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The United States Constitution September 17, 1787

____________________ It quickly became apparent that the Articles of Confederation, ratified by all the states by March 1781, was insufficient in several areas (Lowman, pp. 121-22). One of the main weaknesses was that it had no means of enforcing laws, or to settle disputes arising out of national laws. This placed the states in the position of being independent nations (Lowman, p. 122). The states had no rights with one another that were easily protected, and neither did their citizens. Shays' Rebellion, which occurred in Massachusetts in 1786, magnified this problem and was the event that caused the founding fathers to discuss plans for a better system of government:

Shays' Rebellion was limited to Massachusetts, but it threw fear into the hearts of Americans in general. It rudely awakened them to the truly desperate political and economic conditions in America. George Washington, in a letter to John Jay, wrote that "our affairs are drawing rapidly to a crisis. We have errors to correct; we have probably had too good an opinion of human nature in forming our Confederation. Experience has taught us that men will not adopt, and carry into execution, measures the best calculated for their own good, without the intervention of coercive power. I do not conceive we can exist long as a nation without lodging, somewhere, a power which will pervade the whole Union in as energetic a manner as the authority of the state governments extends over the several states [Emphasis added.] (Lowman, p. 124).

A convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, but under the leadership of George Washington, the delegates pushed for a more ambitious plan: creating an entirely new system of government:

The Convention had been called only for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. But most of the delegates realized from the beginning of their discussions that this was not enough to solve the nation's pressing problems. What was needed was a new and stronger national government. Since whatever action they took would only result in a recommendation to the states and would not be binding on anyone, they made the bold decision to put aside the Articles and draft a brand new Constitution for the United States. In making the "Great Decision," they heeded the advice of George Washington, who is reported to have told the delegates even before the Convention officially began: "It is too probable that no plan we propose will be adopted. Perhaps another dreadful conflict is to be sustained. If to please the people, we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterwards defend our works? Let us raise a standard to which the wise and honest can repair. The event is in the hands of God" (Lowman, p. 126).

And so the delegates created and successfully pushed for ratification of the Constitution. The United States Constitution can be looked at as the culmination of many historical trends, which, throughout the centuries, led to an understanding of a Biblical framework upon which government should operate. The Constitution includes references to separation of powers, due process of law, rule by consent, rule by law, rule by justice, protection of inalienable rights, and

federalism, among other things. Furthermore, it was based upon an understanding of covenantal principles. Before the Constitution was ratified, the states were practically in a state of nature [defined by Locke as a situation in which no government existed to ensure basic rights among various parties; see Section III] with one another, since the Articles of Confederation were so weak. The Constitution was a means by which the people of America, as one nation, could come together to ensure that their rights were protected.

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PREAMBLE

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the g eneral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I

Section 1. [Legislative powers; in whom vested.]

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2. [House of Representatives, how and by whom chosen Qualifications of a Representative. Representatives and direct taxes, how apportioned. Enumeration. Vacancies to be filled.

Power of choosing officers, and of impeachment.]

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the elector in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

These concepts shouldn’t be confused with an endorsement of a welfare program, since socialism wasn’t an idea the Founding Fathers supported or were even aware of. These terms refer more to ensuring safety and order. They cannot be interpreted apart from the enumerated powers discussed in the proceeding sections.

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives [and direct taxes] [Altered by 16th Amendment] shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, [which shall be determined by adding the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.] [Altered by 14th Amendment] The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

Section 3. [Senators, how and by whom chosen. How classified. State Executive, when to make

temporary appointments, in case, etc. Qualifications of a Senator. President of the Senate, his right to vote. President pro tem, and other officers of the Senate, how chosen. Power to

try impeachments. When President is tried, Chief Justice to preside. Sentence.] 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from ea ch State, [chosen by the Legislature thereof,] [Altered by 17th Amendment] for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.] [Altered by 17th Amendment]. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine

In keeping with the concept of federalism and States’ Rights, the Founders intended that the State legislators choose the Senators so that the concerns of each state as a unique political entity would be acknowledged and protected. This was changed in the Amendment.

years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of the President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

Section 4.

[Times, etc., of holding elections, how prescribed. One session in each year.] 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be [on the first Monday in December,] [Altered by 20th Amendment] unless they by law appoint a different day.

Section 5. [Membership, Quorum, Adjournments, Rules, Power to punish or expel. Journal. Time of

adjournments, how limited, etc.] 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the

journal. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6. [Compensation, Privileges, Disqualification in certain cases.]

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office.

Section 7. [House to originate all revenue bills. Veto. Bill may be passed by two-thirds of each

House, notwithstanding, etc. Bill, not returned in ten days to become a law. Provisions as to orders, concurrent resolutions, etc.]

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two- thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re-passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of

Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

Section 8. [Powers of Congress.]

The Congress shall have the power 1. to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and g eneral welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States: 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes: 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States: 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures: 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States: 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads: 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries: 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations: 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water: 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years: 13. To provide and maintain a navy: 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces:

Here again we have a general overview of the powers of Congress. The point is that the general goal of government is order and safety. The powers listed below explain the reasons for which Congress can assign taxes.

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions: 16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress: 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings: And, 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foreg oing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

Section 9. [Provision as to migration or importation of certain persons. H abeas Corpus, Bills of attainder, etc. Taxes, how apportioned. No export duty. No commercial preference.

