IiEDUCATIONAL_LEADERSHIP__A_DESCRIPTION_OFSAUDI_FEMALE_PRINCIPALS

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A DESCRIPTION OF

SAUDI FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN THE EASTERN

PROVINCE OF SAUDI ARABIA

BRENDA KAY MATHIS

Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and Psychology

Northeastern State University

Tahlequah, Oklahoma

1981

Master of Education in Teaching

Northeastern State University

Tahlequah, Oklahoma

2007

Submitted to the Faculty of the

Graduate College of the

Oklahoma State University

in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December, 2010

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A DESCRIPTION OF

SAUDI FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN THE EASTERN

PROVINCE OF SAUDI ARABIA

Dissertation Approved:

Dr. Bernita Krumm

Dissertation Adviser

Dr. Edward L. Harris

Dr. Jesse Mendez

Dr. Nadine Olson

Outside Committee Member

Dr. Mark E. Payton

Dean of the Graduate College

iii

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A DESCRIPTION OF

SAUDI FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN THE EASTERN

PROVINCE OF SAUDI ARABIA

Brenda Kay Mathis

Oklahoma State University, 2010

Advisor and Committee Chair: Dr. Bernita L. Krumm

Saudi Arabia's educational system has been strongly criticized in the Western press

since the events of September 2001. Because of the nature of the society, most outsiders

are given only a precursory glance inside the structure and management of Saudi Arabia's

education system. The new Head of State King Abdullah has made educational reform a

focus of his reign. King Abdullah's educational reform initiative, Tatweer, includes issues

such as teaching and curriculum; however, little attention has been focused on the

individuals who will be responsible to oversee the educational reforms at the local levels -

school principals.

The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of that role.

Twelve female principals who lead elementary, intermediate, and secondary government

Schools in the Eastern Province of the country were interviewed and asked to describe

their role as educational leaders. The 12 principals spoke of visions for their schools that

included providing a physical environment that promoted learning and excellence. They

described their leadership and their visions, focusing on elements of the national religion,

Islam. Their descriptions of the influence of the Ministry of Education on their leadership

indicated that they were not given enough authority to act or be decision makers. Their

descriptions indicated that their role was that of a school manager more than that of an

educational leader. The role of societal culture on the leadership of these 12 women was

evident in this study. Although the study permitted a glimpse into the leadership of Saudi

female principals, there is much more to explore.

Dedicated to

Hussain

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to acknowledge those individuals in my life who have directly contributed

to my accomplishment in completing my dissertation. First are my parents, Mary and

Maurice (Sonny) Muskrat. Daddy, I wish you were here so you could say those five little

words that have always motivated me to achieve, "I am proud of you." Thank you.

Mama, you taught me the values and ethics that make me the woman I am today. You

kept reminding me that "You can do this," and I have. Thank you.

To my children, I am proud of you, each of you: Laila, Dallal, Ali, and Danna.

You are my greatest achievements. I ask God to keep and protect you always. Dallal,

thanks for translating the documents with Ebtesam for me. Laila, I can never thank you

enough for getting up early with me for my interviews, traveling the 'highway of death'

with me, making all of those phone calls, and most importantly translating for me. It was

a special time for us, a memory I will cherish. Danna thank you for looking after me

those last few weeks as I prepared for defense, and Ali, it meant so much to see you

outside of 333 Willard.

To Dr. Bernita L. Krumm, thank you. I was indeed very fortunate to find an

educational leader like you; otherwise, there would be no acknowledgements because

there would be nothing to acknowledge without your vision in completing this study.

To Dr. Maha AlAli, thank you for everything. The MOE needs more dedicated

leaders like you. To Amani, you were an inspiration always, thank you for all that you

did on my behalf. To Suhaila, thank you for getting me connected to the MOE. To the

MOE, thank you for permitting me to conduct this study in Saudi girls‘ schools. To the

12 Saudi female principals, thank you for your time, your hospitality and your insights.

To the members of my dissertation committee and instructors during my sojourn

as a doctoral student, Drs. Nadine Olson, Edward L. Harris, and Jesse P. Mendez, thank

you for your time, your encouragement and your willingness to be part of this process.

To my sister and brother, Barbara and James, for all of the smart remarks and

funny comments, including Miss College, I know what was in your heart, thank you.

vii

Finally, to my husband, not last and never least, Hussain Ali AlFaddagh, you

were always my cheerleader; your faith in me never diminished, and your support never

lagged. If there was ever anyone who deserved acknowledgement, it is you. You are the

love of my life, may Allah keep you always. I‘m coming home! P.S. No more Bahrain!

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.........................................................................1

Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................3

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................4

Research Questions ..................................................................................................4

Significance of the Study .........................................................................................5

Limitations ...............................................................................................................6

Definitions................................................................................................................7

Assumptions .............................................................................................................7

Summary ..................................................................................................................7

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................................................................................9

Education in Saudi Arabia .....................................................................................10

Vision ...............................................................................................................10

History..............................................................................................................11

The Ministry of Education…………………………………………………...11

Organization of Education ...............................................................................12

Educational Leadership in Saudi Arabia................................................................13

Organizational Change and Educational Reform ..................................................13

Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................14

Change Theory .................................................................................................15

Leadership ........................................................................................................18

Leadership Theories .........................................................................................19

Trait theory.................................................................................................20

Transactional versus transformational leadership ......................................21

Motivation theory.......................................................................................22

Leaders versus managers ...........................................................................22

The Role of Culture and Leadership ......................................................................23

Previous Studies of Saudi Educational Leadership ...............................................26

Jeddah Private Boys‘ School Study .................................................................27

Al Ahsa Region Public Girls Elementary School ............................................28

What Prevents Saudi Principals from being Effective Leaders .......................29

Summary ................................................................................................................30

Chapter Page

III. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................32

Permission to Conduct Research ...........................................................................32

Research Design………………………………………………………………….33

Procedures..………………………………………………………………………34

Participants .......................................................................................................35

Selection Method………………………………………………………… 36

Instrumentation ................................................................................................37

Data Collection ................................................................................................38

Data Storage ................................................................................................41

Analysis of Data ...............................................................................................42

Researcher Bias ......................................................................................................44

Summary ................................................................................................................45

IV. PARTICIPANTS: THE PRINCIPALS .................................................................46

The Interview Experience ......................................................................................46

The Principals' Demographics ...............................................................................47

Ages .................................................................................................................47

Marital Status ...................................................................................................48

Work Experience .............................................................................................49

Education Level ...............................................................................................49

Twelve Veiled Voices ............................................................................................51

1 st Interview: Um Mohammad I .......................................................................51

2 nd

Interview: Bint Al Watani ..........................................................................55

3 rd

Interview: Um Mohammad II .....................................................................57

4 th

Interview: Um Osama .................................................................................60

5 th

Interview: Um Mohammad III ....................................................................63

6 th

Interview: Um Kumsa .................................................................................67

7 th

Interview: Madeara Subha ..........................................................................69

8 th

Interview: Um Saeed ..................................................................................72

9 th

Interview: Ma'Asama ..................................................................................75

10 th

Interview: Um Mishal ...............................................................................77

11 th

Interview: Abla .........................................................................................78

12 th

Interview: Um Ibrahim .............................................................................81

Summary .................................................................................................................84

Chapter Page

V. THE INTERVIEWS ...............................................................................................85

The Questions and Responses……………………………………………………86

Question 1 ..............................................................................................................86

Providing the Right Environment ....................................................................87

The Role as a Responsibility............................................................................87

Comparing the Role to Motherhood ................................................................88

Describing the Role as One of Leadership ......................................................89

Fulfilling the Goals of the MOE ......................................................................89

Question 2 ..............................................................................................................90

Personal Qualities ............................................................................................91

Professional Qualities ......................................................................................92

Question 3 ..............................................................................................................94

Vision ...............................................................................................................94

Specific Goals ..................................................................................................95

Question 4 ..............................................................................................................97

Improvement ....................................................................................................97

Difficulties…………………………………………………………………..100

Question 5 ............................................................................................................102

Motivation ......................................................................................................103

Support ……………………………………………………………………...105

Question 6 ............................................................................................................106

Goals ..............................................................................................................106

Support ...........................................................................................................108

Summary ..............................................................................................................110

VI. FINAL ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY .........................113

The Principals ......................................................................................................114

Education and Training ..................................................................................115

Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................116

Culture and Leadership ..................................................................................117

Managers versus Leaders ...............................................................................118

Trait Theory of Leadership………………………………………………….120

Transactional versus Transformational Leadership…………………………120

Conclusions ..........................................................................................................121

The Impact of Religion on the Role of Leadership........................................121

The Ministry of Education's Influence on the Role of Leadership ................123

MOE‘s Influence on Principal‘s Vision ...................................................127

MOE‘s Influence on Motivation to Meet Responsibility ........................130

Chapter Page

Recommendations for Research ................................................................................132

Personal Reflections...................................................................................................132

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................135

APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................140

Appendix A: Research Request Letter ................................................................140

Appendix B: Letter from Dr. Krumm to MOE ...................................................142

Appendix C: Permission from MOE to Conduct Research ................................143

Appendix D: Interview Questions .......................................................................144

Appendix E: Demographic Questions ................................................................145

Appendix F: Research Questions ........................................................................146

Appendix G: Protocol for Interviews Form ........................................................147

Appendix H: Consent Form (English) ................................................................148

Appendix I: Consent Form (Arabic) ...................................................................151

Appendix J: Translator's Consent Form ..............................................................152

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 1: Age, Marital Status, and Number of Children ..............................................48

Table 2: Principals‘ Professional Experiences...…………………………………….49

Table 3: Principals‘ Levels of Education……………………………………………51

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Events at the beginning of the 21 st Century focused the world's attention upon

the Muslim-Arab nation of Saudi Arabia. Once it was known that 15 of the 19

hijackers who perpetrated the events of September 11, 2001, were from Saudi Arabia

(Kaplan, 2003), that attention was directed at Saudi Arabia's educational system (del

Castillo, 2006). Freedom House, the non-partisan American research group that

monitors civil rights worldwide, accused Saudi schoolbooks of promoting hatred.

"When it emerged that 15 of the 19 hijackers that day were Saudi, many blamed the

Kingdom's education system for breeding hate," (De Quetteville, 2006, p. 27).

According to then-U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia Robert W. Jordan, the

Saudis were taken by surprise, appalled and embarrassed that their sons and

members of their tribes could be involved in such a horrific act. This caused

them to go into a period of self-reflection and introspection. (Gannon and

Pillai, 2010, p. 59)

As the international community attempted to understand the motives for the

attacks, a greater problem with the educational system, not only in Saudi Arabia but in

the Arab world, was uncovered. "Since September 11, 2001, the Arab world has been

exposed to greater scrutiny. Education has become a critical issue in defining a state

of decline that exists in many Arab countries" (Yamani, 2006, p. 1).Western media

and American journalists portrayed the Saudi educational system at the center of a

controversy that included suggestions that the system produces terrorists (Bronson

and Coleman, 2005). Criticism of the Saudi education system by the United States led

to responses by His Royal Highness Prince Turki Al-Faisal, Ambassador of the

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the United States, and by His Royal Highness Saudi

Foreign Minister Saud Al-Faisal:

First, Saudi Arabia is upgrading its own educational system. The Kingdom has

reviewed all of its education practices and materials, and has removed any

element that is inconsistent with modern education . . . Second, Saudi Arabia

is heavily investing in its own educational system to prepare its citizens for

life and work in a modern, global economy. (T. Al-Faisal, 2006, p. 415)

The education reforms in Saudi Arabia go beyond textbook rewriting. And

they go into teacher training directions . . . And so the whole system of

education is being transformed from top to bottom. Textbooks are only one of

the steps that have been taken by Saudi Arabia. (T. Al-Faisal, 2006, p. 2)

His Highness Prince Saud Al-Faisal was not the first Saudi to suggest that the

system needs transformation. According to Bronson and Coleman (2005) the call for

educational reform came from the Saudis themselves including parents, policymakers,

journalists, and religious and business leaders.

