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Connecting Teachers, Students, and StandardsConnecting Teachers, Students, and Standards by Deborah L. Voltz, Michele Jean Sims and Betty Nelsonby Deborah L. Voltz, Michele Jean Sims and Betty Nelson
Table of ContentsTable of Contents
Introduction: Teaching in Diverse, Standards-BasedIntroduction: Teaching in Diverse, Standards-Based ClassroomsClassrooms
Today's schools are becoming increasingly diverse. Many teachers �nd that theirToday's schools are becoming increasingly diverse. Many teachers �nd that their classrooms are populated by English language learners, gifted students, studentsclassrooms are populated by English language learners, gifted students, students with disabilities, and students who are culturally diverse. Nearly half of all studentswith disabilities, and students who are culturally diverse. Nearly half of all students in U.S. public schools (42 percent) are students of color, approximately 20 percentin U.S. public schools (42 percent) are students of color, approximately 20 percent of students speak a language other than English at home, and approximately 14of students speak a language other than English at home, and approximately 14 percent of students have an identi�ed disability (U.S. Department of Education,percent of students have an identi�ed disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2007a). Approximately half of the students who have an identi�ed disability spend2007a). Approximately half of the students who have an identi�ed disability spend 80 percent of their school day in general education classrooms (U.S. Department of80 percent of their school day in general education classrooms (U.S. Department of Education, 2007b). To add to this diversity, approximately 12 percent of students inEducation, 2007b). To add to this diversity, approximately 12 percent of students in public schools are labeled as gifted and talented (Friend, 2007). Like their peers with disabilities, gifted andpublic schools are labeled as gifted and talented (Friend, 2007). Like their peers with disabilities, gifted and talented students also are integrated into general education classrooms. All of these di�erences maketalented students also are integrated into general education classrooms. All of these di�erences make teaching more interesting and exciting as well as more complex.teaching more interesting and exciting as well as more complex.
Educational Trends That A�ect TeachingEducational Trends That A�ect Teaching
Standards-Based ReformStandards-Based Reform
Despite a wide range of student di�erences—or perhaps because of it— there is an increased emphasis toDespite a wide range of student di�erences—or perhaps because of it— there is an increased emphasis to have all students reach the same academic goals and standards. Some education experts have referred tohave all students reach the same academic goals and standards. Some education experts have referred to this movement as "standards-based reform." Many advocates of standards-based reform have argued thatthis movement as "standards-based reform." Many advocates of standards-based reform have argued that expectations for students have been too low, especially for students with disabilities and students fromexpectations for students have been too low, especially for students with disabilities and students from minority groups and lower socioeconomic classes. This perception has led to the idea that whateverminority groups and lower socioeconomic classes. This perception has led to the idea that whatever standards or educational goals are set should be uniformly applied to the vast majority of students andstandards or educational goals are set should be uniformly applied to the vast majority of students and particular attention should be given to historically underperforming groups. This shift in thinking has been aparticular attention should be given to historically underperforming groups. This shift in thinking has been a challenge for educators. Despite the challenges with standard-based reform, this movement holds manychallenge for educators. Despite the challenges with standard-based reform, this movement holds many promises, such aspromises, such as
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Helping educators focus on critical knowledge and skills.Helping educators focus on critical knowledge and skills.
Enhancing the coherence and continuity of instruction by eliminating what some educators have viewedEnhancing the coherence and continuity of instruction by eliminating what some educators have viewed as a chaotic patchwork of curricula that may vary from teacher to teacher or from school to school.as a chaotic patchwork of curricula that may vary from teacher to teacher or from school to school.
Addressing the soft bigotry associated with lower expectations for poor and minority students.Addressing the soft bigotry associated with lower expectations for poor and minority students.
Serving as a catalyst to promote collaboration between teachers in general education, special education,Serving as a catalyst to promote collaboration between teachers in general education, special education, ESL, and bilingual education. Standards-based reform also helps educators share responsibility andESL, and bilingual education. Standards-based reform also helps educators share responsibility and accountability for the progress of all students, including students with disabilities and students fromaccountability for the progress of all students, including students with disabilities and students from diverse backgrounds.diverse backgrounds.
InclusionInclusion
As attention increases to ensure that all learners reach common standards, there is also more attentionAs attention increases to ensure that all learners reach common standards, there is also more attention focused on integrating students with disabilities into general education classrooms. Some experts havefocused on integrating students with disabilities into general education classrooms. Some experts have referred to this movement as "inclusion." It is important to note, however, that the physical placement ofreferred to this movement as "inclusion." It is important to note, however, that the physical placement of students with disabilities in general education classes is not an end in and of itself, but rather a means to anstudents with disabilities in general education classes is not an end in and of itself, but rather a means to an end. The power of inclusion lies in how educators respond to individual di�erences. While standards-basedend. The power of inclusion lies in how educators respond to individual di�erences. While standards-based reform calls for convergence in terms of learning outcomes, inclusion calls for divergence in terms of thereform calls for convergence in terms of learning outcomes, inclusion calls for divergence in terms of the strategies used in teaching. When inclusion is considered alongside standards-based reform, it would appearstrategies used in teaching. When inclusion is considered alongside standards-based reform, it would appear that teachers are being called upon to produce greater similarity in learning outcomes despite greaterthat teachers are being called upon to produce greater similarity in learning outcomes despite greater diversity in student populations. For teachers who are attempting to manage the tension between standards-diversity in student populations. For teachers who are attempting to manage the tension between standards- based reform and inclusion, there are still many challenges. Inclusion provides many opportunities forbased reform and inclusion, there are still many challenges. Inclusion provides many opportunities for educators, such aseducators, such as
Enhancing access to general education curriculum for students with disabilities.Enhancing access to general education curriculum for students with disabilities. Greater academic Greater academic gains have been associated with general education placement for students with disabilities (Waldron &gains have been associated with general education placement for students with disabilities (Waldron & McLeskey, 1998). This enhanced access to a general education curriculum should include UniversalMcLeskey, 1998). This enhanced access to a general education curriculum should include Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles and materials for students with di�culties reading andDesign for Learning (UDL) principles and materials for students with di�culties reading and understanding print that meet the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS). Thisunderstanding print that meet the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS). This support is particularly important in a standards-based context because most students with disabilitiessupport is particularly important in a standards-based context because most students with disabilities will be held to the same educational standards as their peers without disabilities.will be held to the same educational standards as their peers without disabilities.
