1Authentic_LeadershipChapter_9Northouse_Leadership_8e___SAGE

Authentic Leadership

Chapter 9

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Overview

Authentic Leadership Description

Authentic Leadership Defined

Approaches to Authentic Leadership

Practical

Theoretical

How Does Authentic Leadership Theory Work?

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Authentic Leadership Description

Authentic Leadership--focuses on whether leadership is genuine

Interest in Authentic Leadership

Increasing in recent times due to social upheavals

People longing for trustworthy leaders

Identified earlier in transformational leadership research but not studied separately

Needed evidence-based research of construct

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Authentic Leadership Defined

Intrapersonal Definition:

Leadership based on self-concept and how self-concept relates to actions (Shamir & Eilam, 2005)

Relies on the life story of the leader

Three Authentic Leadership Characteristics:

ALs exhibit genuine leadership

ALs lead from conviction

ALs are originals, not copies

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Authentic Leadership Defined

Interpersonal Definition:

Leadership is created by leaders and followers together (Eagly, 2005).

It is a reciprocal process because leaders affect followers and followers affect leaders.

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Authentic Leadership Defined

Developmental Definition:

Leadership can be nurtured and developed over a lifetime (Avolio & Gardner, 2005)

Can be triggered by major life events

Leader behavior is grounded in positive psychological qualities and strong ethics

Four authentic leadership components:

Self-awareness

Internalized moral perspective

Balanced processing

Relational transparency

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Practical Approaches to Authentic Leadership

Bill George (2003, 2007)

Leader characteristic model

Leaders have genuine desire to serve others

Five characteristics of authentic leaders

Understand their purpose

Strong values

Trusting relationships

Self-discipline

Act from the heart (mission)

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Practical Approaches to Authentic Leadership

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Figure 9.1: Authentic Leadership Characteristics

Theoretical Approaches to Authentic Leadership

Recent Research Spurred By

Leadership summit publications (2005)

Social upheaval and desire for leadership that serves the common good

Need to explore meaning of authentic leadership and create theoretical framework

Need to define the construct of authentic leadership

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Definition of Authentic Leadership

“A pattern that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.”

-Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008)

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Basic Model of Authentic Leadership

Four Components

Self-awareness

Reflecting on one’s core values, identity, emotions, motives

Being aware of and trusting one’s own feelings

Internalized moral perspective

Self-regulatory process using internal moral standards to guide behavior

Balanced processing

Ability to analyze information objectively and explore other people’s opinions before making a decision

Relational transparency

Being open and honest in presenting one’s true self to others

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Factors That Influence Authentic Leadership

Positive psychological capacities

Confidence

Hope

Optimism

Resilience

Moral Reasoning Capacities

Deciding right and wrong

Promoting justice, greater good of the organization or community

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Factors That Influence Authentic Leadership

Critical Life Events

Positive or negative

Act as a catalyst for change

People attach insights to their life experiences

When people tell life stories they gain clarity about who they are

Stimulate personal growth

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How Does Authentic Leadership Theory Work?

Strengths

Criticisms

Application

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How Does Authentic Leadership Theory Work?

AL is a complex, developmental process

The practical approaches are prescriptive:

George (2003)--Five characteristics leaders need to be authentic

Theoretical approach describes what accounts for AL:

Four attributes

Attributes developed over lifetime, often through critical events

Effects on followers:

AL correlates with employee thriving, creativity, hope, optimism, trust, and engagement

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Strengths

Fulfills society’s expressed need for trustworthy leadership. Fills a void in an uncertain world.

Provides broad guidelines for those who want to become authentic leaders. Both practical and theoretical approaches provide a map.

Like transformational and servant leadership, AL has an explicit moral dimension; focus on collective good.

Unlike traits that only some people exhibit, everyone can learn to be more authentic.

Can be measured using an established instrument (ALQ).

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Criticisms

The theory is still in the formative stages, so some concepts in the practical approaches are not fully developed or substantiated.

The moral component of AL is not fully explained. It’s unclear how higher values such as justice inform authentic leadership.

The rationale for including positive psychological capacities as a part of AL has not been clearly explained by researchers.

New research is needed to determine if AL works well with Millennial generation.

The link between authentic leadership and positive organizational outcomes is unclear. It is also not clear whether AL is sufficient to achieve organizational goals.

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Application

People have the capacity to become authentic leaders. It is a lifelong learning process.

Human resource departments may be able to foster authentic leadership behaviors in employees who move into leadership positions.