According to the English language daily newspaper, The Arab News, the Saudi

deputy minister of education said, "King Abdullah wants to introduce drastic reforms

in the country's education system, matching with advanced countries" (Abdul

Ghafour, January, 2009). These reforms are a part of the King Abdullah Project for

Educational Development, or Tatweer as it is known in Arabic.

Tatweer is intended to improve Saudi Arabia's education standard to match

that of other nations. Budgets have been allocated for constructing new schools, for

improving the educational environment, for extra-curricular activities, and for the

training and development of teachers as well as a curriculum development plan.

According to the Ministry of Education (Abdul Ghafour, 2009), "Academics and

other experts are working on the project‘s executive plan, which will be ready

shortly" (The Arab News).

Educational reform, like any other form of change, is heavily dependent on the

leadership charged with instigating, implementing, and stewarding that change

(Bennis, 1989; Bridges, 1991; Kotter, 1996). According to Burke (2008), leadership is

the vital link that will sustain or destroy any organization undergoing change,

including an educational one. Simply put, "Leadership matters" (p. 247). If

educational reform is to be achieved, reformists in Saudi Arabia will need to

understand the leadership role of Saudi female principals and perspectives of that role.

Chance and Chance (2002) suggested that there is a need for understanding the

motivation of leaders responsible for organizational change. As Saudi Arabia looks to

reform its educational system, educators need to examine the leadership role and the

perspective of that role of those individuals who will be responsible for leading the

changes - the school principals.

Statement of the Problem

National attention is focused on educational reform in Saudi Arabia. However,

reforms will be actualized at the local level and will be greatly impacted by the

educational leaders of public schools. According to the Saudi Ministry of Education,

school principals receive little or no leadership education before assuming their posts

as educational leaders. Alderweesh (2003), who conducted a leadership study in the

Al Ahsa region of the Eastern Province, found that only 32% of the 28 female

principals who participated in her study held a bachelor's degree or higher. According

to Alderweesh, "In Saudi Arabia, any teacher could apply to be a principal or

principal's assistant after a few years of teaching experience" (p. 1). School principals

are the educational leaders who will be charged with leading the reforms at the local

level.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of that role.

Describing the leadership role and participants' perspectives of that role included

identifying their educational visions and motivations.

Research Questions

"Everyone knows that a leader's most important role is to lead change"

(Bridges, 2003, p. 154). If Saudi Arabia intends to reform its educational system as

His Highness King Abdullah has declared (Morgan, 2004), describing the leadership

role of Saudi female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and the

perspectives of that role will benefit and help inform the process. In this study,

describing the leadership role and the perspectives of that role was accomplished

through examination of the following central questions:

1. How do Saudi female principals define their educational roles?

2. How do Saudi female principals describe their educational visions for their

schools?

3. What motivates Saudi female principals in meeting their responsibilities?

4. How do Saudi female principals describe the impact they have on their

schools?

5. What theoretical framework(s) describes the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province?

Significance of the Study

As Saudi Arabia implements educational reforms "to prepare its citizens for

life and work in a modern, global economy" (Al-Faisal, 2006, p. 415), understanding

the leadership role of those responsible for implementing change and perspectives of

that role is an important aspect of the reforms for several reasons.

First, Saudi Arabia must be sure that their educational leaders are prepared to

face the challenges the reforms will present. "Leadership defines what the future

should look like, aligns people with that vision, and inspires them to make it happen

despite the obstacles" (Kotter, 1996, p. 25). Secondly, leaders need to share a similar

vision of education in the future for the reforms to be successful. "Vision is

increasingly regarded as an essential component of effective leadership" (Bush, 2003,

p. 6). Finally, actualization of the reforms will depend on the leaders charged with

facilitating change at the local level. Useful change cannot be effective unless it is

driven by high-quality leadership (Bush, 2003).

Possible outcomes from the study may prompt the Ministry of Education to

provide additional, mandatory leadership education for school principals as well as to

develop standards and certification for those assuming leadership roles. Outcomes

might also prompt the Ministry of Higher Education to develop undergraduate as well

as graduate programs in Educational Leadership and School Administration programs

at universities throughout the Kingdom. In addition, describing the leadership role of

Saudi female principals of public girls' schools and their perspectives of the role may

be a starting point for implementing educational reforms that, for many, are long

overdue in a country that wishes to see its citizens better prepared to compete in a

global economy.

Limitations

1. This study was confined to interviewing a limited number of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. I have resided in the Eastern

province for more than 25 years, and limited the study to this area due to greater

familiarity with members of the Ministry of Education in the Eastern province to

help facilitate interviews and make this study possible.

2. A second limitation that occurred during participant selection was that of

accessibility. Some of the schools located in the Eastern Province are in extremely

remote areas of the desert. Substitutions had to be drawn to replace participants in

these remote areas considered too difficult to safely access.

3. Because of cultural and religious norms, restrictions exist concerning the mixing

of the sexes in Saudi Arabia. As a female, I focused this study on Saudi female

principals to ensure access to the participants.

4. Qualitative research practices and case study description, in particular, might

include rich description of the participants in a study. However, I deviate from

this practice due to my respect for and understanding of the cultural and religious

sensitivities of the participants in this study and do not include any physical

description of the participants.

5. Saudi female principals were asked by the Ministry of Education to participate in

this study. The Ministry contacted each participant to ascertain her participation.

This could have resulted in pressure on the individuals to participate and may

have impacted their responses. Because of the MOE's assistance in setting up the

interviews with the participants, and the MOE's role as employer of these

individuals, I have kept information such as dates of interviews and specific

locations of the schools of the participants intentionally vague.

6. All interviews were conducted in English with an Arabic translator, and all

responses were translated from Arabic to English. Because of differences in

languages, some meanings might have been lost in translation.

Definitions

Government schools – public, free access schools open to all Saudi students beginning

at the age of five until completion of a high school certificate

Eastern Province – one of five geographical areas comprising the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia. Situated to the East of the country, the province is bordered by the Arabian

Gulf; several of its major cities include Al-Khobar, Dammam, Al-Ahsa, Abqaiq, Ras

Tanura, Al Khufji and Jubail

Shariah – religious jurisprudence

Assumptions

Despite the involvement of the Ministry of Education in selection of

participants, it is assumed that all participants were forthright during the interviews.

Summary

Because of both internal and external pressure and international and national

criticism of the educational system soon after the events of September 11, 2001, Saudi

Arabia began to evaluate educational practices within the Muslim-Arab nation. The

head of this Arabian Gulf Monarchy, His Royal Highness King Abdullah Custodian

of the Two Holy Mosques made educational reform in this Middle Eastern country a

priority of his reign through implementation of Tatweer, a project that encompasses

major educational issues affecting the government school system.

The purpose of this descriptive case study was to describe the leadership role

of female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of

that role. Twelve Saudi female principals who head public girls' schools in the Eastern

Province of Saudi Arabia were interviewed. Transcripts of the interviews were coded

and analyzed to identify the principals' definitions of their roles, their educational

visions, and motivations for leading their respective schools.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Saudi Arabia was placed under a microscope once the world learned that 15 of

the 19 hijackers on September 11, 2001, were from Saudi Arabia. Attention was soon

focused upon a declining system of education in this Arab/Muslim country. Calls for

education reform were heard from both within and outside of the Gulf Kingdom. The

Western media and American journalists, as well as the Saudis themselves, began to

scrutinize the Saudi system of education (Bronson and Coleman, 2005). King

Abdullah, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, made educational reform a priority of

his reign (Abdul Ghafour, 2009) when he ascended the throne in 2005.

Educational reform in Saudi Arabia will be greatly impacted by the

educational leaders of government schools—the school principals. Yet, according to

the Saudi Ministry of Education, school principals receive little or no leadership

education before assuming their posts as educational leaders (Aldarweesh, 2003).

Effective educational reform will require principals who are prepared to lead change.

Understanding the individuals responsible for leading that change will be vital to the

success of the reforms. The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role

of Saudi female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their

perspectives of that role.

Change theory, leadership, and leadership theory were the conceptual

frameworks that guided this study. Literature relevant to this study included a

discussion of organizational change theory and how it relates to leadership. Equally of

value in the literature review was theories of leadership that looked specifically at

differentiating between leaders and managers, and transformational versus

transactional leadership. Also included was a brief review of the role of societal

culture on leadership. Finally, previous studies of Saudi educational leaders were

reviewed. First, however, was a brief introduction to the educational system of Saudi

Arabia and the procedures and requirements for Saudi principals.

Education in Saudi Arabia

Vision

The Saudi system of education is deeply rooted in the national religion, Islam

(Al-Sadan, 2000). In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Education's

document, A Brief Introduction, the Ministry states the vision of education:

Engendering of a new generation of male and female youth who embody the

Islamic values in their persons, both theoretical as well as practical, are

equipped with necessary knowledge, skills, and endowed with ease and

comfort. They should be able to face international competition both at the

scientific as well as technological levels to be able to meaningfully participate

in overall growth and development.

This is to be achieved through an effective and practical system of education

which is capable of discovering the potentials and predispositions, and, create

the spirit of action. All this, in an environment of education and training,

charged with the spirit of instruction and edification (Our Vision).

History

Education, like the founding of the nation itself, is relatively young in Saudi

Arabia. "Saudi Arabia became a nation in 1932, when Ibn Saud united disparate tribes

into one nation and named himself king" (Gannon & Pillai, 2010, p. 61). According to

the Saudi Ministry of Education formal education in Saudi Arabia began in the 1930s,

the Ministry of Education was established in 1954, and the Kingdom's first university

was founded in 1957.

The Saudi Ministry of Education

The Ministry of Education (MOE) is the government appointed body that

oversees K-12 education in Saudi Arabia. According to Neil Partrick, a lecturer at the

University of Westminster in England, and a consultant on Middle Eastern politics

and economics, King Abdullah and his appointees in the Ministry of Education and

Ministry of Higher Education will face ―enormous constraints‖ in implementing the

changes to education they feel are necessary due to the bureaucracy and religious

conservatism within Saudi Arabia (Lindsey, 2010).

According to the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission to the United States:

The objectives of the Saudi educational policy are to ensure that education

becomes more efficient, to meet the religious, economic and social needs of

the country and to eradicate illiteracy among Saudi adults. There are several

government agencies involved with planning, administrating and

implementing the overall governmental educational policy in Saudi Arabia.

The Ministry of Education sets overall standards for the country's educational

system (public and private) and also oversees special education for the

handicapped. Early in 2003 the General Presidency for Girls' Education was

dissolved and its functions taken over by the Ministry, to administer the girls'

schools and colleges, supervise kindergartens and nursery schools and sponsor

literacy programs for females (Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission).

However, the administration and oversight of boys and girls schools remains

segregated; male MOE administrators oversee boys‘ schools; and female MOE

administrators oversee girls‘ schools. This system has provided a detailed and highly

structured ministry that oversees all aspects of Saudi K-12 education. The system is

highly bureaucratic with decision-making power structured from the top down.

Organization of Education

According to the Saudi Ministry of Education, "General education in the

Kingdom consists of kindergarten, six years of primary school and three years each of

intermediate and high school" (Education in the Kingdom).

Secondary school students study a general curriculum the first year and the

remaining two years may choose to specialize in 1 of 3 major areas: Administration

and Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, or Shariah and Arabic Studies. Vocational and

technical education and training are alternatives for intermediate school graduates.