Providing greater opportunities for students with disabilities to learn socially appropriateProviding greater opportunities for students with disabilities to learn socially appropriate behaviors through interaction with their peers without disabilities.behaviors through interaction with their peers without disabilities. For example, when segregated For example, when segregated in separate settings, students who have emotional or behavioral disorders are exposed only to otherin separate settings, students who have emotional or behavioral disorders are exposed only to other students who have similar disorders. This practice limits their opportunities to see appropriatestudents who have similar disorders. This practice limits their opportunities to see appropriate behaviors and diminishes their inclination to conform to these behaviors through the dynamics of peerbehaviors and diminishes their inclination to conform to these behaviors through the dynamics of peer pressure.pressure.
Preparing students with and without disabilities for the real world.Preparing students with and without disabilities for the real world. As adults, students will be As adults, students will be exposed to a wide range of human variance, including individuals with disabilities. By providingexposed to a wide range of human variance, including individuals with disabilities. By providing opportunities for all students to have interactions with students with disabilities during their educationalopportunities for all students to have interactions with students with disabilities during their educational experience, the groundwork will be laid for these students to embrace all individuals with disabilitiesexperience, the groundwork will be laid for these students to embrace all individuals with disabilities throughout their lives.throughout their lives.
Cultural and Linguistic DiversityCultural and Linguistic Diversity
Of course, disability status re�ects only one aspect of human diversity. Factors such as race, ethnicity, class,Of course, disability status re�ects only one aspect of human diversity. Factors such as race, ethnicity, class, gender, and language also contribute to the classroom mosaic and may in�uence the cultural characteristicsgender, and language also contribute to the classroom mosaic and may in�uence the cultural characteristics that students bring. Given the pervasive manner in which culture in�uences thought and behavior, it is notthat students bring. Given the pervasive manner in which culture in�uences thought and behavior, it is not hard to imagine that it plays a signi�cant role in the learning process. In fact, almost every aspect of thehard to imagine that it plays a signi�cant role in the learning process. In fact, almost every aspect of the teaching and learning process is culturally in�uenced, such as attitudes about what is important to learn andteaching and learning process is culturally in�uenced, such as attitudes about what is important to learn and
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decisions about how learning is best accomplished and assessed. While student diversity provides a richdecisions about how learning is best accomplished and assessed. While student diversity provides a rich educational resource, it also adds to the complexity of teaching in a standards-based context. Nevertheless,educational resource, it also adds to the complexity of teaching in a standards-based context. Nevertheless, there are many opportunities that cultural diversity provides, such asthere are many opportunities that cultural diversity provides, such as
Providing opportunities for all students to learn from other students who are di�erent.Providing opportunities for all students to learn from other students who are di�erent. Cultural Cultural diversity gives students a chance to learn about di�erent languages, customs, and worldviews.diversity gives students a chance to learn about di�erent languages, customs, and worldviews.
Reducing ignorance that comes from lack of exposure.Reducing ignorance that comes from lack of exposure. Oftentimes, when students only interact with Oftentimes, when students only interact with persons who share the same background, they become blind to other ways of seeing and doing things.persons who share the same background, they become blind to other ways of seeing and doing things. This cultural isolation frequently works to their disadvantage.This cultural isolation frequently works to their disadvantage.
Providing opportunities for all students to develop cross-cultural competence.Providing opportunities for all students to develop cross-cultural competence. Through everyday Through everyday activities in diverse school settings, students are challenged to �nd ways of interacting e�ectively withactivities in diverse school settings, students are challenged to �nd ways of interacting e�ectively with students who are culturally di�erent. In so doing, they develop important skills in cross-culturalstudents who are culturally di�erent. In so doing, they develop important skills in cross-cultural competence.competence.
Preparing students for the real world.Preparing students for the real world. Similar to inclusion, giving students opportunities to interact Similar to inclusion, giving students opportunities to interact with diverse individuals in their school experiences better prepares them to do so as adults in thewith diverse individuals in their school experiences better prepares them to do so as adults in the workplace.workplace.
Integrating standards-based reform, including students with disabilities, and teaching more students fromIntegrating standards-based reform, including students with disabilities, and teaching more students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds combine to create the perfect educational storm. How do allculturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds combine to create the perfect educational storm. How do all of these trends �t together? In some regards, these trends may seem to re�ect incompatible ideas. On oneof these trends �t together? In some regards, these trends may seem to re�ect incompatible ideas. On one hand, these movements were created to provide the same standards for all learners; but each reformhand, these movements were created to provide the same standards for all learners; but each reform mandates respect for each student's individual di�erences. The next section addresses these tensions.mandates respect for each student's individual di�erences. The next section addresses these tensions.
Can Inclusion Really Work in Diverse, Standards-Based Classrooms?Can Inclusion Really Work in Diverse, Standards-Based Classrooms?
Despite the fact that it is not always possible to get all students to exactly the same point in the curriculum atDespite the fact that it is not always possible to get all students to exactly the same point in the curriculum at exactly the same time, it is feasible to move most students through the curriculum toward establishedexactly the same time, it is feasible to move most students through the curriculum toward established standards. Although the concepts of inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity often seem tostandards. Although the concepts of inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity often seem to con�ict with standards-based reform, these ideas actually work together.con�ict with standards-based reform, these ideas actually work together.