Money, how drawn from Treasury, etc. No titular nobility. Officers not to receive presents, etc.]

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1808, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importations, not exceeding 10 dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4. [No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.] [Altered by 16th Amendment] 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

This is known as the Necessary and Proper clause. It does not exist in a vacuum and can only be in effect as a means of carrying out one of the enumerated powers above. Thus, it is actually very limited, even though it is often used to justify any number of Congressional over- reaches.

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no person holding any office or profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

Section 10. [States prohibited from the exercise of certain powers.]

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 3. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in a war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

ARTICLE II

Section 1. [President: his term of office. Electors of President; number and how appointed. Electors to vote on same day. Qualification of President. On whom his duties devolve in case of his

removal, death, etc. President's compensation. His oath of office.] 1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows 2. [Each State] [Altered by 23rd Amendment] shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at

least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President.] [Altered by 12th Amendment] 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 5. [In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.] [Altered by 25th Amendment]. 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:

I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of the President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.

Section 2. [President to be Commander-in-Chief. He may require opinions of cabinet officers, etc.,

may pardon. Treaty-making power. Nomination of certain officers. When President may fill vacancies.]

1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have the power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session.

Section 3. [President shall communicate to Congress. He may convene and adjourn Congress, in case

of disagreement, etc. Shall receive ambassadors, execute laws, and commission officers.] He shall, from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he may receive ambassadors, and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.

Section4. [All civil offices forfeited for certain crimes.]

The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

ARTICLE III

Section 1. [Judicial powers. Tenure. Compensation.]

The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

Section 2. [Judicial power; to what cases it extends. Original jurisdiction of Supreme Court Appellate.

Trial by Jury, etc.] 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; [to controversies between two or more states, between a state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state, claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects.] [Altered by 11th Amendment] 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before- mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

Section 3. [Treason defined. Proof of Punishment.]

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attained.

ARTICLE IV

Section 1. [Each State to give credit to the public acts, etc. of every other State.]

Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

Section 2. [Privileges of citizens of each State. Fugitives from Justice to be delivered up. Persons held

to service having escaped, to be delivered up.] 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. [See the 14th Amendment]. 2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. [No person held to service or labour in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labour may be due.] [Altered by 13th Amendment.]

Section 3. [Admission of new States. Power of Congress over territory and other property.]

1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state.

Section 4. [Republican form of government guaranteed. Each State to be protected.]

The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union, a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.

ARTICLE V

[Amendments.] The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress: Provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year 1808, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

ARTICLE VI [Constitution as the supreme law of the land.]

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution, as under the confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before-mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.

ARTICLE VII [Ratification.]

The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states so ratifying the same.

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www.constitution.org/usconsti.htm The Constitution Society,

(www.constitution.org/default.htm) Accessed March 18, 1998.

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The Bill of Rights of the United States of America December 15, 1791

____________________ Ratifying the Bill of Rights was an important step in assuring that the Constitution itself was ratified and supported by the American people. The Bill of Rights was a culmination of a tradition of specifically enumerated rights. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641); the English Bill of Rights (1689); the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776); and the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom were documents which influenced the people's call for an American bill of rights (Hicks, p. 236). One of the key proponents in the call for a bill of rights was James Madison:

James Madison finally won ratification of the Constitution in Virginia by gaining the support of the numerous Baptists in that state. He won their confidence in the Constitution by incorporating a plea for a bill of rights within Virginia's ratification and by promising to propose a bill of rights at his earliest convenience if elected to Congress. Virginia's convention ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788, and the voters subsequently sent Madison to the House of Representatives. Madison proposed the Bill of Rights in Congress on September 25, 1789, and ten of the twelve amendments that he proposed became the first ten amendments to the Constitution when they were ratified by the states by December 15, 1791 [Emphasis added.] (Hicks, p. 236).

The Bill of Rights makes specific provisions for upholding justice and rule of law, while at the same time stipulating that it was not the sole source of the American people's rights.

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AMENDMENT I

[Liberty of conscience and of press.] Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

AMENDMENT II [Right to bear arms.]

A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

AMENDMENT III [Quartering of soldiers in private houses forbidden without consent.]

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

AMENDMENT IV [Searches and seizures must be done lawfully.]

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

AMENDMENT V [Criminal proceedings must be just.]

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www.constitution.org/usconsti.htm The Constitution Society

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SUMMARY

Action vs. No Action

Cost Benefit Analysis

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger

Boston College

Author Note

This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Boston College.

Author Note

arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

beth A. Kensinger.

ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]

M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Writing the abstract, 2.04

Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the manuscript for submission, 8.03

Formatting the author name (byline) and institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1

Double-spaced manuscript, Times Roman typeface, 1-inch margins, 8.03

Elements of an author note, 2.03

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2

Abstract

Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task.

Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and

neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with

other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional

images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not

display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.

Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered sections in the Publication Manual.)

Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger, 2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to

attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to

select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous

research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young

adults (e.g.,

& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives

to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan

& Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995).