The choices available are: 1. industrial, 2. commercial, or 3. agriculture. Post

secondary public or government education is free to all students who obtain

admission. Admission is based on both secondary school results and college and

university exams. Private university education is also available. The Ministry of

Education's Summary Statistics' projections for 2006/2007 included 4,909,047 total

number of students, 416,362 number of teaching staff, and 30,841 the total number of

schools in Saudi Arabia.

Educational Leadership in Saudi Arabia

Each province of Saudi Arabia has a separate General Director of Education

for Girls under the Ministry of Education (MOE). In the Eastern Province there are

four deputy directors heading four separate departments of education. Dr. Malika Al

Tayar is the single female deputy director in the Eastern Province. She is the Deputy

Director of Educational Affairs in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

According to Dr. Al Tayar (personal communication, March 17, 2010) the

minimum requirements for a school principal include having a bachelor's degree,

eight years experience either as a teacher or administrator, and a performance

evaluation of excellent for the two years proceeding application for the position. The

candidate must demonstrate ability for leadership as perceived by the committee

charged with interviewing the candidates. According to Dr. Al Tayar most people

prefer the position of assistant principal to that of principal because it is less

responsibility. If candidates are both available and willing, the committee prefers to

nominate assistant principals for the position of principal because of prior training.

Dr. Al Tayar (personal communication, March 17, 2010) explained that once a

candidate is placed in the position as school principal, she receives ongoing training;

but the training is not a pre-requisite for securing the position of school principal. In

addition, a newly appointed school principal will visit other more experienced

principals for mentoring. All government school principals are rotated out of their

positions every four years. According to Dr. Al Tayar, "Training and experience are

better than education."

Organizational Change and Educational Reform

With a student population of nearly five million students (Sakr, 2008),

educational reform in Saudi Arabia will be a major undertaking. The educational

reforms King Abdullah is implementing will involve change within the Saudi

educational organization as well as within individual schools. According to Chance

and Chance (2002), "Organizational change is inextricably tied to the beliefs, values,

and norms that define the organizational culture" (p. 217). Burke (2008) suggested

that reforms of this magnitude are customarily planned, and although unusual, usually

involve revolutionary change that may include changes in strategy, leadership and

culture. Revolutionary change normally involves a sudden event that precipitates the

need for change as opposed to evolutionary change which is a more gradual process.

Revolutionary change, also known as transformation, requires the immediate attention

of all organizational members (Burke).

The events that occurred on September 11, 2001, could be construed as such

an event. Saudi Arabia might have undergone educational reform in a more

evolutionary manner had not those events unfolded; however, because they did

happen, the events of 911 seem to have been a catalyst that called the governing

parties to action in reforming what many Saudis consider an outdated educational

system. Change is a difficult scenario regardless the circumstance, but with

international pressure being applied, educational reform has appeared as a major topic

at the forefront of Saudi public policy. Change theory is one part of the conceptual

framework that guides this study.

Conceptual Framework

According to Merriam (1998), "Qualitative research is designed to

inductively build rather than to test concepts, hypothesis, and theories" and a

theoretical or conceptual framework "is the structure, the scaffolding, and frame of

your study" (p. 45). Framing a study intended to describe the leadership role and the

perspectives of that role of school principals charged with leading educational reform

required a conceptual framework that included change theory, leadership, and

leadership theories. I intended to use these conceptual frameworks to analyze and

interpret the data collected from the interviews I conducted, however, once I began

analysis I found that these theories did not adequately frame the leadership of the

principals I was describing.

Change Theory

Understanding change theory was beneficial to understanding the process that

Saudi schools must undertake. Burke (2008) summarized Van de Ven and Poole's

four theoretical frameworks for organizational change: life-cycle theory, teleological

theory, dialectical theory, and evolutionary theory. Life-cycle theory is described as a

linear and irreversible sequence of prescribed stages; teleological is recurrent,

discontinuous sequence of goal setting, implementation and adaptation; dialectic is a

recurrent, discontinuous sequence of confrontation, conflict and synthesis; and

evolutionary is the recurrent, cumulative and probabilistic sequence of variation,

selection, and retention, (p. 140).

The theoretical framework for organizational change that best described the

educational reforms set forth in Tatweer was not clear. With a starting date of mid-

2007, this project was reported to consist of general principles without operational

plans and a $2.3 billion dollar budget for the first six years According to Sakr's

(2008) analysis of educational reform in the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

countries, Saudi Arabia's educational problem is more complicated than the other

Gulf countries due to many factors. First Saudi Arabia has a much larger population

than the other Gulf Countries; attempting to evaluate teachers and eliminate

unqualified ones could have great economic repercussions. Secondly, Saudi Arabia's

attempts at curriculum reform might be met with greater resistance due to stronger

religious undercurrents.

Based on Sakr's analysis, I wanted to use Burke's (2008) definition of Van de

Ven and Poole's dialectic change theory to describe the organizational change

necessary for successful educational reforms in Saudi Arabia. Considering the

underlying confrontation and conflict that may have to occur within society between

the general population and the strong religious undercurrent, the process of reform

could be described as dialectic, a discontinuous sequence of confrontation, conflict

and synthesis. On the other hand, teleological change theory may have a strong place

in Saudi educational reforms with its discontinuous sequence of goal setting,

implementation and adaptation. Educational reform could be a start-and-stop process

as society coalesces itself for transformation and revolution in education.

Demers (2007) described "real" change as "a period of discontinuity, of

disruption; it is talked about in terms of transformation and revolution" (p. 43). Saudi

principals will be required to sustain these periods of disruption and discontinuity in

order for the reforms to be realized as change. Will the current educational leaders

have the knowledge and skills to sustain these periods of disruption; will they know

how to begin the process, and what will they need to know and do to ensure success?

Describing the leadership role of current Saudi female principals and their

perspectives of that role provided insight of their knowledge and skills. However,

during the interviews only two of these twelve principals addressed the reform

initiative, this indicated to me that the principals did not know how to begin the

change process or what to do to ensure its success because they did not acknowledge

that the reforms are underway.

John P. Kotter (1996) in Leading Change describes an eight-stage process for

creating change: 1) establishing a sense of urgency, 2) creating the guiding coalition,

3) developing a vision and strategy 4) communicating the change vision, 5)

empowering broad-based action, 6) generating short-term wins, 7) consolidating gains

and producing more change, and 8) anchoring new approaches in the culture.

How do Saudi female principals understand their own vision for education and

are they able to communicate their vision in order to create change within their own

schools? According to Sakr (2008), Saudi Arabia's educational history includes a

bureaucratic legacy that may impede educational initiatives while ideological disputes

hamper educational innovation. Educational leaders of reform, school principals, need

to understand their role as change agents.

Burke (2008) described four phases of organizational change and the leader's

role at each phase. Phase I, the prelaunch phase, involves embodying the vision of

where the organization needs to go. The leader should reflect on her self-awareness,

motives, and values. High performers generally see themselves as others see them.

Leading successful change requires that leaders be aware of themselves in personal

domains. Motives are part of self-awareness and include three major areas: need for

achievement, power, and affiliation. The third area for self-reflection, values, involves

aligning the leader's individual needs with the values of the organization's culture. If

the organization's culture is part of the change, then the values must be modified or a

new set of values must be formed. Were the Saudi female principals' values

representative of the values of the educational reforms or do they need to be modified

or new ones need to be formed? In this phase, Burke (2008) also included the need to

examine the external environment and gather information about the needs of the

clients, establishing the need for change which may also involve changing the culture

of the organization, and providing clarity of vision and direction by drafting a clear

vision statement that can provide direction for the organization.

Burke's (2008) Phase II is the launch phase. It begins with communicating the

need for change to members of the organization, creating activities that convey the

reality of the change, and dealing with the resistance that will emerge as individual

members struggle against the change for various reasons. Phase III is the post-launch

phase. Here Burke (2008) emphasizes that the change leaders

….need to use multiple levers for the transformation, take the heat from

followers from time to time, provide consistency in terms of words and deeds,

persevere even to the point of risking being called stubborn, and repeat the

message again and again. (p. 264)

Finally, Phase IV of organizational change is sustaining the change. Burke

(2008) advised the change leader to be aware of unanticipated consequences, maintain

the momentum created by the changes, begin to choose successors to continually

infuse new ideas into the organization through new members, and finally be prepared

to launch new initiatives to continually renew the organization. Understanding

organizational change theory and the processes that instigate change are necessary in

order to relate change theory to leadership. Burke (2008) stated, "Change can emanate

from any unit, function, or level within an organization. Regardless of its origin;

leadership is required" (p. 25).

Leadership

"The need for educational leaders is urgent and worldwide," (Bainbridge and

Thomas, 2006, p. 1). Leaders do make a difference in organizations, but the extent of

leadership's impact on change is not clear. According to Hallinger and Leithwood

(1998), the principal's leadership role has evolved from manager to bureaucrat, to

instructional manager, to transformational leader.

Attempting to define leadership becomes a process in itself, and the definitions

are as varied as the leaders. According to Bush (2003) there is no agreed upon

definition of leadership. He suggested, rather, that there are three dimensions that

form the basis of a definition. They are leadership as influence, leadership and values,

and leadership and vision. The purpose of this research was to describe the leadership

role of Saudi female principals in the Eastern Province and their perspectives of that

role by examining their definitions of their role, their educational visions, their

motivations, and the impact Saudi female principals believed that role has on their

individual schools.

Definitions for leadership include Kotter's definition (1996): "Leadership is a

set of processes that creates organizations in the first place or adapts them to

significantly changing circumstances"(p. 25). Burke (2008) differentiated between

leadership and power: "Power is the capacity to influence others; leadership is the

exercise of that capacity" (p. 228). He suggested that leadership means to make

something happen that might not otherwise have occurred. Northhouse (2007)

suggested that "Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of

individuals to achieve a goal" (p. 3). He explained that there are four central

components to conceptualizing leadership: (a) leadership is a process, (b) involves

influence, (c) occurs in a group context, and (d) involves goal attainment.

Leadership Theories

Just as numerous definitions of leadership abound, so do theories of

leadership. Leadership theories concern themselves with explaining the role of leaders

and how leadership influences the effectiveness of organizations (Chance & Chance,

2002, p. 85). According to Sakr (2008) educational reform in Saudi Arabia will be a

major undertaking. Much of the burden of changing the culture of individual schools

will fall upon the educational leaders of the schools— the school principals.

Determining the ability and capability of these individuals involves resolving issues

such as their ability to lead these transformations. Therefore, leadership theories

provide a framework for understanding the current leadership of Saudi girls' schools

in the Eastern Province.

Trait theory.

Trait theory of leadership attempts to identify specific characteristics or traits

that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Chance and Chance (2002) described

Yukl's leadership traits and skills and applied them to positions of school leadership:

1. High energy level and stress tolerance are needed to cope with the hectic

pace associated with school leadership

2. Internal locus of control refers to the belief that events in one's life are

determined by one's own actions rather than by outside events

3. Emotional maturity is defined as being well adjusted and aware of one's

own strengths and weaknesses

4. Integrity denotes honesty, ethical behavior, and trustworthiness

5. Power motivation refers to one's need for power to influence others

6. Achievement orientation is a desire to excel and a drive to succeed

7. Need for affiliation is the need to be liked and accepted by others (p. 87)

According to Northhouse (2007), the trait approach to leadership was perhaps

the earliest leadership theory. Trait theorists suggest some people were born leaders

and those great leaders possessed innate qualities. Although research and results

varied about which traits are most desirable for leaders, five traits central to most lists

of traits and characteristics of effective leaders are intelligence, self-confidence,

determination, integrity, and sociability (p. 19).