As is shown in Figure I.1, the overarching goals of standards-based reform, inclusion, and teaching for culturalAs is shown in Figure I.1, the overarching goals of standards-based reform, inclusion, and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity are the same—to enhance the educational outcomes for all students. For example,and linguistic diversity are the same—to enhance the educational outcomes for all students. For example, standards-based reform emphasizes the need to support all students in reaching rigorous standards.standards-based reform emphasizes the need to support all students in reaching rigorous standards. Students with disabilities and students with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have historicallyStudents with disabilities and students with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have historically been among the most vulnerable to diminished educational outcomes as a result of low expectations. Thebeen among the most vulnerable to diminished educational outcomes as a result of low expectations. The reality is that the vast majority of students with disabilities and students from culturally and linguisticallyreality is that the vast majority of students with disabilities and students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds do not have severe cognitive de�cits. These students have the ability to succeeddiverse backgrounds do not have severe cognitive de�cits. These students have the ability to succeed academically in the inclusive classroom. While raising standards is not the same thing as raising expectations,academically in the inclusive classroom. While raising standards is not the same thing as raising expectations, some educators feel that the accountability assessments associated with standards-based reform will forcesome educators feel that the accountability assessments associated with standards-based reform will force the issue of higher expectations. It is possible that we will have to change our behaviors and adjust ourthe issue of higher expectations. It is possible that we will have to change our behaviors and adjust our attitudes and expectations. For example, a teacher may not initially believe in a student's ability to meet aattitudes and expectations. For example, a teacher may not initially believe in a student's ability to meet a certain standard; however, that teacher will still earnestly work with that student because he or she willcertain standard; however, that teacher will still earnestly work with that student because he or she will encounter that same standard on an accountability assessment in the future. Despite the teacher's initialencounter that same standard on an accountability assessment in the future. Despite the teacher's initial doubts, the student may master the standard in question. This student's achievement will make it possible fordoubts, the student may master the standard in question. This student's achievement will make it possible for that teacher to see potential in other students with similar characteristics. Without the standards andthat teacher to see potential in other students with similar characteristics. Without the standards and accountability assessment processes, this teacher may never have given this student the opportunity toaccountability assessment processes, this teacher may never have given this student the opportunity to master the standard in question. The core idea of not underestimating students' abilities is implicit inmaster the standard in question. The core idea of not underestimating students' abilities is implicit in standards-based reform and holds particular importance in the education of diverse students.standards-based reform and holds particular importance in the education of diverse students.
Figure I.1. Current Movements in EducationFigure I.1. Current Movements in Education
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g
Standards-Based ReformStandards-Based Reform InclusionInclusion Education forEducation for DiversityDiversity
OverarchingOverarching GoalGoal
Enhance educationalEnhance educational outcomes for all studentsoutcomes for all students
Enhance educationalEnhance educational outcomes for alloutcomes for all studentsstudents
EnhanceEnhance educationaleducational outcomesoutcomes for allfor all studentsstudents
Basic TenetBasic Tenet Educational outcomes can beEducational outcomes can be enhanced by setting rigorousenhanced by setting rigorous standards, teaching to thosestandards, teaching to those standards, and assessingstandards, and assessing progress towardprogress toward accomplishing thoseaccomplishing those standardsstandards
Educational outcomesEducational outcomes can be enhanced bycan be enhanced by maximizingmaximizing opportunities foropportunities for students with andstudents with and without disabilities towithout disabilities to be educated togetherbe educated together
EducationalEducational outcomesoutcomes can becan be enhancedenhanced byby embracingembracing studentstudent diversitydiversity
AssociatedAssociated InstructionalInstructional PracticesPractices
Curriculum is aligned withCurriculum is aligned with standardsstandards
Uses large-scale assessmentsUses large-scale assessments
Di�erentiatedDi�erentiated instructioninstruction
Universal designUniversal design
MulticulturalMulticultural educationeducation
ShelteredSheltered instructioninstruction
The metaphor of all boats rising or sinking together is often used when describing approaches to standards-The metaphor of all boats rising or sinking together is often used when describing approaches to standards- based reform, such as the No Child Left Behind Act. For example, in order for a school to achieve adequatebased reform, such as the No Child Left Behind Act. For example, in order for a school to achieve adequate yearly progress (AYP), all student subgroups, including English language learners, students with disabilities,yearly progress (AYP), all student subgroups, including English language learners, students with disabilities, and students from minority groups, must make adequate yearly progress. The progress of the group as aand students from minority groups, must make adequate yearly progress. The progress of the group as a whole cannot mask the lack of development of designated subgroups. To extend the nautical metaphor, wewhole cannot mask the lack of development of designated subgroups. To extend the nautical metaphor, we can't ignore a hole in our neighbor's end of the boat and still expect to have our end remain dry. Specialcan't ignore a hole in our neighbor's end of the boat and still expect to have our end remain dry. Special education students and other historically marginalized groups cannot be sent to the trailer and be forgotten.education students and other historically marginalized groups cannot be sent to the trailer and be forgotten.
The goal of helping all students meet rigorous standards can only be attained by attending to the needs ofThe goal of helping all students meet rigorous standards can only be attained by attending to the needs of the most vulnerable students—students with disabilities and students from culturally and linguisticallythe most vulnerable students—students with disabilities and students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The ideas embodied in movements such as inclusion and teaching for cultural anddiverse backgrounds. The ideas embodied in movements such as inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity provide this needed attention. Additionally, while standards-based reform is largely silentlinguistic diversity provide this needed attention. Additionally, while standards-based reform is largely silent on the issue of instructional methodology, the inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversityon the issue of instructional methodology, the inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity movements infuse instructional approaches that maximize opportunities for all students to learn from theirmovements infuse instructional approaches that maximize opportunities for all students to learn from their diverse peers. These approaches include di�erentiated instruction, universal design, sheltered instruction,diverse peers. These approaches include di�erentiated instruction, universal design, sheltered instruction, and multicultural education.and multicultural education.
Instructional Approaches That Support Inclusion in Diverse, Standards-Instructional Approaches That Support Inclusion in Diverse, Standards- Based ClassroomsBased Classrooms
Di�erentiated InstructionDi�erentiated Instruction
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Without the supporting pedagogy, inclusion in diverse, standards-based classrooms could not be successful.Without the supporting pedagogy, inclusion in diverse, standards-based classrooms could not be successful. Di�erentiated instruction is an example of a supporting instructional approach that embraces the needs ofDi�erentiated instruction is an example of a supporting instructional approach that embraces the needs of academically diverse populations of students, in particular students who are gifted or who have disabilities.academically diverse populations of students, in particular students who are gifted or who have disabilities. Di�erentiated instruction involves creating multiple paths to learning for diverse students (Tomlinson, 1999).Di�erentiated instruction involves creating multiple paths to learning for diverse students (Tomlinson, 1999). Instruction can be di�erentiated in a variety of ways, such as tailoring content to an individual student'sInstruction can be di�erentiated in a variety of ways, such as tailoring content to an individual student's needs, modifying instructional methods to address student learning characteristics more appropriately, orneeds, modifying instructional methods to address student learning characteristics more appropriately, or adjusting learning products or assignments based on a student's skill and ability levels.adjusting learning products or assignments based on a student's skill and ability levels.
