISSUES

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ENDURING ISSUES

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Neurons: The Messengers

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The brain of an average human being contains as many as 100 billion nerve cells or neurons.

Neurons vary in size and shape, but they are all specialized to receive and transmit information.

Neurons: The Messengers

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The brain of an average human being contains as many as 100 billion nerve cells or neurons.

Neurons vary in size and shape, but they are all specialized to receive and transmit information.

Parts of the Neuron

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Parts of the Neuron

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A Typical Neuron

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Neurons

  • Sensory (or afferent) neurons - neurons that carry messages from sense organs to spinal cord or brain
  • Motor (or efferent) neurons - neurons that carry messages from spinal cord or brain to muscles and glands
  • Interneurons (or association neurons) - neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another
  • Mirror neurons - specialized neurons that respond when we observe others perform a behavior or express an emotion
  • Glial cells (or glia) - cells that insulate and support neurons by holding them together, provide nourishment and remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing into brain, and form myelin sheath

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The Neural Impulse

  • Action potential - firing of nerve cell
  • Resting potential - electrical charge across neuron membrane as result of positive ions outside and negative ions inside membrane
  • Polarization - condition of neuron when inside is negatively charged relative to outside; when neuron is at rest
  • Ions - Electrically charged particles found both inside and outside neuron

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The Neuron Impulse

  • Graded potential - shift in electrical charge in tiny area of neuron
  • Threshold of excitation - level an impulse must exceed to cause neuron to fire
  • All-or-none law - principle that action potential in neuron does not vary in strength; either neuron fires at full strength or it does not fire at all

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The Neural Impulse

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  • Resting potential: the state of a neuron when not engaged in an action potential
  • Greater positive ions outside the cell membrane and greater negative ions inside the cell
  • Polarization: inside of neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside
  • Neural impulse (action potential):
  • The firing of a nerve cell
  • Graded potential:
  • A shift in the electrical charge in a tiny area of a neuron
  • Threshold of excitation:
  • The level an impulse must exceed to cause a neuron to fire
  • Neurons either fire or they do not
  • This is called the all-or-none law
  • A neuron is more likely to fire more often when stimulated by a strong signal resulting in a rapid neural firing that communicates a message
  • Absolute refractory period:
  • a period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message
  • Relative refractory period:
  • a period after firing when a neuron will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual

Electrical changes during the action of potential

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Synapse

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Synapse

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Synapse

Synaptic Transmission

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  • Synaptic transmission
  • Neurotransmitter molecules, released by synaptic vesicles, cross the tiny synaptic space (or cleft) between an axon terminal (or terminal button) of a sending neuron and a dendrite of a receiving neuron.
  • The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic space.
  • Here they latch on to receptor sites, much as keys fit into locks, and pass on their excitatory or inhibitory messages.

Neurotransmitters and their Effects

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Neural Plasticity and Neurogenesis

Experience can lead to significant changes in number of complexity of synaptic connections in brain

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Neural plasticity

The ability of brain to be changed structurally and chemically by experience.

Rosenzweig (1984) demonstrated the importance of experience to neural development

Rats raised in more complex environments had larger neurons and more synaptic connections

Other research has found those rats raised in more complex environments are better at solving problems

The brain changes in response to experience.

This appears to happen as a response to expertise (e.g. practicing the violin).

The strength of the response varies as well as the amount.

Adult brains are capable of neurogenesis− the creation of neurons over the course of one’s lifetime.

This finding has lead to new research into the potential to grow cells to replace damaged cells

or finding ways to encourage damaged cells to repair themselves.

Neurogenesis

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Brain Growth and Experience

In Rosenzweig’s experiment, young rats lived in two kinds of cages “impoverished,” with nothing to manipulate or explore or “enriched,” with a variety of objects. When Rosenzweig examined the rats’ brains, he found that the enriched group had larger neurons with synaptic connections (shown as dendrites in the drawing) than the rats that lived in the bare cages. Experience, then, can actually affect the structure of the brain.

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The Central Nervous System

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Central Nervous System
Organization of Nervous System

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The nervous system is organized into two parts:

The central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS), is made up of nerves that radiate throughout the body, linking all of the body's parts to the CNS.