Transactional versus transformational leadership.

Bush (2003) distinguished between transactional and transformational

leadership, suggesting that transactional leadership involves influencing followers by

an exchange of something they both value while transformational leadership is

concerned with engaging leaders with followers through a common purpose (p. 95).

Northhouse (2007) stated, "As its name implies, transformational leadership is a

process that changes and transforms people" (p. 175). Northhouse also differentiated

between the two concepts by describing transactional leadership as focused on the

exchanges between leaders and followers and transformational leadership as the

process that occurs when people engage with other people and create a connection

that elevates the motivation and morality of both leader and follower (p. 176).

Miller and Miller (2001) define transformational and transactional leadership

by contrasting the two:

Transactional leadership is leadership in which relationships with teachers are

based upon an exchange for some valued resource. To the teacher, interaction

between administrators and teachers is usually episodic, short-lived and

limited to the exchange transaction. Transformational leadership is more

potent and complex and occurs when one or more teachers engage with others

in such a way that administrators and teachers raise one another to higher

levels of commitment and dedication, motivation and morality. Through the

transforming process, the motives of the leader and follower merge. (p. 182)

Motivation theory.

Chance and Chance (2002) suggested, "The essence of leadership is

motivating others to follow and achieve" (p. 127). Motivation explains why people do

the things they do. Motivation can involve either internal conditions or external

stimuli. External stimuli suggest that individuals respond to reinforcement and

punishment to shape behavior. Internal conditions are the needs that drive behavior

(Chance & Chance, 2002). According to Bush (2003), "Recognition of the different

values and motivations of the people who work in organizations is an essential

element if they are to be managed successfully" (p. 130).

Leaders versus managers.

Bush (2003) suggested, "Lead, not manage: there is an important difference"

(p. 17). In Saudi Arabia the words modeara (female) or modear (male) are the titles

used to address the individual(s) responsible for leading a school. These titles also

denote any person who leads any organization, or operation for that matter; someone

who is in charge. However, the rough translation of the Arabic word for principal,

modeara or modear, is manager.

Not all educators would agree that there are significant differences between

the definitions of a leader versus the definition of a manager. Northhouse (2007)

suggested that leadership and management have similarities and differences, and that

there are many areas where the two overlap. Kotter (1996) argued that the two are

entirely different concepts. He differentiated between the two by describing

management as a process for keeping a system running smoothly and leadership as a

set of processes that creates systems or adapts them for change. Kotter lamented the

problems that were created by how little people were taught about leadership whereas

management training became the thrust of many organizations and universities.

Chance and Chance (2002) distinguished between the philosophies of leadership and

management, "It is true that leaders sometimes manage, but managers don't lead," (p.

99).

As Saudi Arabia prepares for educational reform, school principals will need

to be assigned the role of change agents. According to Kotter (1996), ―Managing

change is important. Without competent management, the transformation process can

get out of control. But for most organizations, the much bigger challenge is leading

change‖ (p. 30).

According to an interview with one member of the Ministry of Education's

Research and Planning Department, "The Saudi education system trains principals to

be managers, not leaders" (Interview, March 6, 2010). Alsufyan (2002) also

attributed the management role of Saudi school principals to the Saudi education

system except he implicated the Ministry of Education (MOE): "Their [principals]

relegation by the Ministry to the status of managers denies them use of their abilities

to make and implement leadership decisions within their schools" (p. 2).

The Role of Culture and Leadership

As a "Westerner" I was concerned that my biases and background might have

led me to analyze and view the data collected through a Western lens. Examining how

leadership is viewed in the Saudi culture and acknowledging that differences in

leadership are not right or wrong, good or bad—just different — was important. What

is considered effective leadership in the Western sense can be viewed differently in

the Saudi (Eastern) sense. The leadership traits valued by each culture can be directly

attributed to the values of that culture.

For the most part, educational leadership has been written about and described

through a "Western" lens. Hallinger and Leithwood (1998) questioned the validity of

applying Western methods and theories of school administration and educational

leadership to non-Western societies. They suggested that most leadership theory and

practice are based on Western values and culture and may not "fit" or apply to other

cultures. "Understanding culture's influence requires us to focus on a subtle interplay

of foreground and background" (p. 129).

According to Hallinger and Leithwood (1998), "Culture is the source of values

that people share in a society,"(p. 132). They warn of trying to apply Western culture

contexts to Eastern cultures. Cultural values differ across nations and a reasonable

expectation is that the nature of interaction between leaders and followers differs.

Understanding school context is vital to understanding leadership behavior. This is

particularly important in understanding institutional context and leadership behavior

across cultures.

Wong (1998) pointed out that the omission of societal culture as a variable in

leadership reveals an assumption that developed theories have universal application.

Moreover, he suggested that applying global leadership initiatives, such as strong

leadership, places an overreliance on structure and control in leading schools and

advocates a more value-based leadership. This suggests and supports the view that

leadership behavior should be grounded in societal culture, for example, values varies

from culture to culture.

Dimmock and Walker (2000) described the role of societal culture in defining

the role of leadership. ―The inclusion of societal culture as a factor in investigations

covering such themes as curriculum, teaching and learning, leadership and school-

based management is an imperative for the future development of the field‖ (p. 304).

Dimmock and Walker also argued that most development of theory in educational

management and leadership is largely Anglo-American and a substantive part of this

theory derives from business management practices. They suggest that these concepts

may not be applicable to non-Anglo cultures:

Theories, ideas, and practices derived in one social setting should not be

assumed valid in other social-political-cultural contexts. Societal cultures,

along with local economic, political and religious conditions act as mediators

and fillers to policies and practices imported from overseas (p. 307).

Dimmock and Walker (2000), Hallinger and Leithwood (1998) and Wong

(1998) all strongly suggested that leadership theory is not always applicable to all

situations and cautioned those reviewing leadership theories. Educators must be aware

of significant culture variations to understand leadership from society to society. This

point was of particular interest in this study as it looked at leadership in Saudi Arabia

with its very strong religious culture.

Bush (2003) suggested that in today's literature the term culture in connection

with leadership usually refers to school culture. However, for the purpose of this

study, the literature of interest concerned societal culture and its influence upon

educational leadership. According to Bush, "Given the globalization of education,

issues of societal culture are increasingly significant" (p. 157). "Societal culture is one

important aspect of the context within which leaders must operate" (p. 159).

According to Northhouse (2007), culture can be defined as the "learned

beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions that are common to a group of

people" (p. 302). Although there are no established theories of cultural leadership,

several studies have identified and classified dimensions of culture. The GLOBE

Studies are one study that established a strong relationship between societal culture

and leadership (Northhouse).

The GLOBE Studies identified clusters of world cultures and analyzed

similarities and differences between these clusters. These studies were of particular

interest to me because I recognized that many of the traits ascribed to the Middle

Eastern cluster could also be used to describe the Saudi educational leaders I have

known. The Middle Eastern cluster included two members of the Gulf Cooperation

Council (GCC): Kuwait and Qatar. The Gulf Cooperation Council countries are Saudi

Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Qatar. These six

countries share many cultural traits. The Middle Eastern cluster's countries scored

high on in-group collectivism, and low on future orientation, gender egalitarianism,

and uncertainty avoidance. These characteristics suggest that individuals from these

countries treat people differently dependent on their gender; orderliness and

consistency are not stressed, and people do not place heavy reliance on policies and

procedures (Northhouse, 2007, p. 312).

The purpose of the GLOBE Studies was to ascertain how people from

different countries view leadership. According to the study results, the leadership

profile of Middle Eastern countries is very different from the leadership profiles of

other clusters. Face saving and status are important characteristics of effective

leadership, while charisma, collaboration and participative decision making are not as

important for effective leadership (Northhouse, 2007, p. 321). These subtleties may

demonstrate and help explain how leadership is viewed in Saudi Arabia as opposed to

Western standards of leadership.

Previous Studies of Saudi Educational Leadership

Several studies (Aldarweesh 2003; Alsufyan 2002; Badawood, 2003)

examined educational leadership in Saudi schools. The Badawood and Aldarweesh

studies were concerned with the perceptions of leadership behavior. A third recent

study of Saudi educational leaders by Alsufyan illuminated the problems faced by

educational leaders as identified by Saudi principals involved in the study.

Jeddah Private Boys' Schools Study

Badawood (2003) examined leadership perceptions among private boys'

schools in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. His study investigated whether there was a

relationship between the principals' understanding of the concept of leadership and the

principals' behaviors as an initiating structure (people oriented), or a consideration

structure (task oriented). His study examined teachers' perceptions of their principals'

leadership behavior by administering the LBDQ (Leadership Behavior Description

Questionnaire) to the principal and five core teachers in 31 private boys' high schools

in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia during the 2003 school year (p. 58). He collected data first

with the principals by using a questionnaire designed by the researcher and the

LBDQ. The second data was collected through the sample teachers using the LBDQ.

The principals in the Badawood (2003) study believed that leadership is an

important concept worth learning. Principals see themselves as both people and task

oriented. The teachers' perceptions of the principals' leadership behaviors correlated

with the principals' perceptions of their own behaviors; the perceptions were high in

both initiating structure and consideration structure. Although his study focused on

educational leaders in Saudi Arabia, it was limited to leadership style through

perceptions of leadership behavior. The study was also limited to principals of boys'

school, male principals, and to private schools; public schools were not included.

Badawood's study was limited to the Western province city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

His recommendations included that the Saudi Ministry of Education understand the

need for leadership programs to increase the principals' leadership skills, and

suggested that teachers be involved in evaluating principals' performances. Secondly,

Badawood recommended that colleges and universities in Saudi Arabia offer

programs that teach leadership theories, concepts, and skills to help school principals

understand and utilize effective leadership styles (p. 103).

Al Ahsa Region Public Girls' Elementary Schools

In 2003, Aldarweesh examined perceptions of leadership behavior of

elementary female principals by the principals and teachers in the Eastern Province

region of Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Aldarweesh, like Badawood, collected data using

the LBDQ (Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire) (form XII). However,

the Aldarweesh study was limited to female principals of elementary girls' schools in

the Al Ahsa region in Eastern Saudi Arabia. The instrument was completed by 28

principals and 248 teachers. Aldarweesh attempted to understand the similarities and

differences between the principals' perceptions of their leadership and their teachers'

perceptions of their leadership behavior. She presented valuable statistics on the

demographics of her sample that included education and years of experience. Her

results indicated that perception of principals' leadership did not differ between

teachers and principals. She also reported that there was no correlation between

educational level, age, and total years of experience and leadership behavior (p. 51).

Similar to my study, Aldarweesh (2003) examined the leadership of Saudi

female principals in the Eastern Province. Unlike my study, Aldarweesh included

elementary principals in the Al Ahsa region only. Furthermore Aldarweesh examined

the principal's perceptions of their leadership as well as each principal's teachers'

perceptions of their principal's leadership.

Neither the Badawood (2003) nor Aldarweesh (2003) studies examined the

principals' roles as educational leaders responsible for leading the educational reform

initiatives set forth through Tatweer nor did either study attempt to describe the

leaders' values, attitudes, motivation or educational vision. Both studies did, however,

examine leaders' perceptions of their own leadership. This was accomplished through

completion of a questionnaire that described leadership habits and traits. Principals

were not interviewed or asked to explain or elaborate upon their responses.