Universal Design for LearningUniversal Design for Learning
Universal design is an instructional approach that gives particular attention to students who have physical,Universal design is an instructional approach that gives particular attention to students who have physical, sensory, and cognitive disabilities. Like di�erentiated instruction, universal design embraces the idea thatsensory, and cognitive disabilities. Like di�erentiated instruction, universal design embraces the idea that instruction should be designed from the beginning with students' diverse needs in mind. Universal designinstruction should be designed from the beginning with students' diverse needs in mind. Universal design supports the thought that educators should not have to retro�t lessons for students with exceptional needssupports the thought that educators should not have to retro�t lessons for students with exceptional needs after those lessons have already been created. According to Orkwis (1999), "Universal design implies a designafter those lessons have already been created. According to Orkwis (1999), "Universal design implies a design of instructional materials and activities that allows learning goals to be attainable by individuals with wideof instructional materials and activities that allows learning goals to be attainable by individuals with wide di�erences in their abilities to see, hear, speak, move, read, write, understand English, attend, organize,di�erences in their abilities to see, hear, speak, move, read, write, understand English, attend, organize, engage, and remember" (p. 1). With universal design, it is important that learning activities provide multipleengage, and remember" (p. 1). With universal design, it is important that learning activities provide multiple means of representation or modes of presentation (i.e., auditory, visual, and varying levels of complexity).means of representation or modes of presentation (i.e., auditory, visual, and varying levels of complexity). Learning activities also must allow students to respond in various modes and should be designed to engageLearning activities also must allow students to respond in various modes and should be designed to engage learners with varying interests and aptitudes. Often, educators use assistive technology to implementlearners with varying interests and aptitudes. Often, educators use assistive technology to implement universal design to make instruction accessible for a broader array of students. Assistive technology refers touniversal design to make instruction accessible for a broader array of students. Assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially o� the shelf, modi�ed, or"any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially o� the shelf, modi�ed, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability"customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability" (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, 20 U.S.C. 1401 (a) (25)). Hence, low-tech devices such as pencil grips may(U.S. Department of Education, 2004, 20 U.S.C. 1401 (a) (25)). Hence, low-tech devices such as pencil grips may be considered assistive technology as well as high-tech devices such as screen readers or electronic books.be considered assistive technology as well as high-tech devices such as screen readers or electronic books. The principles of universal design are important to engineering classrooms that support diverse learners,The principles of universal design are important to engineering classrooms that support diverse learners, including those students with physical, sensory, and cognitive disabilities (see Chapter 2 for an in-depthincluding those students with physical, sensory, and cognitive disabilities (see Chapter 2 for an in-depth discussion on UDL).discussion on UDL).
Sheltered InstructionSheltered Instruction
Like di�erentiated instruction and universal design, sheltered instruction also embraces the needs of diverseLike di�erentiated instruction and universal design, sheltered instruction also embraces the needs of diverse learners, speci�cally English language learners. Echevarria, Vogt, and Short (2004) de�ne sheltered instructionlearners, speci�cally English language learners. Echevarria, Vogt, and Short (2004) de�ne sheltered instruction by using the following eight broad elements: (1) preparation, (2) building background, (3) comprehensibleby using the following eight broad elements: (1) preparation, (2) building background, (3) comprehensible input, (4) strategies, (5) interaction, (6) practice and application, (7) lesson delivery, and (8) review andinput, (4) strategies, (5) interaction, (6) practice and application, (7) lesson delivery, and (8) review and assessment. The preparation element suggests that teachers �rst identify lesson objectives aligned with stateassessment. The preparation element suggests that teachers �rst identify lesson objectives aligned with state and local standards. The building background element requires that teachers link new content to students'and local standards. The building background element requires that teachers link new content to students' background experiences and helps students focus on unfamiliar vocabulary. With the comprehensible inputbackground experiences and helps students focus on unfamiliar vocabulary. With the comprehensible input element, as the name implies, teachers use controlled vocabulary, sentence structure, and visuals andelement, as the name implies, teachers use controlled vocabulary, sentence structure, and visuals and gestures to facilitate students' comprehension. The strategies element refers to teaching students di�erentgestures to facilitate students' comprehension. The strategies element refers to teaching students di�erent approaches for organizing and retaining information associated with e�ective learning. The interactionapproaches for organizing and retaining information associated with e�ective learning. The interaction element shows teachers how to structure opportunities for students to interact with their peers in theelement shows teachers how to structure opportunities for students to interact with their peers in the learning process. The interaction phase leads to the practice and application element, which requireslearning process. The interaction phase leads to the practice and application element, which requires teachers to provide frequent opportunities for students to practice new language skills in context. The lessonteachers to provide frequent opportunities for students to practice new language skills in context. The lesson delivery element illustrates how teachers can appropriately pace the lesson and provide for activedelivery element illustrates how teachers can appropriately pace the lesson and provide for active engagement. The review and assessment element focuses on establishing standards and including language-engagement. The review and assessment element focuses on establishing standards and including language- based and content-based evaluations. All of these elements are important in designing classroom instructionbased and content-based evaluations. All of these elements are important in designing classroom instruction that embraces the needs of English language learners.that embraces the needs of English language learners.