For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) presented participants with 3 × 3 visual

arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half

the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the

arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g.,

eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a

discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than

fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who

were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ ing those

not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005;

Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin -Loeches, Mecado,

ant stimulus. Results indicated that fearr-rr relevant images were more quickly detected than

elevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who aa

arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

n-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ- ing those

nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

d rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson,(( 2005;55

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4

Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist, Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005;

Nummenmaa et al., 2006).

From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show detection benefits for

arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether these effects are preserved

across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which

aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of emotional information.

Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional detection remain relatively

intact with aging (reviewed by Chow & Cummings, 2000). Thus, it is plausible that the detection

of emotional information remains relatively stable as adults age. However, despite the

preservation of emotion-processing regions with age (or perhaps because of the contrast between

the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in cognitive-processing regions; Good

et al., 2001; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda, Tabira, Asada, & Uno, 2001; Raz,

2000; West, 1996), recent behavioral research has revealed changes that occur with aging in the

regulation and processing of emotion. According to the socioemotional selectivity theory

(Carstensen, 1992), with aging, time is perceived as increasingly limited, and as a result, emotion

regulation becomes a primary goal (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). According to

socioemotional selectivity theory, age is associated with an increased motivation to derive

emotional meaning from life and a simultaneous decreasing motivation to expand one’s

knowledge base. As a consequence of these motivational shifts, emotional aspects of the

Writing the introduction, 2.05

Ordering citations within the same parentheses, 6.16

Selecting the correct tense, 3.18

Continuity in presentation of ideas, 3.05

Citing one work by six or more authors, 6.12

No capitalization in naming theories, 4.16

Numbers expressed in words, 4.32

Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, 4.31

Use of hyphenation for compound words, 4.13, Table 4.1

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 5

To maintain positive affect in the face of negative age-related change (e.g., limited time

remaining, physical and cognitive decline), older adults may adopt new cognitive strategies. One

such strategy, discussed recently, is the positivity effect (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005), in which

older adults spend proportionately more time processing positive emotional material and less

time processing negative emotional material. Studies examining the influence of emotion on

memory (Charles, Mather, & Carstensen, 2003; Kennedy, Mather, & Carstensen, 2004) have

found that compared with younger adults, older adults recall proportionally more positive

information and proportionally less negative information. Similar results have been found when

examining eye-tracking patterns: Older adults looked at positive images longer than younger

adults did, even when no age differences were observed in looking time for negative stimuli

(Isaacowitz, Wadlinger, Goren, & Wilson, 2006). However, this positivity effect has not gone

uncontested; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent with the positivity effect (e.g.,

Grühn, Smith, & Baltes, 2005; Kensinger, Brierley, Medford, Growdon, & Corkin, 2002).

Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses exist to explain

age differences in emotional processing associated with the normal aging process . First,

emotional information may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly

facilitated detection of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging,

emotional information may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced

detection of emotional information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus

principally on positive emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but

not negative, emotional information.

The primary goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives.

To do so, we employed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to

motional processing associated with the normal aging process . First,

n may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly

of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging,

n may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced

al information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus

e emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but

nal information.

goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives.

ed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 6

rapidly detect emotional information. We hypothesized that on the whole, older adults would be

slower to detect information than young adults would be (consistent with Hahn, Carlson, Singer,

& Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical question was whether the two age

groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with regard to the effects of emotion

on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the first two previously discussed

hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third alternative. This is because there is reason

to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later stages of processing (e.g.,

strategic, elaborative, and emotion regulation processes) rather than at the earlier stages of

processing involved in the rapid detection of information (see Mather & Knight, 2005, for

discussion). Thus, the first two hypotheses, that emotional information maintains its importance

across the life span or that emotional information in general takes on greater importance with

age, seemed particularly applicable to early stages of emotional processing.

Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for intact early processing of

emotional facial expressions with aging. Mather and Knight (2006) examined young and older

adults’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces presented in a complex visual array.

Mather and Knight found that like younger adults, older adults detected threatening faces more

quickly than they detected other types of emotional stimuli. Similarly, Hahn et al. (2006) also

found no age differences in efficiency of search time when angry faces were presented in an

array of neutral faces, compared with happy faces in neutral face displays. When angry faces,

compared with positive and neutral faces, served as nontarget distractors in the visual search

arrays, however, older adults were more efficient in searching, compared with younger adults,

Capitalization of words beginning a sentence after a colon, 4.14

Using the colon between two grammatically complete clauses, 4.05

Using the semicolon to separate two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction, 4.04

Using the comma between elements in a series, 4.03

Punctuation with citations in parenthetical material, 6.21

Citing references in text, inclusion of year within paragraph, 6.11, 6.12

Hypotheses and their correspondence to research design, Introduction, 2.05

Prefixes and suffixes that do not require hyphens, Table 4.2

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7

negative stimuli were not of equivalent arousal levels (fearful faces typically are more arousing

than happy faces; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arousal is thought to be a key factor in

modulating the attentional focus effect (Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann

& McNally, 1995), to more clearly understand emotional processing in the context of aging, it is

necessary to include both positive and negative emotional items with equal levels of arousal.