A schematic diagram of the divisions of the nervous system and their various subparts.

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The Brain

  • hindbrain (central core) - area containing medulla, pons, and cerebellum
  • cerebral cortex - outer surface of two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior
  • limbic system - ring of structures that plays a role in learning and emotional behavior

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Divisions of the brain

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Physically, the brain has three more or less distinct areas:

The central core

The limbic system

The cerebrum

Hindbrain

Medulla: Controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure

Pons: Regulation of sleep/wake cycle

Cerebellum: Involved in balance and coordination of movement

Midbrain

The relay point for hearing and vision

One of the places pain is registered

Brain structures found in midbrain: superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, substantia nigra

Forebrain structures

Thalamus: Sensory switchboard

Hypothalamus: Governs motivational (hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, and temperature control) and emotional responses

Reticular formation

A network of neurons in the hindbrain, midbrain, and part of the forebrain

The primary function of this network is to alert and arouse the higher parts of the brain

Cerebral cortex has four lobes (see next slide)

  • Medulla - structure in the hindbrain that controls essential life support functions including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
  • Pons - structure in midbrain that regulates sleep and wake cycles
  • Cerebellum - structure in hindbrain that controls certain reflexes and coordinates body’s movements

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  • Region between hindbrain and forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight, and it is one of several places in brain where pain is registered
  • Thalamus - forebrain region that relays and translates incoming messages from sense receptors, except those for smell
  • Hypothalamus - forebrain region that governs motivation and emotional response
  • Reticular formation (RF) - network of neurons in hindbrain, midbrain, and part of forebrain, whose primary function is to alert and arouse higher parts of brain

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The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Deep fissures in the cortex separate these areas or lobes. Also shown are the primary somatosensor and motor areas.

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  • Association areas - areas of cerebral cortex where incoming messages from separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions and outgoing messages from motor areas are integrated

  • Frontal lobe - part of cerebral cortex that is responsible for voluntary movement; it is also important for attention, goal-directed behavior, and appropriate emotional experiences

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  • Primary motor cortex - section of frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement

  • Prefrontal cortex - forward most region of frontal cortex involved in impulse control, judgment, and conscious awareness

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  • Occipital lobe - part of cerebral hemisphere that receives and interprets visual information

  • Parietal lobe - part of cerebral cortex that receives sensory information from throughout body

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  • Primary somatosensory cortex - area of parietal lobe where messages from sense receptors are registered

  • Temporal lobe-part of cerebral hemisphere that helps regulate hearing, balance and equilibrium, and certain emotions and motivations

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The Limbic System

  • Includes frontal lobe, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and olfactory bulb
  • Hippocampus - plays an essential role in formation of new memories
  • Amygdala - in conjunction with hippocampus regulates emotions
  • Olfactory bulb - smell center in brain

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The Limbic System

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Limbic system

System of loosely connected structures located between the central core and the cerebral hemispheres

Linked primarily to memory, emotions, drives

Appears to play a central role in times of stress

Hippocampus: Aids in the processing of memory for storage

Amygdala: Involved in fear and aggression

Hypothalamus: Bodily maintenance functions and pleasurable rewards

Hemispheric Specialization

  • Cerebrum has two separate hemispheres:
  • Right hemisphere - controls touch and movement of opposite side of body and is usually superior at nonverbal, visual, an spatial tasks
  • Left hemisphere - controls writing and movement of opposite side of body. Usually dominant in language and tasks involving symbolic reasoning

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Hemispheres of the brain

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Left hemisphere

Right hand touch and movement

Speech

Language

Writing for right handers

Right hemisphere

Left hand touch and movement

Spatial construction

Face recognition

Nonverbal imagery

Writing for left handers

Corpus Callosum

  • Corpus callosum
  • Thick band of nerve fibers connecting left and right cerebral hemispheres
  • Most dramatic evidence for role comes from patients with severe epilepsy that have had corpus callosum cut
  • Functions of each half of brain are coordinated

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Split-Brain Experiment

(A) When split-brain patients stare at the “X” in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the right side of the screen goes to the patient’s left hemisphere, which controls language. When asked what they see, patients can reply correctly.