Multicultural EducationMulticultural Education
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Multicultural education is another approach that is important in today's diverse, standards-based classrooms.Multicultural education is another approach that is important in today's diverse, standards-based classrooms. As the name implies, multicultural education addresses the needs of culturally diverse populations ofAs the name implies, multicultural education addresses the needs of culturally diverse populations of students. Banks (2001) de�ned this approach with the following �ve major dimensions: (1) contentstudents. Banks (2001) de�ned this approach with the following �ve major dimensions: (1) content integration, (2) the knowledge construction process, (3) bias reduction, (4) empowering school culture, and (5)integration, (2) the knowledge construction process, (3) bias reduction, (4) empowering school culture, and (5) equity pedagogy. Content integration implies that curricula should include content about diverse populationsequity pedagogy. Content integration implies that curricula should include content about diverse populations and present information from diverse points of view. The knowledge construction process focuses on theand present information from diverse points of view. The knowledge construction process focuses on the extent to which teachers explore the in�uences of culture with students. This process includes exploring howextent to which teachers explore the in�uences of culture with students. This process includes exploring how knowledge is constructed and how attitudes are formed in regards to what constitutes valuable or importantknowledge is constructed and how attitudes are formed in regards to what constitutes valuable or important knowledge. Bias reduction refers to activities that are designed to examine and reduce bias in attitudes.knowledge. Bias reduction refers to activities that are designed to examine and reduce bias in attitudes. Building an empowering school culture eradicates systemic factors such as the negative e�ects of trackingBuilding an empowering school culture eradicates systemic factors such as the negative e�ects of tracking practices on diverse groups of students. Equity pedagogy helps teachers use instructional strategies thatpractices on diverse groups of students. Equity pedagogy helps teachers use instructional strategies that embrace the learning characteristics and cognitive styles of diverse populations. Multicultural educationembrace the learning characteristics and cognitive styles of diverse populations. Multicultural education supports educators in enhancing the educational experiences of all learners, including students fromsupports educators in enhancing the educational experiences of all learners, including students from culturally diverse backgrounds.culturally diverse backgrounds.
Together, di�erentiated instruction, sheltered instruction, universal design, and multicultural educationTogether, di�erentiated instruction, sheltered instruction, universal design, and multicultural education address the broad array of students in today's classrooms. By using these approaches, teachers have theaddress the broad array of students in today's classrooms. By using these approaches, teachers have the pedagogical tools they need to teach standards in diverse, inclusive classrooms.pedagogical tools they need to teach standards in diverse, inclusive classrooms.
MMECCA: A Framework for SuccessMMECCA: A Framework for Success
As you read the descriptions of the instructional approaches, you probably noticed that there was someAs you read the descriptions of the instructional approaches, you probably noticed that there was some similarity in the strategies used for each. For example, encouraging teachers to vary how they present contentsimilarity in the strategies used for each. For example, encouraging teachers to vary how they present content to students is a common theme for all of the instructional approaches. This overlap suggests that teachersto students is a common theme for all of the instructional approaches. This overlap suggests that teachers need not have a separate repertoire of strategies for each aspect of student diversity. Rather, it may be moreneed not have a separate repertoire of strategies for each aspect of student diversity. Rather, it may be more helpful to consider implications of student diversity on the critical elements of instruction. Combininghelpful to consider implications of student diversity on the critical elements of instruction. Combining instruction with an awareness of student diversity is the theme of this book. The following chapters will focusinstruction with an awareness of student diversity is the theme of this book. The following chapters will focus on the MMECCA framework which is composed of six critical elements of instruction that must be addressedon the MMECCA framework which is composed of six critical elements of instruction that must be addressed to appropriately respond to student diversity in standards-based classrooms. As shown in Figure I.2, theto appropriately respond to student diversity in standards-based classrooms. As shown in Figure I.2, the MMECCA framework helps to integrate the four instructional approaches associated with teaching diverseMMECCA framework helps to integrate the four instructional approaches associated with teaching diverse populations that were discussed in the previous section. This MMECCA framework is composed of thepopulations that were discussed in the previous section. This MMECCA framework is composed of the following elements:following elements:
Methods of Instruction.Methods of Instruction. This element shows the strategies and techniques that are employed during This element shows the strategies and techniques that are employed during instruction. This is the "how" through which instruction is accomplished.instruction. This is the "how" through which instruction is accomplished.
Materials of Instruction.Materials of Instruction. This element pertains to the tangible items that are used to support This element pertains to the tangible items that are used to support instruction. This is the "with what" through which instruction is accomplished.instruction. This is the "with what" through which instruction is accomplished.
Environment of Instruction.Environment of Instruction. This element focuses on the physical environment of the classroom, This element focuses on the physical environment of the classroom, behavior management, and general classroom ethos. This is the "where" of instruction or thebehavior management, and general classroom ethos. This is the "where" of instruction or the instructional context in which learning will occur.instructional context in which learning will occur.
Content of Instruction.Content of Instruction. This element details what is being taught to students. It addresses curricular This element details what is being taught to students. It addresses curricular issues related to what students should know and be able to do. This is the "what" of the learningissues related to what students should know and be able to do. This is the "what" of the learning process or the knowledge, facts, and understandings that are the essence of teaching and learning.process or the knowledge, facts, and understandings that are the essence of teaching and learning.
Collaboration for Instruction.Collaboration for Instruction. This element pertains to how educators should work together in This element pertains to how educators should work together in delivering instruction to diverse populations. It includes educational practices such as collaborativedelivering instruction to diverse populations. It includes educational practices such as collaborative problem solving and co-teaching. This element also addresses how educators and parents should workproblem solving and co-teaching. This element also addresses how educators and parents should work together. This is the "it takes a village" element of instruction.together. This is the "it takes a village" element of instruction.
Assessment in Instruction.Assessment in Instruction. Finally, this element focuses on the assessment process that begins and Finally, this element focuses on the assessment process that begins and ends the instructional cycle. It includes informal, teacher-made assessments, as well as large-scaleends the instructional cycle. It includes informal, teacher-made assessments, as well as large-scale
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standardized tests. This is the "how do we know what students need and what they know?" element ofstandardized tests. This is the "how do we know what students need and what they know?" element of the instructional process.the instructional process.
