Short-term Financing
FIN 340
Prof. David S. Allen
Northern Arizona University
Introduction
- The firm must decide the mix of short-term debt, long-term debt, and equity used to finance its assets.
- We will examine various sources of short-term financing, and their costs:
Accruals
Accounts payable
Banks loans
Commercial paper
Accruals
- Arise from the fact that firms do not pay their employees on a daily basis.
Typically paid weekly, biweekly, or semi-monthly.
- Also arise from accumulation of taxes payable.
“Free” source of financing
Arises spontaneously
Firm has little control over the level of accruals:
Pay schedule is usually determined by industry norms.
Tax payment schedule is set by law.
Accounts payable (trade credit)
- Firms generally buy from other firms on credit.
- Spontaneous source of financing.
- Small firms often don’t qualify for other forms of financing, so trade credit becomes its largest source of non-equity capital.
- Accounts payable
= (avg. payment period) x (avg. daily purchases)
Accounts payable (trade credit)
- Cost of Trade Credit
If a firms buys on credit with discount terms, e.g. 2/10 net 30
For a $100 purchase
“True” price = $98
For a finance charge of $2, the buyer can obtain another (30-10)=20 days of credit
- Cost of foregoing the discount
Accounts payable (trade credit)
- Cost of foregoing the discount
Can be reduced by “stretching accounts payable”
But, may cause problems with suppliers
- Decision Criteria
If the firm has an alternative source of financing, such as a bank line of credit, that is less expensive than the supplier provided “cost of foregoing the discount”, it should borrow from the bank and take the discount by paying earlier.
Accounts payable (trade credit)
- Components of Trade Credit: Free versus Costly
Free trade credit = credit received during the discount period
Costly trade credit = credit beyond the discount period
Firms should always use the free component, but should use the costly component only if it has a lower cost than other available alternatives.
Short-Term Bank Loans
- Non-spontaneous source of financing
- Second in importance, after trade credit, as a source of short-term financing for non-financial firms.
- Maturity
Most are for a year or less
Many are 90 day notes
Bank may refuse to renew if the borrower’s financial condition has deteriorated.
Short-Term Bank Loans
- Promissory Note
Specifies:
Amount borrowed
Interest rate
Repayment schedule (lump sum or annuity)
Collateral
Others terms
Proceeds are deposited in the borrowers checking account.
Short-Term Bank Loans
- Compensating Balances
Banks sometimes require borrowers to maintain an average (or even minimum) checking account balance equal to 10% to 20% of the loan principal.
The result is to increase the effective interest rate on the loan, since interest is paid on the full loan amount, but only a portion is usable.
Short-Term Bank Loans
- Informal Line of Credit
An informal agreement between a firm and its bank indicating the maximum credit the bank will extend to the borrower.
- Revolving Credit Agreement
A formal line of credit, and legal obligation of the bank.
Firm must pay a commitment fee on the unused portion, usually in monthly installments.
Interest is paid on the amount actually borrowed.
Interest rate is usually pegged to the prime rate or some other short-term rate (e.g. t-bill rate).
Clean-up clause: requires the borrower to reduce the loan balance to zero at least once per year (not permanent capital).
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Rates are higher for riskier borrowers, and for smaller loans, due to the fixed cost of making and servicing loans.
- Prime rate= 3.25% in November 2009.
Available only to bank’s most creditworthy customers.
Others pay “prime plus” some specified percentage points.
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Promissory note elements:
Interest only
Interest paid during life of loan
Principal repaid at maturity
Amortized
Also known as an “installment loan.”
Each payment is part interest, and part principal.
Collateral
May be inventory, or receivables.
UCC-1 and Security Agreement filing with state to evidence collateral.
Prevents borrower from using same collateral on a different loan.
Specifies conditions under which collateral can be seized.
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Promissory note elements:
Loan guarantees: for small corporations, the larger stockholders will have to personally guarantee the loan.
Nominal (stated) interest rate:
Fixed rate
Floating rate: typical for most loans of more than $25,000
360 versus 365 day year
Frequency of interest payments: usually calculated daily, but paid monthly
Maturity:
Long-term loans always have a stated maturity date
Short-term loans may be outstanding (rolled over) for a long time.
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Promissory note elements:
Discount interest: interest is paid in advance, reducing the usable loan amount, and thus increasing the effective interest rate.
Other cost elements:
Compensating balance
Commitment fee
Key-person insurance: bank may require key persons to carry life insurance to pay off the loan in the event of their death.
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Annual percentage rate = APR (as defined in Truth in Lending Act)
= effective periodic rate annualized without recognizing the effects of compounding.