Leaders rated themselves high in ability to define their own role and to

communicate expectations to followers. They rated themselves as actively exercising

their leadership roles "occasionally" to "often" (Aldarweesh, 2003, p. 55). Aldarweesh

also reported that principals viewed their leadership from a managerial role because of

their limited responsibilities and role as defined and limited by the Saudi education

system (p. 56). She recommended that the Ministry of Education should provide

training on leadership behavior and theory by sending principals to school for

updating their education. She also recommended greater communication between

principals. The demographics reported in the Aldarweesh study showed that fewer

than 1/3 of the principals in her study held a bachelor's degree or higher. She

recommended that the leadership positions of principals should be given to more

highly educated individuals. She also recommended other studies be conducted and

that a more standard system of selection of school principals be developed.

What Prevents Saudi Principals from being Effective Leaders?

Alsufyan (2002) studied Saudi male secondary principals' perceptions of the

major problems they faced as educational leaders, how problems were addressed, and

the barriers to overcoming these problems. Alsufyan looked specifically at what Saudi

male secondary school principals identified as the primary educational problems in

their schools, what initiatives were needed to resolve these problems, and what

prevented them from initiating solutions. He believed that Saudi school principals

could have a greater impact on leading their schools and improving education, but

because of the limitations placed on them by the Ministry of Education (MOE), they

are not permitted to act on their ideas for school improvement.

Alsufyan (2002) interviewed 50 male principals in the 7 regions of the Saudi

capital of Riyadh. All principals included in this study were leaders of public

secondary boys' schools. The principals rated four problem areas as identified by the

MOE; Alsufyan's results indicated that in these four areas, there were major

differences in ranking between the principal and the ministry. The principals

identified other major problems, one of which was the centralized bureaucratic

operation of the Ministry and the resulting lack of authority and decision-making

power by the principals. Alsufyan's recommendations included developing a

committee headed by him to train and educate the participants in the study. He also

recommended further study of the issue with female principals.

Summary

This chapter reviewed literature relevant to framing a study that described the

leadership role of female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their

perspectives of that role. The review began with an overview of the Saudi

educational system and policies for the selection process of Saudi principals.

As Saudi Arabia attempts to reform its educational system, principals must be

prepared to lead change if that reform is to be successful. Therefore organizational

change theory and leadership theory focused specifically on transformational and

transactional leadership as well as literature differentiating between leaders and

managers were included in the literature review. Change theory, leadership, and

leadership theories formed the basis of the conceptual framework of the study. The

issue of societal cultural theory was also addressed in the review of literature.

Therefore, as a "Western" researcher of the leadership roles in an Eastern culture, I

had to be aware that societal culture might be a variable in this study.

Finally, I concluded this chapter with a review of three recent studies that

examined Saudi school leadership. Two of the studies (Aldarweesh, 2003; Badawood,

2003) examined principals' leadership perceptions and teacher perceptions of their

principal's leadership using the LBDQ instrument in a quantitative design

methodology. However, both studies used an existing instrument for defining those

roles, whereas in my study the principals describe their leadership role and

perspectives of that role in their own words. The third study (Alsufyan, 2002)

examined problems faced by Saudi male principals as defined by those principals.

The Alsufyan (2002) study did not involve asking Saudi male principals to define

their role or perspectives of that role in relation to leadership. He did, however,

address the impact their leadership could have on school improvement if given more

freedom for decision-making by the MOE. All three studies provided background for

exploring the concept of the leadership role and the perspectives of that role by female

Saudi principals in the Eastern Province.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of that role.

In this chapter, I outline the methodology used to conduct the study, beginning with a

description of how I received permission to conduct educational research in Saudi

Arabia. Next, the research design and procedures, descriptions of the participants and

the research instrument are explained. Finally, I address researcher bias and

summarize the main points of this chapter.

Permission to Conduct Research

I have lived in Saudi Arabia for more than 25 years, working more than 15

years in private education. I wanted to conduct a study that would examine

educational leadership in Saudi Arabia. However, being a U.S. citizen, I was

concerned I might not be granted permission to conduct research in Saudi public

schools. Therefore, in November 2009, I wrote a letter (Appendix A) to Dr. Sameer

AlOmran, the General Director of Girls Education in the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia. I outlined my request to conduct research in Saudi Arabia and asked

permission to interview members of the Ministry of Education (MOE) to discuss

research topics.

In January, 2010, upon returning to the United States, I received a text

message from a member of the Saudi Ministry of Education's Research and Training

Department. I was informed that Dr. AlOmran not only had given me permission to

conduct research in Saudi public schools, the MOE's Research and Training

Department would assist me if needed. I returned to Saudi Arabia in February and

began meeting with members of the MOE to discuss possible research topics. Finally,

through long-distance consultation with my dissertation committee chairperson, Dr.

Bernita Krumm, I finalized my research topic and began writing my research

proposal.

Research Design

Once my research study topic had been finalized, I had to decide on the

method of inquiry and a research design that would best help me to accomplish the

purpose of my study: describing the leadership role of Saudi female principals and

their perspectives of that role. I chose a qualitative method of inquiry for this study

because it allowed for the issue under investigation to be examined in greater depth

and detail. According to Patton (2002), "Qualitative methods typically produce a

wealth of detailed information about a much smaller number of people and cases. This

increases the depth of understanding of the cases and situations studied but reduces

generalizability" (p. 14). "A qualitative design needs to remain sufficiently open and

flexible to permit exploration of whatever the phenomenon under study offers for

inquiry" (Patton, 2002, p. 255).

Descriptive case study best fit my topic as a method of research because it

allowed me to fulfill the intention of my study: describing the leadership of Saudi

female principals. Merriam (1998) explained, "A descriptive case study in education

is one that presents a detailed account of the phenomenon under study" (p. 38).

Creswell (2003) defined case studies as research ―in which the researcher explores in

depth a program, an event, an activity, a process, or one or more individuals‖ (p. 15). I

chose purposeful sampling as the design strategy. Patton explained purposeful

sampling, "Cases for study … are selected because they are ‗information rich‘ and

illuminative, that is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest;

sampling then is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization

from a sample to a population" (p. 40). I wanted to gain insight into the leadership

role and the perspectives of that role of female principals in the Eastern Province of

Saudi Arabia. For that purpose, I informed the Saudi Ministry of Education I wanted

to interview female principals in the Eastern Province.

I returned to the U.S. in March of 2010 to prepare for proposal defense and to

begin the application procedures for the Institutional Review Board (IRB). I requested

a formal letter of permission from the Saudi Ministry of Education to conduct

research in Saudi Arabia to include in my IRB application. The MOE, in turn,

requested a letter from Oklahoma State University verifying my research. Dr. Krumm

wrote a letter on my behalf to Dr. AlOmran (Appendix B), and I received formal

written permission from the MOE to conduct research in Saudi public girls' schools

(Appendix C).

Procedures

After being admitted to candidacy and completing and receiving IRB

approval, I returned to Saudi Arabia in May of 2010. Before starting my interviews, I

decided to complete practice interviews to test the interview questions (Appendix D).

Two Saudi female co-principals of a private K-12 girls' school in the Eastern Province

of Saudi Arabia where I previously worked were interviewed using the interview

questions developed for this study (Appendix D). The initial interviews were

conducted and the transcripts were reviewed to make any necessary adjustments to the

questions or phrasing. Next, I met with the Ministry of Education's Research and

Training Department to begin the process of selecting participants for the study.

Participants

Twelve female principals of girls' schools in the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia were chosen through random selection to be participants in this study.

Participation was voluntary, and all participants' identities were and will continue to

be protected. The Eastern Province is one of the five geographical locations of Saudi

Arabia. Saudi Arabia is bordered by both the Arabian Gulf and the tiny Gulf country

of Qatar on the east coast, and Kuwait to the north.

The number of principals included in this study was kept small in order to

make the interview process manageable. "There are no rules for sample size in

qualitative inquiry" (Patton, 2002, p. 244). The purpose of limiting the number of

participants was to generate information-rich cases. According to Patton, "The

validity, meaningfulness, and insights generated from qualitative inquiry have more to

do with the information richness of the cases selected and the observational/analytical

capabilities of the researcher than the sample size" (p. 245).

Four principals from each of the three school divisions: elementary,

intermediate, and secondary, participated in the study. The principals' ages, length of

service, years of teaching experience, educational background, and marital status

varied. The demographic information was not a prerequisite for participation, but is

reported in Chapter 4. The demographic questions (Appendix E) illustrate the

information asked and reported about each participant. To facilitate accessibility of

participants, the location of the school for each principal was confined to the Eastern

Province of the country excluding the southernmost portion of the province, known as

the Al Ahsa region. According to the MOE, the Al Ahsa region is overseen by a

separate department of the Ministry of Education, and permission to conduct research

was granted for only the central and northern regions of the Eastern Province.

Selection method.

Participants in this study were selected through the cooperation of the Research

and Training Department under the General Directorate of Girls Education Eastern

Province Ministry of Education Saudi Arabia. At my request, the Research and

Training Department sent a memo to Eastern Province (excluding the Al Ahsa region)

Saudi female principals describing the proposed study and asking for their

cooperation in the study. If any principal had objected to participating in the study her

name would not have been included in the random selection process. She could have

declined if contacted as a possible participant, or she could have declined at any point;

one principal did decline to participate.

Using a printed Arabic copy of the names of all of the schools in the Eastern

Province of Saudi Arabia (with the exception of the Al Ahsa area) given to me by the

Research and Training Department, the translator and I meticulously cut apart the

names of each of these schools so that each was on a separate slip of paper. There

were a total of 242 elementary schools, 98 intermediate schools and 94 secondary

schools. We then grouped the names of the schools by level - elementary,

intermediate, or high school - into three separate paper bags. Four names were pulled

from each group.

The name of each school selected was recorded and given to a MOE secretary

to arrange the appointments. The secretary set up the first three appointments; she was

later transferred to a different position, so the first individual assisting me at the MOE

completed contacting and arranging the appointment schedule for the interviews. She

then emailed this information to me.

The schedule included the name of the principal, the school name, the school's

telephone number, the principal's cell phone number, and the date of the appointment

with the principal, and once it was received, the translator who attended the

interviews with me contacted each principal to confirm the appointment and to set a

time for the interview. Of the original 12 names randomly selected, the MOE

discovered that one school was no longer operating, one principal was ill and could

not sit for an interview, and one school was considered too remote to access. Three

additional names of schools, from the same level as the original, were drawn, and

appointments were made and confirmed.

After I set the appointment for what was to have been the 8 th

interview,

confirmed the time, and arrived for the interview, the principal declined to be

interviewed. Two other school names were drawn but were both too remote to readily

locate, so a third school name was drawn as a replacement for the original Interview

#8 and given to the MOE individual assisting with the study to contact the principal.

This school principal eventually became the 11 th

interview.

After arriving at the school for what was originally scheduled to be the 11 th

interview, the principal of that school apologized, saying that she was very busy and

might be interrupted during the interview as it was "report card day." An offer to

reschedule was extended, and she happily obliged; the interview was conducted a

week later as the final interview. Otherwise, all interviews proceeded as scheduled.

Instrumentation

The 12 female Saudi school principals randomly selected to participate in this

study were individually interviewed. The time needed to conduct the interviews

varied; the shortest interview lasted only forty-five minutes; the longest interview

took nearly three hours. Variations in the length of the interviews depended on

whether the interview was audio taped or handwritten, the length of the principal's

responses, and what kind of follow up questions her answers elicited from me. Nine

of the interviews were audio taped; responses to three of the interviews were

handwritten. I also took notes during each interview that included narratives of the

setting and other details of the interviews. Using the research questions (Appendix F),

I developed the interview questions (Appendix D) to allow enough flexibility so that

the participants might openly discuss their leadership role and perspectives of that role

as a school principal. This allowed me to maintain consistency of questions with each

participant.

Data Collection

The standardized open-ended interview was used for data collection.