(B) When split-brain patients stare at the “X” in the center of the screen, visual information projected on the left side of the screen goes to the patients’ right hemisphere, which does not control language. When asked what they see, patients cannot name the object but can pick it out by touch with the left hand.

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Hemispheric Specialization

  • More evidence of hemispheric specialization from patients who have had left hemisphere stroke in areas of the brain associated with language
  • Aphasias - impairments of ability to either use or understand language as a result of brain damage.

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Processing of Speech and Language

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Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, generally found only on the left side of the brain, work together, enabling us to produce and understand speech and language.

Tools for Studying the Brain

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Spinal Cord

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Brain and Spinal Cord

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Reflex Action

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The spinal cord is our communications superhighway.

There are two major pathways in the spinal cord:

The motor neurons

The sensory neurons

Peripheral Nervous System

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Peripheral Nervous System

  • Afferent neurons - carry messages from sense organs to spinal cord and brain
  • Efferent neurons - carry messages from spinal cord to brain

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Peripheral Nervous System

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The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Contains two types of neurons:

Afferent neurons, which carry sensory messages to the central nervous system,

Efferent neurons, which carry messages from the CNS

PNS is divided into two subsystems

Somatic nervous system

Has neurons involved in making voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

Has neurons involved in governing the actions of internal organs

Autonomic Nervous System

  • Sympathetic division - branch of autonomic nervous system; it prepares body for quick action in an emergency
  • Parasympathetic division - branch of autonomic nervous system; it calms and relaxes body

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Divisions of the Nervous System

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Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is divided into two parts:

The sympathetic division, which acts primarily to arouse the body when it is faced with threat, and

The parasympathetic division, which acts to calm the body down, restoring it to normal levels of arousal

Sympathetic division

Dilates pupils

No effect on tear glands

Weak stimulation of salivary flow

Accelerates heart, constricts arterioles

Dilates bronchi

Inhibits stomach motility and secretions

Parasympathetic division

Constricts pupils

Stimulates tear glands

Strong stimulation of salivary flow

Inhibits heart, dilates arterioles

Constricts bronchi

Stimulates stomach motility & secretion

The Endocrine System

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Endocrine System

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  • Endocrine system works in conjunction with nervous system
  • Endocrine glands- tissues that produce and release hormones
  • Hormones - chemical substances released by glands that help regulate bodily activities

Endocrine System

  • Pineal gland - a gland located roughly in center of brain that appears to regulate activity levels over course of a day
  • Thyroid gland - endocrine gland located below voice box; it produces hormone thyroxin
  • Pituitary gland - gland located on underside of brain; it produces largest number of body’s hormones
  • Pituitary gland - gland located on underside of brain; it produces largest number of body’s hormones
  • Parathyroids - four tiny glands embedded in thyroid

  • Parathyroids - four tiny glands embedded in thyroid

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Endocrine System

  • Pancreas - organ lying between stomach and small intestine; it secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-sugar levels

  • Adrenal glands - two endocrine glands located just above kidneys

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Endocrine Glands

Pituitary gland: Produces the largest number of the body’s hormones

Pineal gland: Regulates one’s activity level over the course of a day

Thyroid gland: Produces the hormone thyroxin, which regulates the body’s rate of metabolism

Parathyroid glands: Secrete parathormone, which controls and balances the levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluids

Pancreas

An organ lying between the stomach and small intestine

It secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood-sugar levels

Adrenal glands

Adrenal cortex: Outer covering of the adrenal glands; releases hormones important for dealing with stress

Adrenal medulla: Inner core of the adrenal glands that also releases hormones to deal with stress

Gonads: The reproductive glands (testes and ovaries)

Genes, Evolution, and Behavior

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Genes, Evolution, and Behavior
Two different but related fields

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  • Genes, Evolution, & Behavior
  • The related fields of behavior genetics and evolutionary psychology explore the influences of heredity on human behavior
  • Both are helping to settle the nature/nurture debate over the relative contributions of genes and the environment to human similarities and differences
  • Two different but related fields contribute to the understanding on influence of heredity on behavior
  • Behavioral genetics - study of relationship between heredity and behavior
  • Evolutionary psychology - study of evolutionary roots of behaviors and mental processes

Genetics

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Genetics

Study of how living things pass on traits from one generation to the next.