= effective periodic rate * number of interest periods in a year
The APR is calculate as:
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Effective annual rate = EAR (a.k.a. Effective Annual Yield or EAY, defined in Truth in Savings Act)
= effective periodic rate annualized to incorporate the effects of compounding.
= (1 + effective periodic rate)number of interest periods in a year – 1
The EAR overcomes the problems noted above for the APR, but is not required reporting for loans. It is used, however, in reporting rates earned on savings.
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Consider a loan of $100,000 at a nominal (stated) rate of 8%, with a 360 day year (used by most banks).
- Regular (Simple) Interest
Interest rate per day = nominal rate / 360
= .08 / 360 = 0.0002222222
So, the interest on a three month (90 day) loan would be:
Interest = (loan period)(daily rate)(amount borrowed)
= (90 days)(0.0002222222 / day)($100,000) = $2,000.00
APR = (2,000 / 100,000)(365 / 90) = 0.08111 = 8.111%
EAR = (1 + 2,000 / 100,000)365/90 – 1 = .08362 = 8.362%
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Consider a loan of $100,000 at a nominal (stated) rate of 8%, with a 360 day year (used by most banks).
- Discount Interest
Interest rate per day = nominal rate / 360
= .08 / 360 = 0.0002222222
So, the interest on a three month (90 day) loan would be:
Interest = (loan period)(daily rate)(amount borrowed)
= (90 days)(0.0002222222 / day)($100,000) = $2,000.00
This $2,000 is subtracted from the loan amount, and the borrower has use of only $98,000.
APR = (2,000 / 98,000)(365/90) = 0.08277 = 8.277%
EAR = (1 + 2,000 / 98,000)365/90 – 1 = .08538 = 8.538%
The Cost of Bank Loans
- Consider a loan of $100,000 at a nominal (stated) rate of 8%, with a 360 day year (used by most banks).
- Compensating Balance and Simple Interest
Interest rate per day = nominal rate / 360
= .08 / 360 = 0.0002222222
So, the interest on a three month (90 day) loan would be:
Interest = (loan period)(daily rate)(amount borrowed)
= (90 days)(0.0002222222 / day)($100,000) = $2,000.00
Compensating balance = 20% = $20,000
APR = (2,000 / 80,000)(365/90) = 0.10139 = 10.139%
EAR = (1 + 2,000 / 80,000)365/90 – 1 = .10533 = 10.533%
Choosing A Bank
- Willingness to Assume Risks
Depends on
Personalities of bank officers
Characteristics of its deposit liabilities
Geographic and industry diversification of lending portfolio
- Advice and Counsel
Bank lending officer may have valuable knowledge and experience that could be used by borrowing firms.
- Loyalty to Customers
Will the bank work with customers experiencing difficulties, or call its loans?
Choosing A Bank
- Specialization
Some large banks have departments that specialize in certain types of loans, e.g. agricultural.
Lending officer will understand the market better, and be more receptive to borrowers.
- Maximum Loan Size
Maximum loan to any one customer is limited to 15% of capital stock plus retained earnings.
So, large firms will need to work with larger banks.
Commercial Paper
- Short term, unsecured promissory note issued by large, creditworthy firms.
- Sold to other businesses, insurance companies, mutual funds, and banks.
- Maturity and Cost
Must be less than 271 days, to avoid SEC registration.
Interest cost is below prime rate, but above T-bill rate.
- Use of Commercial Paper
Usually restricted to firms with net worth of $100,000,000 or more, and annual borrowings of $10,000,000 or more.