Leaders are always trying to do the “right” thing, to be honest with themselves and others, and to work for the common good.

Leaders are shaped by critical life events that lead to growth and greater authenticity.

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Transformational Leadership

Chapter 8

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Overview

Transformational Leadership (TL) Perspective

A Model of Transformational Leadership

Transformational Leadership Factors

Full Range of Leadership Model

The Additive Effects of TL

Other Transformational Leadership Perspectives

How Does the Transformational Approach Work?

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Transformational Leadership

Description

Process--TL is a process that changes and transforms individuals, both leaders and followers.

Influence--TL involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected.

Core elements--TL is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals.

Encompassing approach--TL describes a wide range of leadership influence where followers and leaders are bound together in the transformation process.

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Types of Leadership Defined (Burns, 1978)

TRANSACTIONAL

Focuses on the

exchanges

that occur

between leaders

and their followers

TRANSFORMATIONAL

Process of

engaging with others

to create a connection that increases

motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower

Focuses on the

leader’s

own interests rather than the interests of his or her followers

PSEUDO-TRANSFORMATIONAL

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Types of Leadership Defined (Burns, 1978)

TRANSACTIONAL

Focuses on the

exchanges

that occur

between leaders

and their followers

No new taxes = votes

Turn in assignments = grade

Surpass goals = promotion

The exchange dimension is so common that you can observe it at all walks of life.

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Types of Leadership Defined (Burns, 1978)

Leaders who are

transforming but in a negative way

self-consumed, exploitive; power- oriented, with warped moral values

Includes leaders like

Adolph Hitler

Saddam Hussein

PSEUDOTRANSFORMATIONAL

Focuses on the

leader’s

own interests rather than the interests of his or her followers

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Pseudotransformational (Christie, Barling, & Turner, 2011)

Four experimental studies => model of pseudotransformational leadership

Self-serving

Unwilling to encourage independent thought in followers

Exhibits little general caring for others

Uses inspiration and appeal to manipulate followers for his or her own ends

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Types of Leadership Defined Burns (1978)

TRANSFORMATIONAL

Process of

engaging with others

to create a connection

that increases

motivation

and morality in both the

leader and the follower

Leader is attentive to the needs and motives of followers and tries to help followers reach their fullest potential.

Mohandas Gandhi raised the hopes and demands of millions of his people and in the process was changed himself.

Ryan White raised people’s awareness about AIDS.

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Transformational Leadership and Charisma

Definition

Charisma--A special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947).

Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976)

Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have specific charismatic effects on their followers.

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Theory of Charismatic Leadership

(House, 1976)

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Table 8.1: Personality Characteristics, Behaviors, and Effects on Followers of Charismatic Leadership

Theory of Charismatic Leadership (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993)

Later Studies

Charismatic Leadership:

Transforms follower’s self-concepts; tries to link identity of followers to collective identity of the organization

Forge this link by emphasizing intrinsic rewards and de-emphasizing extrinsic rewards

Throughout process, leaders

express high expectations for followers

help followers gain sense of self-confidence and self-efficacy

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Model of Transformational Leadership (Bass, 1985)

Expanded and refined version of work done by Burns and House. It included

More attention to followers’ rather than leader’s needs

Suggested TL could apply to outcomes that were not positive

Described transactional and transformational leadership as a continuum

Extended House’s work by

Giving more attention to emotional elements and origins of charisma

Suggested charisma is a necessary but not sufficient condition for TL

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Model of Transformational Leadership

TL motivates followers beyond the expected by

raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals

transcending self-interest for the good of the team or organization

addressing higher level needs

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Figure 8.1: Leadership Continuum From Transformational to Laissez-Faire Leadership

Transformational Leadership Factors

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Table 8.2: Leadership Factors

Full Range of Leadership Model

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Figure 8.2: Full Range of Leadership Model with Legend

Transformational Leadership Factors: The 4 Is

Idealized Influence

Acting as strong role models

High standards of moral and ethical conduct

Making others want to follow the leader’s vision

Inspirational Motivation

Communicating high expectations

Inspiring followers to commitment and engagement in shared vision

Using symbols and emotional appeals to focus group members to achieve more than self-interest

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Transformational Leadership Factors: The 4 Is

Intellectual Stimulation

Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative

Challenging their own beliefs and valuing those of leader and organization

Supporting followers to

Try new approaches

Develop innovative ways of dealing with organization issues

Individualized Consideration

Listening carefully to the needs of followers

Acting as coaches to assist followers in becoming fully actualized

Helping followers grow through personal challenges

For example, showing optimism helps employees become more engaged in their work (Tims et al., 2011)

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The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership

Augments impact on employee’s performance and company profit (Rowald & Heinitz, 2007)

Positively related to job satisfaction and performance (Nemanich & Keller, 2007)

Boosts employee engagement and optimism (Tims, et. al., 2011)

TL leaders more likely to promote employee’s achieving their mastery goals (Hamstra, et.al.,2014)

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Transactional Leadership Factors

Contingent Reward

The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards

For example, how much TV a child can watch after practicing piano.