In the current research, therefore, we compared young and older adults’ detection of four

categories of emotional information (positive high arousal, positive low arousal, negative high

arousal, and negative low arousal) with their detection of neutral information. The positive and

negative stimuli were carefully matched on arousal level, and the categories of high and low

arousal were closely matched on valence to assure that the factors of valence (positive, negative)

and arousal (high, low) could be investigated independently of one another. Participants were

presented with a visual search task including images from these different categories (e.g., snakes,

cars, teapots). For half of the multi-image arrays, all of the images were of the same item, and for

the remaining half of the arrays, a single target image of a different type from the remaining

items was included. Participants were asked to decide whether a different item was included in

the array, and their reaction times were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were

differences in response times (RTs) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target

categories. We reasoned that if young and older adults were equally focused on emotional

information, then we would expect similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

stimuli for the two age groups. By contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

were younger adults, older adults should show either faster detection speeds for all of the

emotional items (relative to the neutral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation

g y , g ,

single target image of a different type from the remaining

were asked to decide whether a different item was included in

were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were

) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target

ung and older adults were equally focused on emotional

t similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

should show either faster detection speeds for all of the

utral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8

for the arousing items than shown by the young adults (resulting in an interaction between age

and arousal).

Method

Participants

Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, Mage = 19.5 years, age range: 18–22 years) were

recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus. Older adults (15 women, nine men,

Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on

Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores).1 Participants were compensated $10 per

hour for their participation. There were 30 additional participants, recruited in the same way as

described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young and five old participants for the

assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and 10 young and

10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence and arousal categories. All

participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal or corrected

to normal vision for all participants.

Materials and Procedure

The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001). There were 10 different

types of items (two each of five Valence × Arousal categories: positive high arousal, positive low

arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual

exemplars that were used to construct 3 × 3 stimulus matrices. A total of 90 images were used,

each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting array. A total of 360 matrices were

presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e., eight items of one type and one

target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine images of the same type). Within the

Prefixed words that require hyphens, Table 4.3

Using abbreviations, 4.22; Explanation of abbreviations, 4.23; Abbreviations used often in APA journals, 4.25; Plurals of abbreviations, 4.29

Elements of the Method section, 2.06; Organizing a manuscript with levels of heading, 3.03

Using numerals to express numbers representing age, 4.31

Identifying subsections within the Method section, 2.06

Participant (subject) characteristics, Method, 2.06

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 10

selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positive high arousal

was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arousal.

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between-categories

similarity. For within -category similarity, participants were shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set

of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the rest of the

mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar ) to 7 (nearly identical ) scale. Participants made these

ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual dimensions in

which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated how similar

objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the mushrooms

were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equated on within-

category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well as for the

overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For example, we selected particular

mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the

cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the categories). Our object selection

also assured that the categories differed from one another to a similar degree (e.g., that the

mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes).

Procedure

Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ms; the

matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a participant response was

recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible with a button marked yes

if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies

and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTIONRR

selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positi

was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arou

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between

similarity. For within -category similarity, participants were shown a set of exem

of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the re

mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar ) to 7 (nearly identical(( ) scale. Participants

ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual di

which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated h

objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the

were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equate

category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well

overall similarity of the object categories (p(( s > .20). For example, we selected pa

h d ti l t th t th h i il t

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9

matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high

arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each

emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the combinations with the remaining four

other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive high arousal items and one neutral

item). Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category

was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a

negative high arousal target appeared in a different location when presented with positive high

arousal array images than when presented with neutral array images).

The items within each category of grayscale images shared the same verbal label (e.g.,

mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online databases and photo clipart

packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten pilot participants were asked to

write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate

the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20

pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the objects and assessed the degree

of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to one

another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes).

Valence and arousal ratings . Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (1 =

negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high arousal). Negative objects

received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of

3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High arousal

objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low arousal objects (including all

neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which

both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal classifications, and stimuli were

Latin abbreviations, 4.26

Numbers expressed in words at beginning of sentence, 4.32

Italicization of anchors of a scale, 4.21

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11

software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure

compliance with the task instructions.

Results

Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and

was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for

arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies

are both positive low arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion

category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that

were ±3 SD from each participant ’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were

then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see

Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for

example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms,

regardless of the type of array in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in

examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created

scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect

neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive

high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young,

older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This

ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41, p = .006, ηp 2 = .16,

with larger differences between neutral and high arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral

and low arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high arousal items processed more quickly across both age

groups compared with low arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for

valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis

Symbols, 4.45; Numbers, 4.31

Abbreviations accepted as words, 4.24

Numbering and discussing figures in text, 5.05

Nouns followed by numerals or letters, 4.17

Reporting p values, decimal fractions, 4.35

Statistical symbols, 4.46, Table 4.5

Elements of the Results section, 2.07

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12

revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated

effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.

The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the

influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the

five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal,

positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated measures

ANOVA.2 Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp 2 = .92, and the ta rget category,

F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp 2 = .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group ×

Target Category interaction, F(4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp 2 = .07. This interaction appeared to

reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high arousal targets were detected faster than

targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90,p < .001, with no other target categories

differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high arousal

and negative low arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets (p < .12). For

older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral

targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not

differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older

adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information,

whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of

emotional information.

Discussion

As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’

performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of

enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for

Elements of the Discussion section, 2.08

Statistics in text, 4.44

Capitalize effects or variables when they appear with multiplication signs, 4.20

Spacing, alignment, and punctuation of mathematical copy, 4.46

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13

emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could show a greater facilitation than

young adults only for the detection of positive information. The results lent some support to the

first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the third alternative.