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THE PROBLEM
Part 1 THE PROBLEM: (70 Pts) Thomas, the President of "Thomas' Turkey Corporation" (Turkey), a fabric material company, gobbled up "The Best Stuffing Company "(Stuffing), a pillow manufacturer, when Turkey paid $33,600 cash for a 70% interest in Stuffing on January 1, 2012, when Stuffing's stockholders’ equity consisted of $20,000 Capital Stock and $10,000 of Retained Earnings. Stuffing' s Assets and Liabilities were tailored specifically for this acquisition and had total Fair Market Value differentials as follows at the time of acquisition: Inventory was undervalued by $3,000 and were sold evenly over a three year period starting at the date of acquisition Plant Assets with a 5 yr life were overvalued by $5,000 Trade Marks with a 20 yr life and $6,000 in value were not recorded A mortgage with 10 yrs of remaining payments were overvalued by $1,000 Any remaing difference in Cost vs Book was attributed to Goodwill Additional information: 1. Turkey sold feathers that cost $6,000 to Stuffing for $8,000 during 2012 and one-half of these feathers remained in stock by Stuffing on December 31, 2012. 2. During 2013 Turkey Corporation sold feathers that cost $8,000 to Stuffing for $10,000 and 30% of these feathers remained unsold by Stuffing on December 31, 2013. Stuffing Company owed Turkey $2,000 on account at year-end 2013. 3. Turkey Corporation sold a plucking machine with a 5-year remaining life and a book value of $4,000 to Stuffing for $5,000 on July 1, 2013. Straight-line depreciation is used. 4. On Sept 1, 2013 Stuffing shaved the price to $5,000 on a turkey feather trimming machine it sold to Turkey when the trimming machine had a book value of $7,000 with a 10 year remaining life. 5. Turkey and Stuffing declared annual dividends in 2013 of $10,000 and $4,000, respectively so that their shareholders could share in the gravy. 6. Separate financial statements for Turkey and Stuffing appear on partially completed consolidation working papers. 7. In 2012, Stuffing made net income of $10,000 and paid dividends of $2,000 Required: So before you start, since you are doing 20"13", make a wish using a "Turkey Wishbone" and then: Please prepare all the required carryforward schedules for the above Consolidation We need to put the Stuffing back into the Turkey as a consolidated group as of December 31, 2013. So please complete the working papers to consolidate the financial statements for 2013 including all entries required in good journal form. Also prepare all proofs that you deem necessary (please note I am looking for your discretion on what you should prove but I believe there is a minimum that you need to do, so use your professional judgment and hopefully you will do all the right ones). If you believe there is an error in the underlying accounting of the parent's equity accounting please make the appropriate correcting entry. Part 2 (30 Pts): Explain the 7 major classes of Eliminating entries. Just dont state what we do, I can see that by looking at the entry, tell me the theory of why you are doing it. Also if there is a major class that we dont have any entries for explain that major class anyways. Extra Credit: On January 1, 2012, Tidal Wave, Co. purchased 70% of the outstanding voting common stock of Colony, Inc., for $2,100,000. The book value of Colony's net equity on that date was $3,000,000. Book values were equal to fair values except as follows: Assets & Liabilities Book Values Fair Values Inventory (sold current year) $200,000 $225,000 Building (10 year life Straight line) 850,000 750,000 Note payable (Due in 5 years) 300,000 320,000 Do all the underlying accounting of the Parent for both years including but not limited to all the general journal entries in good form, and the T accounts for both the "investment" accounting and "the income from Sub". Also include anything else as a good accountant would!!!
CONS WORKSHEET
Turkey with Stuffing Consolidated Group | |||||||
Consolidation Working Papers | |||||||
at December 31, 2013 | |||||||
Turkey | Stuffing | Eliminations | Consolidated | ||||
Db (Cr) | Db (Cr) | Debit | Credit | Db (Cr) | |||
INCOME STATEMENT | |||||||
Sales | (90,000) | (50,000) | |||||
Income from Stuffing | (13,220) | ||||||
Gain on Sale of Plucking Mach | (1,000) | ||||||
Loss on Feather Trimming Mach | 2,000 | ||||||
Cost of sales | 40,000 | 20,000 | |||||
Depreciation exp | 6,000 | 2,000 | |||||
Other Expenses | 24,500 | 8,000 | |||||
Net income | (33,720) | (18,000) | |||||
Retained Earnings 1/1 | (24,170) | (18,000) | |||||
Add: Net income | (33,720) | (18,000) | |||||
Dividends | 10,000 | 4,000 | |||||
Retained Earnings 12/31 | (47,890) | (32,000) | |||||
BALANCE SHEET | |||||||
Cash | 6,400 | 15,000 | |||||
Receivables | 1,500 | 8,200 | |||||
Dividends Rec | 5,000 | ||||||
Inventories | 12,000 | 6,000 | |||||
Plant/Equipment-net | 41,000 | 30,000 | |||||
Investment in Stuffing | 48,340 | ||||||
TOTAL ASSETS | 114,240 | 59,200 | |||||
LIAB. & EQUITY | |||||||
Accounts payable | (6,350) | (2,200) | |||||
Dividend payable | (10,000) | (4,000) | |||||
Other Debt | (10,000) | (1,000) | |||||
Capital stock | (40,000) | (20,000) | |||||
Retained Earnings | (47,890) | (32,000) | |||||
TOTAL LIAB. & EQUITY | (114,240) | (59,200) | - 0 | ||||
ENTRIES
0 | ||||||||
YOUR WORKPAPERS
EXTRA CREDIT

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