Genes

Elements that control the transmission of traits; found on the chromosomes

Chromosomes

Pairs of threadlike bodies within the nucleus of every cell in the human body.

Each contains genes.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A complex, organic molecule. The main ingredient of chromosomes and genes.

Forms the code for all genetic information.

Has unique property of being able to replicate or reproduce itself, which happens every time a cell divides.

The relation among chromosomes, genes, and DNA.

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Genetics

  • Dominant genes - member of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a certain trait
  • Recessive genes - member of a gene pair that can control appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with another recessive gene
  • Polygenic inheritance - process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for our most important traits
  • Genotype - an organism’s entire unique genetic makeup.
  • Phenotype - characteristics of an organism; determined by both genetics and experience

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Dominant and Recessive Genes

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Patterns of Inheritance

Inheritance can occur several different ways.

Dominant/recessive patterns of inheritance

Genes occur in pairs.

Some genes are dominant, such that a child who has that gene in either pair will show the trait.

Recessive genes only appear if a child has inherited two copies of it.

Polygenic inheritance

Often, a single gene will contribute to more than one trait.

As a result, one trait will be the combination of a number of genes.

E.g. weight, height, skin pigmentation.

Genotype

An organism’s entire genetic makeup; the genetic “blueprint.”

Phenotype

Those traits that are expressed; determined by both genetics and experience.

Behavior Genetics

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Psychologists use a variety of methods to study the contribution of genes in determining variations in certain traits

Animal behavior genetics

Strain studies approach the problem by observing strains of highly inbred genetically similar animals

Selection studies try to determine the extent to which an animal's traits can be passed on from one generation to another. They estimate the heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have the same trait.

Human behavior genetics

Family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies tackle heritability by looking for similarities in traits as a function of biological closeness

Family studies:

Studies of heritability based on the assumption that if genes influence a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait than distant relatives

Twin studies:

Studies of identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment

Identical: Twins developed from a single fertilized ovum

Fraternal: Twins developed from two separate fertilized ova

Adoption studies

Research carried out on children who were adopted at birth by parents not related to them

The goal of this type of research is to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

Behavior Genetics

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Psychologists use a variety of methods to study the contribution of genes in determining variations in certain traits

Animal behavior genetics

Strain studies - studies of the heritability of behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another

Selection studies - studies that estimate heritability of a trait by breeding animals with other animals that have same trait

Behavior Genetics

  • Human behavior genetics
  • Family studies - studies of heritability in humans based on the assumption that if genes influence a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait than distant relatives
  • Adoption studies - research carried out on children, adopted at birth by parents not related to them, to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

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Human Behavior Genetics

  • Human behavior genetics
  • Twin studies - studies of identical and fraternal twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment human behavior
  • identical twins - twins developed from a single fertilized ovum and therefore identical in genetic makeup at time of conception
  • fraternal twins - twins developed from two separate fertilized ova and therefore different in genetic makeup

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Social Implications

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Social Implications

Our ever-improving understanding of chromosomes and genes leads to new ways to biologically control people’s lives.

This gives rise to new ethical issues.

Modern prenatal screening allows for detection of genetic defects before birth.

Genetic problems are detected in about 2% of pregnancies.

What should be done in those situations?

Genetic technologies are often difficult to understand and are often presented in an overly simplified fashion in the media.

Evolutionary Psychology

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Evolutionary psychology

  • Analyzes human behavioral tendencies by examining their adaptive value from an evolutionary perspective
  • It has proved useful in helping to explain some of the commonalities in human behavior that occur across cultures
  • Natural selection - mechanism proposed by Darwin in his theory of evolution, which states that organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive, transmitting their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations, whereas organisms with less adaptive characteristics tend to vanish from earth

  • Common applications of theory:
  • Language, which appears cross-culturally in similar stages
  • Mate selection, in which males and females appear to use different strategies based on adaptation

  • Criticisms of theory
  • Could be used to justify unjust social policies
  • Cross-cultural findings do not necessarily imply evolutionary roots to a behavior
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