In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found when the influence of

valence and arousal on target detection times was examined; both age groups showed only an

arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated that arousing information

can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Christoff, Panitz, De

Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults,

continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching for negative facial targets in

arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the

relative preservation of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,

& Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able

to take advantage of these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.

However, despite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two

age groups, the present study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically,

age-related enhancement) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for

the five categories of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive

high arousal images (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall

advantage for detecting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern

suggests a broader influence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support

for the hypothesis that as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient.

It is interesting that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis

that the positivity effect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information

nd neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the 66

n of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,

nnings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able 33

f these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.

espite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two

ent study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically,

ment) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for

of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive

(as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall22

ting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern

nfluence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support

hat as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient.

ng that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis

ffect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 14

processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in older adults’ detection speed. In the

present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information,

consistent with prior research that indicated that older adults often attend equally to positive and

negative stimuli (Rosler et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has

differed across studies—in the present study and in some past research, young adults have shown

facilitated detection of positive information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie

et al., 2004; Juth et al., 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006), whereas in other studies, young adults

have shown an advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen &

Hansen, 1988; Mogg, Bradley, de Bono, & Painter, 1997; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann &

McNally, 1995; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996)—what is important to note is that the

older adults detected both positive and negative stimuli at equal rates. This equivalent detection

of positive and negative information provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for

the detection of emotional information that is not valence-specific.

Thus, although younger and older adults exhibited somewhat divergent patterns of

emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic stages of processing, we

found no evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older

adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Mather & Knight, 2006) that the positivity effect

does not arise through automatic attentional influences. Rather, when this effect is observed in

older adults, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goals that operate at

later stages of processing (i.e., during consciously controlled processing), once information has

been attended to and once the emotional nature of the stimulus has been discerned.

Although we cannot conclusively say that the current task relies strictly on automatic

processes, there are two lines of evidence suggesting that the construct examined in the current

Clear statement of support or nonsupport of hypotheses, Discussion, 2.08

Use of an em dash to indicate an interruption in the continuity of a sentence, 4.06; Description of an em dash, 4.13

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 15

research examines relatively automatic processing. First, in their previous work, Ohman et al.

(2001) compared RTs with both 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 arrays. No significant RT differences based on

the number of images presented in the arrays were found. Second, in both Ohman et al.’s (2001)

study and the present study, analyses were performed to examine the influence of target location

on RT. Across both studies, and across both age groups in the current work, emotional targets

were detected more quickly than were neutral targets, regardless of their location. Together,

these findings suggest that task performance is dependent on relatively automatic detection

processes rather than on controlled search processes.

Although further work is required to gain a more complete understanding of the age-

related changes in the early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that

young and older adults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current

study provides further evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

of emotional images are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span

(Fleischman et al., 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993; Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that,

although there is evidence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional

information (e.g., Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the

present results suggest that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when

tasks require relatively automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

he early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that

ults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current

her evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

s are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span

2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993;33 Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that,

idence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional

Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the

est that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when

ely automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 16

Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa , E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural

correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience,

23, 5627– 5633.

Armony, J. L., & Dolan , R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned

stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40 , 817–826.

doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6

Beck, A. T., Epstein , N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical

anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56 ,

893– 897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893

Calvo, M. G., & Lang , P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures:

Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243. doi:

10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed

Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic

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Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional

selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331–338. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331

Carstensen, L. L., Fung , H., & Charles, S. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the

regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion , 27 , 103– 123.

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Discussion section ending with comments on importance of findings, 2.08

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22

Footnotes

covariance were conducted with these covariates, with no resulting

influences of these variables on the pattern or magnitude of the results.

2 These data were also analyzed with a 2 × 5 ANOVA to examine the effect of target

category when presented only in arrays containing neutral images, with the results remaining

qualitatively the same. More broadly, the effects of emotion on target detection were not

qualitatively impacted by the distractor category.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Analyses of 1

Article with more than seven authors, 7.01, Example 2

Placement and format of footnotes, 2.12

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

24 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

of the same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

positive high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high

arousal, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were

recorded in milliseconds.

Table 2

Raw Response Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults

Category Young group Older group Positive high arousal 825 1,580 Positive low arousal 899 1,636 Neutral 912 1,797 Negative high arousal 885 1,578 Negative low arousal 896 1,625

24 CTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

e high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high

, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were

ed in milliseconds.

2

esponse Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults

oryy Young groupg g p Older groupg p ve high arousal 825 1,580 ve low arousal 899 1,636 al 912 1,797 ive high arousal 885 1,578 ive low arousal 896 1,625

23EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. The Beck Anxiety Inventory is from Beck et al. (1988); the Behavioral Assessment of the

Dysexecutive Syndrome—Dysexecutive Questionnaire (BADS–DEX) is from Wilson et al.

(1996); the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures are from Spielberger et al. (1970);

and the Digit Symbol Substitution, Digit Span–Backward, and Arithmetic Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale—III and Wechsler Memory Scale—III measures are from Wechsler (1997).