Figure I.2. Elements of Instruction in Inclusive, Standards-Based ClassroomsFigure I.2. Elements of Instruction in Inclusive, Standards-Based Classrooms
This framework has been �eld tested in 50 diverse, standards-based classrooms. Participating teachers wereThis framework has been �eld tested in 50 diverse, standards-based classrooms. Participating teachers were trained to use the MMECCA framework during a three-month period. They developed lessons using thistrained to use the MMECCA framework during a three-month period. They developed lessons using this framework, taught the lessons, and then evaluated the outcomes. Participating teachers reported that usingframework, taught the lessons, and then evaluated the outcomes. Participating teachers reported that using the MMECCA framework enhanced their ability to design lessons that met the educational needs of theirthe MMECCA framework enhanced their ability to design lessons that met the educational needs of their diverse students. For example, one teacher said, "Learning about the MMECCA framework in-depth has reallydiverse students. For example, one teacher said, "Learning about the MMECCA framework in-depth has really helped me in working with special needs students." Student work samples taken from the lessons werehelped me in working with special needs students." Student work samples taken from the lessons were evaluated based on how they mastered the standards targeted in the lesson. These student work samplesevaluated based on how they mastered the standards targeted in the lesson. These student work samples and the teachers' re�ections supported the teachers' reported growth in the area of teaching in inclusive,and the teachers' re�ections supported the teachers' reported growth in the area of teaching in inclusive, standards-based classrooms (Voltz, 2006).standards-based classrooms (Voltz, 2006).
The remaining chapters of this book will address each element of the MMECCA framework in-depth.The remaining chapters of this book will address each element of the MMECCA framework in-depth. Suggestions on integrating these ideas into your instruction will be provided in each chapter. We will followSuggestions on integrating these ideas into your instruction will be provided in each chapter. We will follow elementary, middle, and high school teachers as they examine these six elements of their instruction.elementary, middle, and high school teachers as they examine these six elements of their instruction. Through the lens of the instructional models associated with inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguisticThrough the lens of the instructional models associated with inclusion and teaching for cultural and linguistic diversity, each of the elements from the MMECCA framework will be explored and concrete strategies anddiversity, each of the elements from the MMECCA framework will be explored and concrete strategies and illustrative examples will be provided to show how inclusion in diverse, standard-based classrooms can workillustrative examples will be provided to show how inclusion in diverse, standard-based classrooms can work for YOU!for YOU!
11/8/2019 Introduction: Teaching in Diverse, Standards-Based Classrooms
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Resources for MMECCA FrameworkResources for MMECCA Framework
BooksBooks
Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. M. (2009). Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. M. (2009). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectivesMulticultural education: Issues and perspectives. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley.. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley.
Conklin, W., & Frei, S. (2007). Conklin, W., & Frei, S. (2007). Di�erentiating the curriculum for gifted learnersDi�erentiating the curriculum for gifted learners. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.Education.
Council for Exceptional Children. (2005). Council for Exceptional Children. (2005). Universal design for learningUniversal design for learning. Alexandria, VA: Author.. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2010). Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2010). Sheltered content instruction: Teaching English language learners with diverseSheltered content instruction: Teaching English language learners with diverse abilitiesabilities. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Gregory, G. H., & Chapman, C. M. (2006). Gregory, G. H., & Chapman, C. M. (2006). Di�erentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't �t allDi�erentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn't �t all. Thousand. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Rose, D. H., & Mayer, R. (2002). Rose, D. H., & Mayer, R. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learningTeaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learning. Alexandria,. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.VA: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. (2004). Tomlinson, C. (2004). How to di�erentiate instruction in mixed ability classroomsHow to di�erentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Copyright © 2010 by ASCD. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 by ASCD. All rights reserved. No part of this publication—including the drawings, graphs, illustrations, orNo part of this publication—including the drawings, graphs, illustrations, or chapters, except for brief quotations in chapters, except for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles—may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anycritical reviews or articles—may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, withoutincluding photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from ASCD.permission from ASCD.
Requesting PermissionRequesting Permission
For For photocopyphotocopy, , electronic and online accesselectronic and online access, and , and republication requestsrepublication requests, go to the , go to the CopyrightCopyright Clearance CenterClearance Center. Enter the book title within the ". Enter the book title within the "Get PermissionGet Permission" search �eld." search �eld.
To To translatetranslate this book, contact this book, contact [email protected]@ascd.org
Summary: Chapter 1
A young female narrator sits nervously in front of a mirror while her mother cuts her hair. Along with her sixteen-year-old peers, she is about to take an aptitude test to match her with one of society’s five factions. After the test, she will decide whether to stay in her current faction, Abnegation, or leave it forever. As she heads to breakfast with her mother, she reflects on her family’s unselfish life and feels guilty for wanting to leave it behind.
On the bus ride to school, the narrator’s brother Caleb, who is also sixteen, gives up his seat to another rider. As they arrive, she asks Caleb if he is nervous about the test, but instead of answering, he asks her the same question. She lies about her anxiety and they leave for separate classes. In the crowded hallway, a boy from the Erudite faction calls her “Stiff” and knocks her down. She explains that tensions between the Abnegation and Erudite have grown recently. As she does every day, she pauses at a window to watch dozens of pierced, tattooed students from the Dauntless faction jump out of a moving train. After scolding herself for watching, she continues on to class.
Summary: Chapter 2
Classes over, the narrator awaits testing in the cafeteria. There is no way to prepare, so she watches students at the Dauntless, Erudite, Amity, and Candor tables. While Caleb is being tested, the narrator thinks about his easy selflessness and wonders why she finds it so difficult. Caleb is pale when he returns, but he stays quiet, since discussing results is forbidden. When the next group is called, we learn the narrator’s name is Beatrice Prior. Her test administrator, a Dauntless woman named Tori, has a tattoo of a hawk on her neck. After Tori asks Beatrice to sit next to an ominous-looking machine, Beatrice impulsively asks about the tattoo. Tori explains that she chose the hawk, a symbol of the sun, after conquering her fear of the dark. She attaches wires to Beatrice and gives her a vial of liquid to drink.
Beatrice awakens in the empty cafeteria. A voice asks her to choose between two baskets on a table, one containing cheese, the other a knife. Beatrice resists, the baskets disappear, and an angry dog enters ready to attack. Recalling that looking in a dog’s eyes is a sign of aggression, she lies down, and the dog becomes friendly. When a little girl appears and the dog prepares to pounce, Beatrice tackles it and is suddenly transported back to the mirrored room. She walks out onto a bus and sees a scarred man holding a newspaper. He asks whether she knows the man on the front page, a murderer who has just been caught. Though he looks vaguely familiar, Beatrice senses danger and professes ignorance. The man accuses Beatrice of lying and says she could save him if she confessed, but she refuses.