Management-by-Exception

Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement

Two forms

Active--Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations

Passive--Intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisen

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Nonleadership Factor

Laissez-Faire

The Absence of Leadership

A hands-off, let-things-ride approach

Refers to a leader who

abdicates responsibility,

delays decisions,

gives no feedback, and

makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs.

May also be a strategic choice by leader to acknowledge subordinates’ abilities

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Individualized Consideration

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Figure 8.3: The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership

Bennis and Nanus (1985)

Four Leader Strategies in Transforming Organizations

Clear vision of organization’s future state

TL’s social architect of organization

Create trust by making their position known and standing by it

Creatively deploy themselves through positive self-regard

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Kouzes and Pozner (1987, 2002)

Model consists of five fundamental practices

Model the Way

Inspire a Shared Vision

Challenge the Process

Enable Others to Act

Encourage the Heart

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How Does the Transformational Leadership Approach Work?

Focus of Transformational Leadership

Strengths

Criticisms

Application

Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.

Transformational Leadership

Focus of Transformational

Leaders

TLs empower and nurture followers

TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models for followers

TLs commonly create a vision

TLs require leaders to become social architects

TLs build trust and foster collaboration

Overall Scope

Describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out significant changes in organizations

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Strengths

Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.

Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.

Process focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.

Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models. Contributes to leader’s growth.

Emphasizes followers. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.

Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.

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Criticisms

Lacks conceptual clarity

Dimensions are not clearly delimited

Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership

Unclear whether dimensions are simply descriptions of TL

Measurement questioned

Validity of MLQ not fully established

Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model

TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught

No causal link shown between transformational leaders and changes in followers or organizations

TL is elitist and antidemocratic

Suffers from heroic leadership bias

Has the potential to be abused

May not be well-received by millennials

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Application

Provides a general way of thinking about leadership that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and individual concerns

Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the organization

Able to positively impact a firm’s performance

May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection, promotion, and training development

Can be used to improve team development, decision-making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations

The MLQ and Sosik and Jung (2010) guide help leaders to target areas of leadership improvement

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Leader–Member Exchange Theory

Chapter 7

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Overview

LMX Theory Description

LMX Theory Perspective

Early Studies

Later Studies

Leadership Making

How Does the LMX Approach Work?

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Definition

Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory:

conceptualizes leadership as a process

that is centered on the interactions between a leader and followers

Some theories focus on leaders:

trait approach, skills approach, and behavior approach

Other theories focus on the follower and the context:

situational leadership, path–goal theory.

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Dimensions of Leadership

LMX theory makes the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers the focal point of the leadership process

Figure 7.1: Dimensions of Leadership

LMX Theory Description

Development--LMX theory first described by Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975); Graen and Cashman (1975); and Graen (1976)

Revisions--Theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception and continues to be of interest to researchers

Assumption--LMX theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way, as a group.

LMX--Directed attention to the differences that might exist between the leader and each of his/her followers

Perspective

Early Studies

First studies of LMX called--Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)

Focus on the vertical linkages leaders formed with each of their followers

Leader’s relationship to a work unit viewed as a series of vertical dyads

Figure 7.2: The Vertical Dyad

Figure 7.3: Vertical Dyads

Early Studies

Leader’s work unit as a whole was viewed as a series of vertical dyads; leader forms unique relationship with each follower

Figure 7.4: In-Groups and Out-Groups

Early Studies

Researchers found two general types of linkages (or relationships)--those based on

Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles) = in-group

Relationships marked by mutual trust, respect, liking, and reciprocal influence

Receive more information, influence, confidence, and concern than out-group members

Formal employment contract (defined-roles) = out-group

Relationships marked by formal communication based on job descriptions

Early Studies

In-group/out-group status based on how well follower works with the leader and how well the leader works with the follower

How followers involve themselves in expanding their role responsibilities with the leader determines whether they become in-group or out-group participants