According to Merriam (1998), "Interviewing is a common means of collecting

qualitative data, and the most common form of interview is the person-to-person

encounter in which one person elicits information from another" (p. 71). Patton

(2002) described the standardized open-ended interview, "The standardized open-

ended interview consists of a set of questions carefully worded and arranged with the

intention of taking each respondent through the same sequence and asking each

respondent the same questions with essentially the same words" (p. 342). He

explained that the standardized open-ended interview is better at ensuring consistency

for inexperienced researchers.

Consistency was emphasized so that each participant was asked the same

questions in the same manner and order. In order to maintain consistency, I conducted

the interviews in English, using an English to Arabic translator. The interview

translator was bi-lingual and fluently speaks both English and Arabic. This same

individual served as the translator for each interview to eliminate any discrepancies in

translation from principal to principal.

Personal experience and engagement were used as a means of data collection

and fieldwork strategies. Patton (2002) described this method of data collection: "The

researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and

phenomenon under study; the researcher's personal experiences and insights are an

important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon" (p. 40). I

have lived and worked in Saudi Arabia for more than 25 years. My basic knowledge

of Arabic, although limited, and my understanding of cultural norms, including

religious etiquette, made possible by being married to a Saudi, support Patton's

suggestion that my personal experiences and insights were important to the inquiry

and understanding of the study.

An interview protocol form (Appendix G) was followed as closely as possible

with each principal. After arriving at each school and locating the principal and/or her

office, making introductions and being invited into the principal's office, I checked off

the items one by one on the protocol form as completed. First I described the study,

and then I gave the principal a copy of the memo from the Ministry of Education

stating the permission to conduct research. This memo had been faxed to the

principals, but only one principal acknowledged having received the fax. Next, I

explained the consent form (Appendix H) and then it was translated to the principal.

An Arabic version of the consent form (Appendix I) was given to each principal.

Finally, we discussed the need to audio tape the interview. At first, several principals

were hesitant about being audio taped; however, the majority were comfortable with

the idea and readily agreed. Three principals requested not to be recorded; therefore,

their responses to the interview questions were all handwritten. I followed IRB

protocol for interviewing participants, including obtaining a signed consent form

(Appendix H) from each participant. After assigning pseudonyms to the principals, I

conducted the interviews.

Each of the questions and the probes were asked in English and then translated

to the principal in Arabic. Some principals appeared to understand the questions in

English but preferred to respond in Arabic. Others seemed quite oblivious to what was

said in English and patiently waited for the translation. Many times one or more

words and sometimes the entire question as translated to Arabic were not understood

by the principal. I clarified the questions in English for each of the principals in the

same manner without suggesting what was thought or expected as an answer, and then

the questions were translated to Arabic. After a few of the interviews, the translator

began to anticipate that the question might not be understood and was readily

prepared with the same clarifications used in previous interviews.

Once each interview was completed, I wrote my observations of the interview

and then either transcribed the handwritten notes or the translated taped interview. I

transcribed each audiotape or handwritten set of notes as soon as possible after

completing each interview. As I completed the transcriptions, I gave them to a second

translator who listened to the audio taped interviews including translations and

compared those to the transcripts to ensure authenticity of the translations. I usually

gave several of the audio tapes and transcriptions to the second translator at one time.

The second translator was a native Arabic-speaker with English language fluency in

both oral and written skills. She made corrections to the transcription after comparing

them to the recorded tapes and I made these changes to the typed transcripts. Finally

the interview translator reviewed the audiotapes against the checked and corrected

transcriptions to ensure accuracy of the changes I made to the transcriptions. I used

these checked and corrected transcriptions to code and report the data.

With the interviews that were not audio taped, as soon as I had completed the

interview, I asked the principal to allow me to review the questions and her answers

for accuracy. She was given the chance to make any changes, additions, or

subtractions to the notes that I had taken. These interview notes were also typed and

turned into transcripts.

Data Storage

Audiotapes of the interviews conducted during data collection and the

transcriptions of the audiotapes were stored separately. Audiotapes are stored in a

locked file in my home. The transcriptions were typed onto my personal computer, a

non-networked computer, and saved to a portable USB device. Printed copies of the

transcribed interviews, the USB device, and printed copies of my interview

observations are kept in a locked briefcase.

I safeguarded and will continue to safeguard the identity and confidentiality of

the participants of this study, the principals interviewed as well as the translators. The

two translators who assisted me with this study were also required to sign a consent

and confidentiality form (Appendix J). I continue to ensure that the interview

audiotapes, USB device and transcriptions are protected during the completion of this

study. I will destroy the audio tapes and transcripts according to Institutional Review

Board guidelines. I will use the same guidelines to erase the documents on the USB

device.

Analysis of Data

According to Patton (2002), "Qualitative analysis transforms data into

findings. No formula exists for that transformation. Guidance, yes. But no recipe.

Directions can … be offered, but the final destination remains unique for each

inquirer, known only when–and if–arrived at"(p. 432). I prepared transcripts of both

the taped and handwritten interviews. I gave the audio cassettes of the nine taped

interviews and the transcripts to the bilingual translator (who attended the interview)

for transcript verification. This study relied on translation authenticity rather than

member checks to ensure interview accuracy. A second translator reviewed the taped

interviews and typewritten transcripts to ensure authenticity of translations. The

original interview translator then listened to the tapes a second time and checked the

revised transcripts against the audio tapes. This was an ongoing process. For the three

interviews that were not audio taped, my notes of the conversations were read back

and translated to Arabic to the respective principals. Those three principals were

given the opportunity to make corrections, additions or modifications to what I had

written.

Data analysis was an ongoing process that began at the end of each interview.

According to Merriam (1998), "Without ongoing analysis, the data can be unfocused,

repetitious, and overwhelming in the sheer volume of material that needs to be

processed. Data that has been analyzed while being collected is both parsimonious

and illuminating" (p. 162). Inductive analysis and creative synthesis were chosen as

the analysis strategies. Patton (2002) defined inductive analysis and creative synthesis

as, "Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns,

themes, and interrelationships and begins by exploring, then confirming, guided by

analytical principles rather than rules; and ends with a creative synthesis" ( p. 41).

After transcribing the interviews, I reviewed the transcripts to examine

specific details as they emerged in the interviews. These details formed the basis of

the analysis as these 12 female Saudi principals individually defined their roles as

leaders, described their educational visions for their schools, explained their

motivation as educational leaders, and spoke about the impact their leadership has on

their individual schools. The next step in analyzing the data involved reflectively re-

reading each transcript and making notations in the margins of the transcripts of ideas,

topics, and general subject matter. The same procedure was completed for the

transcript of each interview.

I then summarized the main points of each of the 12 principals' responses to

each question. Each principal's summarized responses to the six questions and the

follow-up questions were printed out individually for reference. Then I cross-

referenced the summarized responses of all 12 principals to each question and printed

these. Using a portable bulletin board, I listed each of the six questions and then cut

apart and attached the 12 responses to each question.

Next I used a small white board, approximately 18 inches by 24 inches, and

colored markers to list topics that emerged from re-reading the summarized responses

to each question, one by one. I listed the emergent topics by color, coding the

responses that appeared to be similar in theme with the same colored marker. These

became what Merriam (1998) described as a "master list" (p. 181). "This master list

constitutes a primitive outline or classification system reflecting the recurring

regularities or patterns in your study" (Merriam, 1998, p. 181). Reflection of the

master list resulted in the development of categories for the emerging themes.

Merriam (1998) suggested guidelines for determining categories: 1) categories should

reflect the purpose of the research, 2) categories should be exhaustive, 3) categories

should be mutually exclusive, 4) categories should be sensitizing, and 5) categories

should be conceptually congruent (p. 184).

After reading and cross-analyzing participants‘ responses to interview

questions, I labeled emergent themes. The names or labels given to these themes or

categories became the index of the topics for each interview question. Additional

readings of the interviews allowed the full, relevant passages to be labeled according

to the category index. I cut, pasted, and grouped these passages according to the

question, and then I color coded each passage by principal. "Once all the cards have

been coded, cards relevant to a certain category can be retrieved by the code on the

card" (Merriam, 1998, p. 186). These categories with supporting documentation are

described and reported in Chapter 5 as the findings of the study. The participants'

responses to the interview questions and the themes that emerged from their responses

were the basis for the analysis of the description of participants' leadership role and

their perspectives of that role.

Researcher bias

I am an American citizen who has lived in Saudi Arabia since December of

1984. I am married to a Saudi and have raised four children who attended private

Saudi national curriculum schools. I have worked with three private Saudi girls'

schools in the Eastern Province beginning in 1993, first as an elementary school

teacher, then as an English as a Second Language Department Supervisor, and most

recently was as a general supervisor of a private girls' school, pre-school through

intermediate levels. Once I complete my dissertation, I hope to return to Saudi Arabia

and contribute to the national educational reform movement taking place.

While it is important to note my background as an aspect of researcher bias, it

is equally important to appreciate the unique position the exposure to Saudi culture in

both my professional and private life has given me. Having worked in Saudi private

schools, I have been able to witness firsthand the leadership behavior of female school

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. I also have first-hand knowledge

of the workings of the Saudi Ministry of Education.

Summary

In this chapter, I narrated the process undertaken to receive permission to

conduct educational research in Saudi public schools. I gave a detailed description of

the research design and the research procedures as well as a description of the

participants and the selection process. I also explained the instrumentation, the data

collection and storage procedures followed in completing this study. I specified how I

analyzed the data collected, and concluded the chapter by revealing my researcher

bias.

CHAPTER IV

PARTICIPANTS: THE PRINCIPALS

The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of that role.

Describing the leadership role and participants' perspectives of that role included

identifying their educational visions and motivations. This chapter includes a

description of the interview process, the demographics of the twelve principals who

participated in the interviews, a description of each of the twelve interviews, and

finally, a short summary of the interview experience.

The Interview Experience

With the assistance of a translator, I interviewed twelve Saudi female

principals in a period of five weeks during the summer months of June and July 2010.

These interviews took place in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia in cities and

areas ranging from Al Khobar in the middle of the Eastern Province to Al Khufji in

the northernmost part of the Eastern Province. As the principal researcher in this

study, I presented and asked the participants six interview questions and the translator

repeated my words in Arabic.

The principals who participated in this study were chosen through a random

selection process with the help of a member of the Ministry of Education's (MOE)

Female Research and Training Department. This individual contacted and arranged

the appointment schedule for the interviews. She then emailed the information to me,

and the translator called and confirmed the appointments and acquired directions to

each of the schools.

The first three interviews were conducted during the weeks preceding the

national exams in Saudi Arabia. Six of the interviews were conducted during the two

weeks of finals, and the last three interviews were conducted during a two week

period after the exams were completed. The last interview was conducted on July 14,

2010.

All principals welcomed the translator and me to their schools and were very

hospitable. At the very least the translator and I were treated to the generosity of

Saudi hospitality by being offered refreshments of Arabic coffee, served in very small

round ornate cups, and dates, a staple of the Saudi diet. In several of the schools we

were served a light breakfast, and in one school we were served both breakfast and

lunch, not because we overstayed our appointment time, but because we had traveled

so far and had a long return journey. Saudi hospitality for visitors, and especially for

the traveler, is a very strong part of the culture. Some principals seemed to welcome

us as guests of the MOE; others were curious why an American from a foreign

university was conducting research in Saudi schools.

The Principals' Demographics

Ages

The average age of the principals was 45. One principal did not reveal her age;

she explained that there was some discrepancy between her real age and the age that

the Ministry of Education listed. In the Saudi Arabian government sector the

mandatory retirement age is sixty. However, records of birth were not and still may

not be recorded or reported in a timely manner. Often an individual's government

identification does not match what a person believes to be her real date of birth and/or

age. In the case of principal #5 and perhaps also principal #10 their recorded dates of

birth and their actual birth dates may differ and perhaps they did not want to go on

record to give this information as it could affect their retirement dates.