Generative naming scores represent the total number of words produced in 60 s each for letter

F, A, and S. The Vocabulary measure is from Shipley (1986); the Mental Control measure is

from Wechsler (1987); the Self-Ordered Pointing measure was adapted from Petrides and Milner

(1982); and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) measure is from Nelson (1976).

Table 1

Participant Characteristics

Younger group Older group Measure M SD M SD F (1, 46) p Years of education 13.92 1.28 16.33 2.43 18.62 <.001 Beck Anxiety Inventory 9.39 5.34 6.25 6.06 3.54 .066 BADS– DEX 20.79 7.58 13.38 8.29 10.46 .002 STAI–State 45.79 4.44 47.08 3.48 1.07 .306 STAI–Trait 45.64 4.50 45.58 3.15 0.02 .963 Digit Symbol Substitution 49.62 7.18 31.58 6.56 77.52 <.001 Generative naming 46.95 9.70 47.17 12.98 .004 .951 Vocabulary 33.00 3.52 35.25 3.70 4.33 .043 Digit Span– Backward 8.81 2.09 8.25 2.15 0.78 .383 Arithmetic 16.14 2.75 14.96 3.11 1.84 .182 Mental Control 32.32 3.82 23.75 5.13 40.60 <.001 Self-Ordered Pointing 1.73 2.53 9.25 9.40 13.18 .001 WCST perseverative errors 0.36 0.66 1.83 3.23 4.39 .042

All values represent raw, nonstandardized scores.

Selecting effective presentation, 4.41; Logical and effective table layout, 5.08

Elements of table notes, 5.16

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 25

.

Figure 1. Mean difference values (ms) representing detection speed for each target category

subtracted from the mean detection speed for neutral targets. No age differences were found in the

arousal-mediated effects on detection speed. Standard errors are represented in the figure by the

error bars attached to each column.

Figure legends and captions, 5.23

Principles of figure use and construction, types of figures; standards, planning, and preparation of figures, 5.20–5.25

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 1

Inhibitory Influences on Asychrony as a Cue for Auditory Segregation

Auditory grouping involves the formation of auditory objects from the sound mixture

reaching the ears. The cues used to integrate or segregate these sounds and so form auditory

objects have been defined by several authors (e.g., Bregman, 1990; Darwin, 1997; Darwin &

Carlyon, 1995). The key acoustic cues for segregating concurrent acoustic elements are

differences in onset time (e.g., Dannenbring & Bregman, 1978; Rasch, 1978) and harmonic

relations (e.g., Brunstrom & Roberts, 1998; Moore, Glasberg, & Peters, 1986). In an example of

the importance of onset time, Darwin (1984a, 1984b) showed that increasing the level of a

harmonic near the first formant (F1) frequency by adding a synchronous pure tone changes the

phonetic quality of a vowel. However, when the added tone began a few hundred milliseconds

before the vowel, it was essentially removed from the vowel percept.… [section continues].

General Method

Overview

In the experiments reported here, we used a paradigm developed by Darwin to assess the

perceptual integration of additional energy in the F1 region of a vowel through its effect on

phonetic quality (Darwin, 1984a, 1984b; Darwin & Sutherland, 1984).…[section continues].

Stimuli

Amplitude and phase values for the vowel harmonics were obtained from the vocal-tract

transfer function using cascaded formant resonators (Klatt, 1980). F1 values varied in 10-Hz

steps from 360–550 Hz—except in Experiment 3, which used values from 350– 540 Hz—to

produce a continuum of 20 tokens.…[section continues].

Listeners

Elements of empirical studies, 1.01

Figure 2.2. Sample Two-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to num- bered sections in the Publication Manual. This abridged manu- script illustrates the organizational structure characteristic of multiple-experiment papers. Of course, a complete multiple- experiment paper would include a title page, an abstract page, and so forth.)

Paper adapted from “Inhibitory Influences on Asychrony as a Cue for Auditory Segregation,” by S. D. Holmes and B. Roberts, 2006, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, pp. 1231–1242. Copyright 2006 by the American Psychological Association.

INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 2

Listeners were volunteers recruited from the student population of the University of

Birmingham and were paid for their participation. All listeners were native speakers of British

English who reported normal hearing and had successfully completed a screening procedure

(described below). For each experiment, the data for 12 listeners are presented.…[section

continues].

Procedure

At the start of each session, listeners took part in a warm-up block. Depending on the

number of conditions in a particular experiment, the warm-up block consisted of one block of all

the experimental stimuli or every second or fourth F1 step in that block. This gave between 85

and 100 randomized trials. … [section continues].

Data Analysis

The data for each listener consisted of the number of /I/ responses out of 10 repetitions

for each nominal F1 value in each condition. An estimate of the F1 frequency at the phoneme

boundary was obtained by fitting a probit function (Finney, 1971) to a listener ’s identification

data for each condition. The phoneme boundary was defined as the mean of the probit function

(the 50% point).…[section continues].

Experiment 1

In this experiment, we used noise-band captors and compared their efficacy with that of a

pure-tone captor. Each noise-band captor had the same energy as that of the corresponding pure -

tone captor and a center frequency equal to the frequency of this tonal captor…[section

continues].