Summary: Chapter 3
Beatrice awakens to find Tori looking concerned. Tori briefly leaves the room, leaving Beatrice to worry that she will be left factionless and in poverty. When she returns, Tori explains that the test was inconclusive. Instead of eliminating four factions, it only ruled out two: she possesses traits of Abnegation, Erudite, and Dauntless. These results make her “Divergent.” Tori warns Beatrice that the label is extremely dangerous and she should never tell anyone about her results. She sends Beatrice home to think about how to handle the next day’s choosing ceremony.
Beatrice plans to intercept Caleb and ensure he doesn’t reveal her early return to their parents. As she passes through the decayed factionless sector, an unkempt man approaches and asks her for food. She gives him a bag of apple slices and he grabs her wrist, asking her about the choosing ceremony. As she prepares to hit him, he lets her go and tells her to choose wisely.
Analysis: Chapters 1 – 3
Divergent is set in an American city at some point in the future, possibly after a cataclysmic event has changed the landscape and social order. The setting is an urban matrix of glass and steel buildings bordered by a giant marsh that was once a lake. When combined with buildings named in later chapters, it eventually becomes clear that the protagonist lives in an alternate version of Chicago. Though elements of her life are familiar to contemporary readers– children ride the bus to school, adults have jobs, politicians govern – Beatrice’s opening sentences reveal that this isn’t contemporary America. As she watches herself in the mirror, a recurring motif, we learn her “faction” only allows her to look at her reflection once every three months. In dystopian fiction, existence is unpleasant or frightening in some way, usually because an unseen authority controls people in ways that are imaginable but unlikely in real life. Dystopian novels often feature a protagonist who tries to fight authority through a struggle that either succeeds or goes horribly wrong. Beatrice is the novel’s protagonist, and because the narration is first person, giving readers access to her innermost thoughts, readers are invited to sympathize strongly with her.
The rules that govern thought and behavior seem especially strict in Beatrice’s faction, but no one in the novel’s society has much free will. An unnamed authority has separated society into five factions. At age sixteen, each person must take an aptitude test that tells them which faction they are best suited for. The factions each have corresponding professional roles. For example, in Abnegation, Beatrice’s mother works for a volunteer organization that helps renovate buildings. Once they join a faction, idividuals must suppress their preferences and hide inconsistencies in order to conform to the community’s values. There are clearly tensions and overlap between factions, both in Beatrice’s inner world and in society at large. Throughout the book, she and her peers will wonder who and what actually determine the qualities that define each faction
Beatrice is anxious about the upcoming test and ceremony for conflicting reasons. The fact that her mother still cuts her hair indicates that in some ways she is still a child, and is apprehensive at the thought of leaving her parents and brother behind forever. However, at sixteen, she’s also on the cusp of an adult revelation. She senses that she has never belonged in Abnegation and that in a different faction she could be a different person. Adding to her inner turmoil, the other members of her family seem to be ideal Abnegation members. When she compares herself to them, Beatrice feels like an “outsider.” She freely admits she has trouble tamping down on her curiosity, making her feel both incompetent and oppressed. She is also drawn to the Dauntless, envying their life of climbing tall statues and jumping out of moving trains. Tori, the Dauntless woman who administers her test, provides Beatrice a new adult role model, and a chance to see what she could achieve if she left the safe but boring comforts of her selfless life.
Though Beatrice is shocked when the aptitude test labels her “Divergent,” the result confirms her instinct that she is out of place in Abnegation. But the result takes that difference a step further by separating her not just from her faction, but from any clear identity in a society that forces people to show only one aspect of their personalities. Beatrice finds the prospect both exhilarating and terrifying. Though she never says so directly, her thoughts imply that she is trying to decide between Abnegation and Dauntless. Her encounter with the factionless man as she walks home shows what could be in store for her by reminding her that those who fail to conform, whether by choice or lack of ability, are doomed to live terrible, lonely lives. Nonetheless, she also recognizes that her inconclusive test allows her to make an unexpected and meaningful choice about her future.
Summary: Chapter 4
Beatrice arrives home five minutes early and waits for Caleb to return. She thinks about how all the houses in Abnegation are the same to prevent vanity, pride, and envy among faction members. When Caleb arrives with their friends Robert and Susan, Beatrice lies about her early return, saying the test made her sick. Though Caleb doesn’t believe her, she tells him she can’t discuss what happened. After the others leave, the siblings cook dinner together, and Beatrice feels irritated with Caleb’s natural unselfishness.
Their parents arrive home, and as the family sits down to eat, their mother mentions she heard there was a problem with one aptitude test. Meanwhile, their father, a politician, is angry about Erudite’s accusations against his colleague, a fellow Abnegation leader named Marcus. Jeanine, the Erudite representative, has released a report saying Marcus’ son, Tobias, left Abnegation for Dauntless because Marcus was violent and cruel. Beatrice’s father refuses to believe the report. He sees Marcus’s son’s departure as a betrayal, and thinks the Erudite are seeking power for themselves. On their way to bed, Caleb surprises Beatrice by telling her they need to think about themselves when they choose a faction, not just their families. She notices a stack of books on his desk and wishes she could ask him for help with her decision.
Summary Chapter 5
Beatrice and her family arrive at the Hub for the Choosing Ceremony. After giving up their space in the elevator to make room for others, they climb twenty flights of stairs to the ceremony room. All the sixteen-year-olds stand in a large circle, inside of which sits a ring of chairs for family members. In the center are five large metal bowls containing substances representing each faction: stones for Abnegation, water for Erudite, earth for Amity, coals for Dauntless, and glass for Candor.
Beatrice knows her father expects both children to stay in Abnegation, and is surprised when her mother says she’ll love her no matter what she chooses. Then Marcus gives a speech explaining the “democratic philosophy” that underpins the factions. The divisions are meant to eradicate evil human impulses, including ignorance, duplicity, and selfishness, and the system has led to years of peaceful civilization. The initiates’ names are called in reverse alphabetical order. When called, each person cuts his or her hand with a knife and sprinkles blood into the bowl representing their chosen faction. Beatrice and the other Abnegation members are shocked when Caleb chooses Erudite, since the two factions have become enemies. Feeling obligated to her family, Beatrice nearly chooses her home faction, but after a few agonizing moments, she picks Dauntless.