Marital Status

The marital status and the number of children for each principal were also

included in the principals‘ demographics. Working in the private school sector, I was

aware of a favorable bias in some administrations concerning single teachers.

Administrators viewed single employees as harder working with fewer

responsibilities and thus able to do more extra-curricular activities. Using this bias as

a point of reference, I included these demographics. The table below illustrates each

principal's age, marital status and number of children.

Table 1: Age, Marital Status, and Number of Children

Principal Age Marital Status Number of Children

1 40 Married 4 children

2 52 Married 7 children

3 43 Married 2 children

4 39 Married 4 children

5 Undisclosed Married 4 children

6 45 Married 5 children

7 43 Married 5 children

8 47 Married 4 children

9 48 Married No children

10 50+ Married 4 children

11 38 Single No children

12 50 Married 4 children

Work Experience

Work experience for each principal includes how long she has served as a

principal, and how many years she has served as a vice-principal. According to Dr. Al

Tayar at the Ministry of Education, this is the normal channel for becoming a

principal of a school. Also included in this section of the demographic information are

the subjects taught and the number of years of teaching experience for each principal.

All principals interviewed for this study had some experience teaching; the least

length of time was two years, and the greatest length of time was 31 years. One

principal stated, however, that she had served previously as a principal in a different

school before ever teaching; when she transferred to a different school, she taught

before becoming principal of her current school.

Table 2: Principals' Professional Experience

Principal Vice Principal Teacher Subject

1 3 mos. 3 years 17 years Math

2 12 years 0 20 years Elementary Arabic and Science

3 2 years 6 years 15 years Religion

4 3 years * 1 years 15 years Religion

5 5 years** 5 years 6 years Elementary

6 1 semester 8 years 14 years Arabic

7 9 years 5 years 9 years Math

8 15 years 0 9 years Math

9 2 years 6 years 15 years History

10 3 years 1 1/2 years 31 years Science

11 10 years 0 2 years Religion

12 5 years 13 years 8 years Geography

*Principal #4 has held the position of principal for five years, but according to her, her official title is still that of vice-principal because the MOE does not allow her the title of principal

because she does not hold a bachelor or higher degree.

**Principal #5 currently is acting principal of her school as the official principal is out on an

extended personal leave. Her current position is that of vice-principal although she previously served

as a principal for five years.

Level of Education

According to Dr. Al Tayar, an issue that the Ministry of Education is facing is

the shortage of qualified individuals who are willing to take the position as a school

principal. One of the questions raised in this study was whether school principals in

Saudi Arabia are capable of implementing the educational reforms that are being

called for by Saudi society as well as through the reform initiatives of King

Abdullah's national educational reform, Tatweer. The concern was that Saudi

principals may not have the advanced professional development and education

required to initiate an educational reform program because of their lack of higher

education and/or professional development. The table below indicates that although 9

of the 12 have bachelor's degrees, 3 of the 12 have only diplomas. A teaching (or

education) diploma in Saudi Arabia can reflect a two year program after high school,

but it can also be used to denote an alternative high school program that follows

intermediate or elementary school completion, the standard requirement for teachers

in Saudi Arabia in decades past. This was not clear, and based on my understanding

of Saudi culture; I decided not to pursue this clarification.

According to Dr. Al Tayar, today's principals are required to hold the

minimum of a bachelor's degree. She did concede that if there is a shortage of

principals for a school, exceptions are made, and that principals who were already a

part of the system were not penalized because they do not hold a bachelor's degree.

However in the case of principal #4, who serves as the school principal with all rights

and authority but does not enjoy the title of school principal (according to her because

she only holds a diploma), the minimum requirement factor appears to have made a

difference.

The following table lists the level of education and the major field of study for

each of the twelve principals who participated in this study.

Table 3: Principals' Level of Education

Principal Education Level

1 BS Math

2 Diploma in Education

3 Diploma in Education + BA

Religion

4 Diploma in Quran and Religion

5 BA Religion

6 BA Arabic

7 BA Arabic

8 Diploma Education

9 BA History

10 BA School Administration

11 BA Religion

12 BA Geography

The Principals: Twelve Veiled Voices

This section includes descriptions of the principals and the twelve interviews I

conducted with the assistance of a translator during five weeks beginning in June and

ending in July 2010.

1 st Interview: Um Mohammad I

The interview with the first of three Um Mohammads was on June 14, 2010.

Um is the Arabic word that means "mother of," and is a term used to address a woman

by the name of her first born son; if she has no sons, she is addressed by the name of

her eldest daughter. To clarify a point, men are also addressed in a similar fashion;

they are known as Abu which means "father of." Interestingly, the first principal of the

twelve interviewed had the least experience, just three months.

Fortunately for me, the school for Um Mohammad I was in the city where I

live. My husband was helpful during the interview process by helping me locate all of

the schools I was scheduled to visit. Because women cannot drive in Saudi Arabia, I

was driven to each of my interviews, except one, by my family's Bangladeshi driver.

He speaks neither English nor Arabic with any fluency. This coupled with the lack of

street addresses in most of the smaller towns and villages, made locating the schools

difficult. I was given a map to the first school by the Ministry of Education.

Unfortunately, the map was either outdated or just completely wrong because my

husband and I went in circles for about an hour before finally asking for help from

some local residents and locating the school.

The driver, my translator and I arrived at the first school early on the morning

of my appointment. The school facility was relatively new; the building had been

open for only two years, according to the principal. It was a two-story structure

painted crème, which helped it to blend into the desert landscape. The aqua trim was

perhaps a nod to the nearby Arabian Gulf that radiates from emerald to aqua to teal in

color. The school was situated between two empty lots less than a quarter of a mile

from the beach road that runs along the Arabian Gulf Coast near the Bahrain Bridge

more formally known as the King Fahd Causeway. The top floor of the school is for

secondary students, and the ground floor is occupied by the intermediate school. Um

Mohammad I is the principal of the intermediate school.

As the translator and I approached from the outside of the building, I noticed

that the area was littered and not very inviting. A guard sat in a little room near the

double entrances to the building. All schools for females have a male guard at the

entrance to the school. His main responsibility is to keep males from entering the

building; he also oversees the coming and goings of all students and teachers by

announcing over a public address system when buses and individual drivers have

arrived.

Inside the gates, the courtyard was well-kempt compared to most of the

schools we would later visit, but there was no playground equipment-- not even tables

or benches. The area was also devoid of any plant life. The area between the front

gates and the main doors of the school was covered by a canvas awning to protect the

entrance from the relentless heat of the Saudi sun.

Once inside the building, I saw a great number of young girls in dark brown

uniforms crowding the entrance. There were offices immediately to my right and an

open, indoor courtyard was on the left. Without saying a word, one young girl pointed

us towards an open office. It was probably obvious to the students that we were

visitors; the translator and I were both wearing traditional abayas (the long, black

cloak worn in the Arabian Gulf countries), but our abayas had colorful embroidery

not allowed on the abayas of students or teachers in government schools. Our hair

was covered, but our faces were not. In Saudi Arabia all faculty and staff of girls'

schools must cover their faces, or veil, when entering and leaving the schools. This is

also true of all female students who have reached the age of puberty.

The translator knocked softly on the door we had been directed to and walked

in. A woman stood and greeted us; the translator informed her that we had an

appointment with the principal. She greeted us, shook hands, and led us into the office

right next door. The office was small, approximately 12 feet by 12 feet in size, the

furniture was grouped comfortably around the room, and two arm chairs were on

adjacent walls; a couch faced the principal's desk. One large window was situated

high on the wall behind the desk; the window was covered with brightly colored

curtains.

Of the twelve schools we visited, I noted that in almost all of the newly built

schools the windows were placed above eye level. I wondered was this to prevent

those inside from looking out, or to prevent others from looking in? The only schools

that had windows at eye level were the Aramco and Royal Commission built schools

that I visited. Were these distinctions made because those schools adhered to a more

"Western" style architecture? I wondered if windows in all schools were placed up at

this level, or was it just in girls' schools. Was this to better protect the modesty of the

females who occupied these rooms? I wondered what role culture played in the design

of these schools.

Tables in the middle of the room were heavily laden with food, tea, and Arabic

coffee. We were immediately offered sweets and coffee. Several times throughout our

visit, we were offered juice and the principal directed the vice-principal to bring us

drinks.

The principal sitting behind the desk appeared to be a very young woman, but

was in fact 40 years old. She immediately greeted us by shaking hands as she came

around from her desk. The desk had very little on it. To the left of the desk was a

credenza with a fax machine, but no computer. Two or three tall enclosed book cases

sat in the right corner next to her desk. Inside the book cases were rows of three

ringed binders, each labeled and attractively decorated in red.

The principal was very humble; she was modestly dressed, and from her

family name, I knew that she was from one of the larger Saudi tribes. She welcomed

us, but was somewhat apologetic, explaining that she had only been the principal for

three months. She was worried about us recording the interview because she was

afraid that her formal spoken Arabic was not perfect. Most Saudis, even those in

education, speak a colloquial Arabic. There has been a recent push in Saudi private

schools to implement programs to encourage formal spoken Arabic. Arabic speakers

are able to identify one another's country and region of origin from both a person's

colloquial language as well as his/her accent, much as native English speakers can

distinguish an American accent from a British one, or a southern American from a

Northerner.

The translator tried to reassure her that the tapes would not be made public;

only four individuals, including the translator and me, would listen to these tapes and

the tapes would be destroyed once we had transcribed them and completed the study.

We assured her that if she was concerned about what she would say being on record,

we would not conduct the interview. We wanted her to be comfortable. She read the

copy of the letter I carried from the ministry and realized they had given permission

for the interview. She seemed to be more relaxed with this knowledge and agreed for

the interview to be recorded.

2 nd

Interview: Bint Al Watani

My second interview was with the principal of an elementary girls school

located in a small village near the city of Qateef in the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia. The city is located off of the major highway linking the cities and villages of

the Eastern Province along the Arabian Gulf. The city of Qateef is recognized as a

predominantly Shiite city. However, as is an unwritten rule, all principals of public

schools (and perhaps private as well) are from the majority Sunni sect. This principal

is Sunni Muslim; her family name attests this fact. Just as Saudis can distinguish a

person's origin from their language and accent, a family name is an indicator of a

Saudi person's tribe or religious sect.

The school was located between two empty lots of land across from a

government housing addition. Entering the school's front gate, I saw an outdoor bird

enclosure and a garden that, although somewhat overgrown, must have been very

beautiful during the desert spring a few months earlier. The building was a two story

structure, similar to the one we had visited for our first interview. However, this

building looked, both indoors and outdoors, much more "lived in". There were

decorations everywhere. Once we entered the actual school building, I saw a few

young girls milling about in the open courtyard. The translator located a sign that had

"School Administration" written in Arabic across the front of a door. The door was

closed, but through the glass I could see several inner offices. Just as we started to

look for someone to ask for assistance, a lady who had been watching as we entered

called out "hello" in English. We introduced ourselves and were led into the inner

offices of the administration. We were introduced to the principal of the school and

welcomed into her office.

The principal appeared younger than her 52 years. She was a very pleasant

woman; a smile was on her face during most of our visit. Her office, while modest,

was tastefully arranged. She had a couch and four chairs similar to the ones we had

seen at the previous day's interview, although they were a different color. There were

two air conditioning units on opposite sides of the office. There were also two

windows placed high on these same two walls. There were a couple of bookshelves

similar to those that we had seen in the office yesterday, and tables were centered

between the guests' seating. The principal invited us to sit. She apologized that the

chairs had no pillows as normally the couches and chairs are well decorated. She told

us someone had asked to use the pillows and they were missing.