Method

pe e t

iment, we used noise-band captors and compared their efficacy with that of a

ach noise-band captor had the same energy as that of the corresponding pure- -

nter frequency equal to the frequency of this tonal captor…[section

INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 3

There were nine conditions: the three standard ones (vowel alone, incremented fourth,

and leading fourth) plus three captor conditions and their controls. A lead time of 240 ms was

used for

Results and Discussion

Figure 4 shows the mean phoneme boundaries for all conditions and the restoration effect

for each captor type. The restoration effects are shown above the histogram bars both as a

boundary shift in hertz and as a percentage of the difference in boundary position between the

incremented-fourth and leading-fourth conditions.… [section continues].

Experiment 2

This experiment considers the case where the added 500-Hz tone begins at the same time

as the vowel but continues after the vowel ends.… [section continues].

Method

There were five conditions: two of the standard ones (vowel alone and incremented

fourth), a lagging-fourth condition (analogous to the leading-fourth condition used elsewhere),

and a captor condition and its control. A lag time of 240 ms was used for the added 500-Hz

tone.… [section continues]

Results and Discussion

the added 500-Hz tone.… [section continues].

Policy on metrication, 4.39; Style for metric units, 4.40

Abbreviating units of measurement, 4.27, Table 4.4

Plural forms of nouns of foreign origin, 3.19

Multiple Experiments, 2.09

Figure 2.2. Sample Two-Experiment Paper (continued)

Running head: INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 5

a perceptual group between the leading portion and the captor tone, on the basis of their common

onset time and harmonic relationship, leaving the remainder of the extra energy to integrate into

the vowel percept… .[section continues].

[Follow the form of the one-experiment sample paper to type references, the author note, footnotes , tables, and figure captions.]

Running head: INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY

a perceptual group between the leading portion and the captor tone, on the basis o

INHIBITORY INFLUENCES ON ASYCHRONY 4

1984; Roberts & Holmes, 2006). This experiment used a gap between captor offset and vowel

onset to measure the decay time of the captor effect …[section continues].

Method

There were 17 conditions: the three standard ones (vowel alone, incremented fourth, and

leading fourth), five captor conditions and their controls, and four additional conditions

(described separately below). A lead time of 320 ms was used for the added 500-Hz tone. The

captor conditions were created by adding a 1.1-kHz pure-tone captor, of various durations, to

each member of the leading-fourth continuum.…[section continues].

Results

Figure 6 shows the mean phoneme boundaries for all conditions. There was a highly

significant effect of condition on the phoneme boundary values, F(16, 176) = 39.10, p < .001.

Incrementing the level of the fourth harmonic lowered the phoneme boundary relative to the

vowel-alone condition (by 58 Hz, p < .001), which indicates that the extra energy was integrated

into the vowel percept.…[section continues].

Discussion

The results of this experiment show that the effect of the captor disappears somewhere

between 80 and 160 ms after captor offset. This indicates that the captor effect takes quite a long

time to decay away relative to the time constants typically found for cells in the CN using

physiological measures (e.g., Needham & Paolini, 2003).…[section continues].

Summary and Concluding Discussion

Darwin and Sutherland (1984) first demonstrated that accompanying the leading portion

of additional energy in the F1 region of a vowel with a captor tone partly reversed the effect of

the onset asynchrony on perceived vowel quality. This finding was attributed to the formation of

Use of statistical term rather than symbol in text, 4.45

Figure 2.2. Sample Two-Experiment Paper (continued)

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 1

The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion:

A Meta-Analytic Review

Persuasive messages are often accompanied by information that induces suspicions of

invalidity. For instance, recipients of communications about a political candidate may discount a

message coming from a representative of the opponent party because they do not perceive the

source of the message as credible (e.g., Lariscy & Tinkham, 1999). Because the source of the

political message serves as a discounting cue and temporarily decreases the impact of the

message, recipients may not be persuaded by the advocacy immediately after they receive the

communication. Over time, however, recipients of an otherwise influential message may recall

the message but not the noncredible source and thus become more persu aded by the message at

that time than they were immediately following the communication. The term sleeper effect was

used to denote such a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,

noncredible source) becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the

memory of the message recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section

Method

Sample of Studies

We retrieved reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by

means of multiple procedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

(1887–2003), Dissertation Abstracts International (1861– 2003), ERIC (1967–2003), and the

Social-Science-Citation -Index (1956–2003), using the keywords sleeper effect, delayed-action,

credibility, source credibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

persistence, attitude maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memory, attitude and

a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,

becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the

sage recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section

Method

d reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by

rocedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

rtation Abstracts International (1861– 2003), ERIC (1967–77 2003), and the

tion -Index (1956–66 2003), using the keywords sleeper effect,tt delayed-action,

redibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memoryrr , attitude and

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 2

retention, attitude and decay, and persuasion and decay . Because researchers often use the terms

opinion and belief, instead of attitude , we conducted searches using these substitute terms as

well.

Second, … [section continues].

Selection Criteria

We used the following criteria to select studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis .

1. We only included studies that involved the presentation of a communication containing

persuasive arguments. Thus, we excluded studies in which the participants played a role or were

asked to make a speech that contradicted their opinions. We also excluded developmental studies

involving delayed effects of an early event (e.g., child abuse), which sometimes are also referred

to as sleeper effects .…[section continues] .