Summary: Chapter 6
Beatrice leaves the Hub with the other Dauntless initiates. On her way out, she sneaks a look at her parents. Her father is upset, but her mother is smiling. In contrast to her quiet ascent with the Abnegation faction, she and her fellow initiates run loudly down the stairs. She enjoys the feeling of freedom and is exhilarated as she jumps onto a train for the first time. After another initiate helps pull her in, she sees a boy who didn’t make it onto the train recede into the distance. The girl who helped Beatrice into the train introduces herself as Christina, a Candor transfer.
When the train arrives at Dauntless headquarters, the initiates jump onto its roof. Beatrice, Christina, and several others make it safely, but one girl falls to her death. A Dauntless leader named Max tells them to jump into the compound entrance at the center of the building, a giant hole seven stories deep. Irked by the taunts of a Candor boy named Peter, Beatrice decides to jump first. She takes off her outer shirt, revealing skin for the first time, and throws it at Peter. She jumps, and after a long fall, lands heavily in a net. A young man with dark blue eyes helps her onto a platform. He and another Dauntless girl, Lauren, are impressed that the first jumper is from Abnegation. Feeling like her name doesn’t fit her new faction, she tells them her name is Tris. She learns that the boy’s name is Four, and he welcomes her to Dauntless.
Analysis: Chapters 4 – 6
In these chapters, readers are given a clearer sense of daily life in Abnegation. The faction doesn’t just prioritize humility, it demands it. All of its social norms and requirements – identical houses, simple clothing and hairstyles, limitations on public affection – force people to downplay their individual needs and desires on behalf of the collective good. The faction also plays a central role in the political system. Beatrice’s fictional society assumes that the selfless members of Abnegation make the best political leaders. However, Beatrice’s father reveals that this arrangement has begun to cause tension. Specifically, the Erudite feel that their intelligence is a valuable political asset and have begun attacking the council, which is composed entirely of Abnegation members. These troubling details foreshadow worsening problems between the factions.
Marcus’s speech at the Choosing Ceremony reveals more about the historical rationale for the factions. Decades ago, social leaders decided that war was caused by evils within the human personality, not external forces. This led them to attempt to eliminate the human traits that caused violence. It’s notable that his speech focuses on the desire to eliminate bad traits rather than cultivate good ones. He goes on to say that the arrangement created pools of talent for different occupations, but he doesn’t acknowledge the system’s obvious downsides. The factions separate people into rigid categories, forcing each to cultivate a single virtue at the expense of all others. And even though the factions have lived in peace for decades, their separation invites competition and distrust. The negative reports Erudite has been releasing about Abnegation foreshadow the breakdown of the system amidst worsening faction relationships.
Beatrice is especially sensitive to the personality gap between herself and her brother, Caleb. She considers him a model Abnegation citizen and resents his natural unselfishness. Even though they are in the same grade, he is slightly older, and he acts like an elder sibling. He rebukes Beatrice when she speaks out of turn at dinner, and later he gives her advice about the Choosing Ceremony. Her surprise at Caleb’s decision to switch to Erudite reveals that she isn’t an entirely reliable narrator. Her conclusions about others are often influenced by her own self-concern. For example, the stack of books on Caleb’s desk might have alerted her to Caleb’s Erudite aspirations, but she’s so anxious about her own choice that she doesn’t think about what the books might mean.
The Choosing Ceremony forces Beatrice to confront her conflicted feelings head on, and her desire to break free wins out. She feels guilty about leaving her family, especially since Caleb has also chosen a new faction, but she has convinced herself she is too selfish to stay in Abnegation. As she cuts her hand and drips blood over the coals, she observes, “I am selfish. I am brave.” The statement suggests she can’t imagine being both brave and unselfish. Indeed, the inflexible social order has made choosing a new faction a traumatic experience. Unlike in contemporary American society, in the novel, adolescence means physically leaving one’s family and beginning an entirely new life.
The opening scenes of the Dauntless initiation show Beatrice giving free reign to her adventurous impulses. Even though she is nervous and inexperienced, she isn’t timid. She immediately jumps on the train along with the other initiates, and she’s the first to leap seven stories down into the Dauntless compound, earning her the nickname “first jumper.” Indeed, initiation provides her with the opportunity to create a new identity. When Four asks her name, she shortens it to “Tris.” The change reveals that despite her newfound independence, she’s still vulnerable to social pressure. Although she has joined Dauntless because it best represents her individual self, she chooses a name that conforms to the norms of her new faction. Her desire to appear brave in front of others, especially those who question her abilities, will surface repeatedly throughout the book.
READING
&
ACTIVITIES
READING & ACTIVITIES
Discussion Questions: Chapter 1
1. What is the Choosing Ceremony? How does the narrator feel about the Choosing Ceremony?
2. What are the Aptitude Tests? How does the narrator feel about them?
3. What faction does Beatrice’s family belong to?
Discussion Questions: Chapter 2
1. “Faction customs dictate even idle behavior and supersede individual preference.” (Pg. 9) Explain what this means.
2. Describe the Aptitude Test and the situations Beatrice faces during hers.
Discussion Questions: Chapter 3
1. What are the results of Beatrice’s Aptitude Test?
2. Who is Tori and what advice does she give Beatrice about her results?
3. Who are the factionless? What do they do for the community?
Discussion Questions: Chapter 4
1. Explain how the city is governed. (Pg. 33)
2. Why do the Abnegation politicians feud with the Erudite representatives?
3. Describe the Abnegation sector of the city using evidence from the chapter.
4. Beatrice narrates (Pg. 28): “If we have little, and want for little, and we are all equal, we envy no one.” Do you agree with her statement? Why or why not?
Discussion Questions: Chapter 5
1. How do initiates make their selection at the Choosing Ceremony?
2. According to Marcus, why were the factions formed?
3. What faction does Caleb choose? What faction does Beatrice choose?
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