Becoming part of the in-group involves follower negotiations in performing activities beyond the formal job description

Follower

In-Group

more information, influence, confidence, and concern from leader

more dependable, highly involved, and communicative than out-group

Out-Group

less compatible with leader

usually just come to work, do the job, and go home

In-Group and Out-Group Followers

Out-Group

Leader

In-Group

Later Studies (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Initial research primarily addressed differences between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectiveness

Later research focus on the quality of leader–member exchanges resulting in positive outcomes for

Leaders

Followers

Groups

Organizations in general

Later Studies (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Researchers found that high-quality leader–member exchanges resulted in

Less employee turnover

More positive performance evaluations

Higher frequency of promotions

Greater organizational commitment

More desirable work assignments

Better job attitudes

More attention and support from the leader

Greater participation

Faster career progress

Later Studies

Gerstner and Day (1997)

LMX consistently related to member job performance, overall satisfaction, supervisor satisfaction, commitment, role conflict and clarity, turnover intentions.

Support for psychometric properties of LMX Questionnaire

Ilies, Nahrang, and Morgeson (2007)

Meta-analysis of 51 research studies

Positive relationship between LMX quality and citizenship behaviors (discretionary employee behaviors that go beyond the prescribed role, job description, or reward system.

Later Studies

Hill, Kang, and Seo (2014)

Work relationships co-constructed through communication

Greater amount of electronic communication between leaders and followers leads to higher LMX

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

A prescriptive approach to leadership that emphasizes that a leader should develop high-quality exchanges with all of her or his followers, rather than just a few.

Three phases of leadership making which develop over time:

(a) stranger phase

(b) acquaintance phase

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Table 7.1: Phases in Leadership Making

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Interactions within the leader–follower dyad are generally rule bound

Rely on contractual relationships

Relate to each other within prescribed organizational roles

Experience lower quality exchanges

Motives of follower directed toward self-interest rather than good of the group

Phase 1 Stranger

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Phase 1 continued

How do leaders and followers determine relationship quality?

By leaders using narrative storylines to determine how trustworthy followers are (Kelley, 2014)

By looking at the social interaction between leaders and followers (Sheer, 2014)

By using traditional relationship-building techniques such as conflict management and shared tasks (Madlock & Booth-Butterfield, 2012)

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Begins with an “offer” by leader/follower for improved career-oriented social exchanges

Testing period for both, assessing whether

the follower is interested in taking on new roles

leader is willing to provide new challenges

Shift in dyad from formalized interactions to new ways of relating

Quality of exchanges improves along with greater trust and respect

Less focus on self-interest, more on goals of the group

Phase 2

Acquaintance

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Phase 3

Mature Partnership

Marked by high-quality leader–member exchanges

Experience high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation toward each other

Tested relationship and found it dependable

High degree of reciprocity between leaders and subordinates

May depend on each other for favors and special assistance

Highly developed patterns of relating that produce positive

Outcomes for both themselves and the organization

Partnerships are transformational--moving beyond self-interest to accomplish greater good of the team and organization

How Does the LMX Theory Approach Work?

Focus of LMX theory

Strengths

Criticisms

Application

How Does LMX Theory Work?

LMX theory works in two ways: It describes leadership and it prescribes leadership

In both, the central concept is the dyadic relationship

Descriptively:

It suggests that it is important to recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups within an organization

Significant differences in how goals are accomplished using in-groups versus out-groups

Relevant differences in in-group versus out-group behaviors

How Does LMX Theory Work?

Prescriptively:

Best understood within the Leadership–Making Model

(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)

Leader forms special relationships with all followers

Leader should offer each follower an opportunity for new roles/responsibilities

Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all followers

Rather than concentrating on differences, leader focuses on ways to build trust and respect with all followers, resulting in entire work group becoming an in-group

Strengths

LMX theory validates our experience of how people within organizations relate to one another and the leader.

LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process.

LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership.

Solid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes.

Criticisms

Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory.

The basic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed.

How are high-quality leader–member exchanges created?

What are the means to achieve building trust, respect, and obligation? What are the guidelines?

Because of various scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader–member exchanges is being questioned.

Application

Applicable to all levels of management and different types of organizations

Directs managers to assess their leadership from a relationship perspective

Sensitizes managers to how in-groups and out-groups develop within their work units

Can be used to explain how CEOs strategically develop special relationships with select individuals in upper management

Can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks at various levels throughout an organization

Can be applied in different types of organizations--volunteer, business, education, and government settings

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