Moderators

For descriptive purposes, we recorded (a) the year and (b) source (i.e., journal article,

unpublished dissertations and theses , or other unpublished document) of each report as well as

(c) the sample composition (i.e., high-school students, university students, or other) and (d) the

country in which the study was conducted.

We also coded each experiment in terms of .…[section continues].

Studies were coded independently by the first author and another graduate student.

Italicize key terms, 4.21

Description of meta-analysis, 1.02; Guidelines for reporting meta-analysis, 2.10; see also Appendix

Identification of elements in a series within a sentence, 3.04

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (The numbers refer to numbered sec- tions in the Publication Manual. This abridged manuscript illus- trates the organizational structure characteristic of reports of meta-analyses. Of course, a complete meta-analysis would include a title page, an abstract page, and so forth.)

Paper adapted from “The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Meta-Analytic Review,” by G. Kumkale and D. Albarracin, 2004, Psychological Bulletin, 130, pp. 143–172. Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological Association.

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 3

was satisfactory (Orwin, 1994). We resolved disagreements by discussion and consultation with

colleagues. Characteristics of the individual studies included in this review are presented in

Table 1. The studies often contained several independent datasets such as different messages and

different experiments. The characteristics that distinguish different datasets within a report

appear on the second column of the table.

Dependent Measures and Computation of Effect Sizes

We calculated effect sizes for (a) persuasion and (b) recall–recognition of the message

content. Calculations were based on the data described in the primary reports as well as available

responses of the authors to requests of further information .…[section continues].

Analyses of Effect Sizes

There are two major models used in meta-analysis: fixed-effects and random-

effects.…[section continues].

To benefit from the strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

conduct analyses using both approaches.…[section continues].

Results

The data analysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

estimation of overall effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.

Sample of Studies and Datasets

Descriptive characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-analysis appear in

Table 2.…[section continues].

Overview of the Average Effect Sizes

A thorough understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-

condition differences at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

Analyses of Effect Sizes

wo major models used in meta-aa analysis: fixed-effects and s random-

ontinues].

e strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

ing both approaches.…[section continues].

Results

alysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

l effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.

and Datasets

characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-aa analysis appear in

continues].

verage Effect Sizes

understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-

es at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 4

place over time.…[section continues].

In light of these requirements, we first examined whether discounting cues led to a decrease in

agreement with the communication (boomerang effect). Next,.…[section continues].

Ruling out a nonpersisting boomerang effect. To determine whether or not a delayed

increase in persuasion represents an absolute sleeper effect, one needs to rule out a nonpersisting

boomerang effect, which takes place when a message initially backfires but later loses this

reverse effect (see panel A of Figure 1).…[section continues].

Average sleeper effect. Relevant statistics corresponding to average changes in

persuasion from the immediate to the delayed posttest appear in Table 4, organized by the

different conditions we considered (i.e., acceptance-cue, discounting-cue, no-message control,

and message-only control). In Table 4, positive effect sizes indicate increases in persuasion over

time, negative effect sizes indicate decay in persuasion, and zero effects denote stability in

persuasion. Confidence intervals that do not include zero indicate significant changes over time.

The first row of Table 4 shows that recipients of acceptance cues agreed with the message less as

time went by (fixed-effects, d + = –0.21; random-effects, d+ = –0.23). In contrast to the decay in

persuasion for recipients of acceptance cues, there was a slight increase in persuasion for

recipients of discounting cues over time (d+ = 0.08). It is i mportant to note that change in

discounting-cue conditions significantly differed from change in acceptance-cue conditions,

(fixed-effects; B = –0.29, SE = 0.04), QB(1) = 58.15, p < .0001; QE(123) = 193.82, p <

.0001.…[section continues].

Summary and variability of the overall effect. The overall analyses identified a relative

sleeper effect in persuasion, but no absolute sleeper effect. The latter was not surprising, because

the sleeper effect was expected to emerge under specific conditions.…[section continues].

Use at least two subheadings in a section, 3.02

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 5

Moderator Analyses

Although overall effects have descriptive value, the variability in the change observed in

discounting-cue conditions makes it unlikely that the same effect was present under all

conditions. Therefore, we tested the hypotheses that the sleeper effect would be more likely (e.g.,

more consistent with the absolute pattern in Panel B1 of Figure 1) when…[section continues].

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 6

. . . [references continue]

[Follow the form of the one-experiment sample paper to type the author note, footnotes, tables, and figure captions.]

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

Albarracín, D. (2002). Cognition in persuasion: An analysis of information processing in

response to persuasive communications. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental

social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 61–130). doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80004-1

… [references continue]

Johnson, B. T., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement in persuasion: A meta-analysis.

Psychological Bulletin, 106, 290–314. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.290

*Johnson, H. H., Torcivia, J. M., & Poprick, M. A. (1968). Effects of source credibility on the

relationship between authoritarianism and attitude change. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 9, 179–183. doi:10.1037/h0021250

*Johnson, H. H., & Watkins, T. A. (1971). The effects of message repetitions on immediate and

delayed attitude change. Psychonomic Science, 22, 101–103.

Jonas, K., Diehl, M., & Bromer, P. (1997). Effects of attitudinal ambivalence on information

processing and attitude-intention consistency. Journal of Experimental Social

Psychology, 33, 190–210. doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.1317

Format for references included in a meta-analysis with less than 50 references, 6.26

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)