Bint Al Watani, which means daughter of her country, was the pseudonym we

were asked to call the principal. The vice-principal had suggested this name once we

had discussed the need for the pseudonym. The vice-principal remained with us

throughout the course of the interview; however, unlike in some of the interviews

conducted later, this vice-principal interjected very little into the conversation.

Bint Al Watani was extremely friendly and very open. She explained that she

was just months away from retirement, and she appeared to be very proud of her

service and work in the school. At the end of our interview, she invited a third

individual to join us and show slides of activities they had orchestrated in the school

for the students and parents. We were also taken on a short tour of the school. As we

started to leave after completing the interview, the principal followed us outside into

the garden, continuing to speak about the grounds and the school. Her pride in her

accomplishments was obvious. She was very gracious and accompanied us to the

front gate, joking with us, inviting us back, and thanking us for coming.

3 rd

Interview: Um Mohammad II

During the twelve interviews I conducted, I developed a true admiration and

affection for many of these women. Um Mohammad II was my favorite interview for

several reasons. She was the most hospitable and made me feel as if she had been

privileged by my visit, not that it was I who was indebted to her for her time.

We arrived in Al Khufji at around 9:15 a.m., having left Al Akrabeah (the

suburb of Al Khobar where I live) at around 6:45 a.m. The last 100 kilometers of the

trip was through a light sandstorm. Because Al Khufji is nearly 350 kilometers (about

220 miles) from where I live and the roads can be hazardous, my husband insisted on

driving the translator and me to the interview.

The roads were mainly clear and not heavy with traffic once we left the more

heavily populated area of Dammam and Al Khobar; however throughout different

points in the journey, herds of camel drifted dangerously close to the roads. Most of

the highway had fences running parallel to the road to keep these huge beasts from

wandering in front of the traffic. But the further we drove into the remoteness leading

to the Kuwaiti border, the animals were free to wander in the open range. At one

point, we found it necessary to exercise extreme caution as several animals decided it

was time to cross the highway just as we drew near.

The visibility continued to deteriorate as we arrived at the outskirts of the city.

Al Khufji sits quietly on the coast of the Arabian Gulf just a few kilometers from the

Kuwaiti border, about an hours' drive from Kuwait City. The translator contacted Um

Mohammad II as soon as we arrived. Um Mohammad II dispatched the school's guard

to meet us.

We followed him quickly through the small city to the school located in an

older residential area. Khufji looked tired and dusty. During the first Gulf War, a

major battle was fought there when Saddam Hussein's army invaded Saudi Arabia.

During my first visit there after Gulf War I, bullet scarred buildings could be seen in

many areas. I noticed none during this visit; perhaps I was too focused on the task

ahead.

Once we arrived at the school, the guard, a large burly-looking man with a

long bushy black beard, quickly got down from his supersized SUV and pointed

toward the entrance to the school, indicating for us to enter. The school appeared very

similar to the ones we had visited for the two previous interviews, except it was a

three story building. It looked older and not very well maintained. We found our way

inside the school and proceeded to climb to the third floor not knowing exactly where

to go. At the top of the stairs, we were met by a woman who greeted us warmly; as it

turned out she was the principal, Um Mohammad II. She was extremely hospitable. It

was unusual, in my experience, for the head of the school to come out to meet

visitors.

This school was being used similarly to the first school we had visited; the

building was shared with a secondary school. As Um Mohammad II led us to her

office, we turned a corner to find her faculty and staff lined up to meet us. I had not

expected this; I also thought it was unusual. We were greeted very politely and

hospitably by the faculty and staff; they seemed curious about us, but also very happy

to meet us and extremely congenial.

We were shown in to a very large office; the largest of the three so far, it had

the same set-up of desk and office furniture. The tables here were laid out even more

heavily with food than had been in the first school. I make note of these differences

because Saudi culture, society, and customs rate individuals on the generosity that

individuals pay to their visitors. This is especially true concerning visitors who have

traveled far to visit. Um-Mohammad II, whether it was because we had come so far,

because of her more rural origin, or just her own personality, was the greatest of

hostesses. One of her staff served us juices, coffee, water, sweets, and dates, and later

after we had completed the interview, a lunch was served to us that included several

local delicacies.

Before the interview started, we were introduced to the vice-principal who

asked if we wanted to interview her also. We explained the purpose of our visit, and

later she quietly slipped out of the room. Um Mohammad explained that the

secondary school principal regretted that she could not be there to meet us; she was

very busy preparing for the exams that were scheduled to start after a few days. Near

the end of the interview, a member of the local office of the Ministry of Education

joined us. She brought greetings from a higher ranking official of the local office of

the MOE. This member of the MOE told us she had come to support her principal just

in case she might be nervous during the interview. In some ways, I really felt like we

were celebrities; in other ways, I felt like we were honored guests.

Um Mohammad III wanted to share her knowledge of her school with me, and

she wanted to learn from me as well. When I arrived, she told me that she had been

planning to travel to America during the upcoming summer holiday; however, she

noted that "America" had come to her instead, referring, quite warmly, to the fact that

I am American. As we left the school, we were given gifts of dates and a Quran, the

Muslim Holy Book. Although Um Mohammad III had not agreed to be audio taped,

she was very forthcoming and helpful. Her desire to be helpful made a great

impression on me.

4 th

Interview: Um Osama

Throughout the five weeks that I conducted the interviews for this study, I

traveled the only major highway that connected the cities, villages, and towns located

along the Arabian Gulf from Al Khobar to Al Khufji. It is not so jokingly referred to

as the "highway of death." Ras Tanura is approximately 45 minutes north of Al

Khobar, where I live in Saudi Arabia, along the "highway of death." Ras Tanura is

home to a huge oil refinery and port located on the Arabian Gulf. The Arabic word,

Ras, means head - a term used to indicate a port. As the driver exited the main

highway and we turned east toward Ras Tanura and the coast, the landscape started to

shift from sand to salt. The Arabian Gulf's high tides had left their crystal white marks

on the sand.

I was surprised to note that Ras Tanura looked much cleaner and nicer than Al

Khobar and the surrounding areas where I live. The streets were not crowded with

traffic the morning we arrived at 8:30 a.m., ahead of our 9:00 a.m. appointment. The

directions the principal had given the translator were good, and she was able to direct

the driver to the location of the school quite easily once we located the McDonald's

that was our first landmark.

We drove up to the front gate of the school where the guardroom's door was

ajar. We entered through the school gates and found the building typical of the other

schools we had visited; a three-story structure. A wall had been built just inside the

gates to obstruct the view of the main door entrance into the actual school building.

These obstructing walls are placed to prevent men standing near the guard's office

from seeing inside the grounds when the main gates are open during students' arrival

and departure. The walls were cheerfully painted to attract the attention of the young

students who inhabit the premises - elementary girls. The school seemed barren of

human habitation, especially of young children. I realized it was the first week of the

national exams, and elementary students were exempt from these exams.

We walked up two steps into the main area of the school. There was a large

courtyard similar to the other schools. It was open to the three stories and ended with

a covered roof. Originally all of these schools had been designed to be open, but most

principals seemed to have found the means (perhaps the ministry provided the budget)

to have the open courtyard covered. This allowed light and air to circulate but kept out

birds, pigeons and other flying creatures.

The translator looked for the administration area, and luckily we had made the

right turn where we found a middle-aged woman who quickly directed us to the room

on our right. She opened the door and revealed a large office and a woman, obviously

the principal, sitting behind a desk. The principal was very simply dressed in the

uniform of all school faculty and staff - the required long black skirt, and a long-

sleeved blouse. Um Osama quickly rose and walked over to greet us; she invited us to

sit and quickly took charge of the meeting.

She told us we would have coffee first before anything else, in the simple,

generous Saudi fashion of hospitality to their guests. She offered us semi-dried dates

and then poured us coffee as she invited us to sit on a couch along the back wall of

her office. I noted that her office was meticulously arranged and decorated with

curtains and upholstered pillows made of a matching fabric, dark aqua lace material.

The color reminded me of the port waters surrounding the city.

She apologized and informed us that we might be interrupted by parents or

teachers, although as the interview started, progressed and ended, we were only

interrupted by the housekeeper. I asked her if we might move closer to her desk

where two chairs sat opposing the other. She invited us to do so. On her desk was a

copy of the memo the MOE had faxed to the principals describing my research study

and asking for their participation. She was the first principal we interviewed that

confirmed receiving the memo.

She asked me if she might ask me one question before we began the interview,

after assuring us that she had no objection to me audio taping the conversation. She

was the first principal who so quickly agreed to the process. She asked me why I had

chosen to do my study in Saudi Arabia. I quickly explained my situation, and she

seemed satisfied with my response.

We went through the usual protocol and then began the interview process.

Later, she served us refreshments. During the course of the interview, she informed us

that although she was indeed the "principal" of the school, officially her title was that

of vice-principal. I asked her if she was an "acting principal"; she told me no, that

officially she could not be given the title of principal because she did not hold a

bachelor's degree. I was impressed by her candor. She was a very articulate, precise

participant. We left the school approximately an hour and a half after we had arrived.

She, like all of the previous principals, continued to be warm and hospitable as she

saw us to the door.

5 th

Interview: Um Mohammad III

The day before our fifth interview, my husband and I scouted the location for

the small rural village named Hazm Um As Sahik. It is located just off of the coastal

highway, highway of death, in the opposite direction of the Ras Tanura exit we had

traveled on for our 4th interview. My husband and I located a secondary school, and I

assumed it was the one and only secondary school in such a small village.

The next day, the translator and I were driven to the area, and I quickly guided

the driver to the same school my husband and I had located the previous day. The

appointment was for 10 a.m. and we arrived approximately a half of an hour early.

The translator and I quickly went inside the school, and she located the principal's

office, introduced us, and stated the purpose of our visit. The principal and a

colleague came out to greet us and then informed us that we were not at the right

school. They were aware of the study I was conducting because they had received the

preliminary fax from the MOE. The principal's colleague quickly pointed out to me

that the other lady was the principal of this school, and asked why I did not interview

her. I assured them that we would have enjoyed interviewing her, however, that I

could only interview those principals who had been contacted by the MOE.

My translator asked the principal for directions to the other school, and the

principal told us that the principal of that school was on leave and there was only an

"acting" principal, but she quickly gave us very detailed directions and we were on

our way.

We directed the driver away from the school further into the little village.

After making several turns, we soon found ourselves in a very old, quaint village. The

roads were narrow and passed quite closely between the walls of the old villas; in

some places, the road was a single lane. We passed into a newer looking area, where

there was a large, modern supermarket and a park that had been described to us as

landmarks to note. However, we suddenly found ourselves lost and seemed to be

going in circles. We stopped to ask for directions at a small pastry shop. A young

Saudi male dressed in white thobe (long white traditional Saudi male dress) and red

ghuttra (traditional head covering) wearing mirrored sunglasses stood in the doorway

of the shop. I accompanied the translator from the car as I was concerned that the

town might be a little unreceptive to a lone female without a veil.

I was right to be concerned. As we made our way in our high-heeled shoes

across the rocky and sand swept paved road with the hot desert wind whipping our

abayas around our trousers covered legs, some passing men called out at us. The

young man in the pastry shop was not too polite, but offered some marginal directions

that my translator barely understood as he seemed none too pleased to be talking to

us. We got back in the car and started off again, and tried to recall his reticent

directions. We made little progress, so we returned to the principal's quickly drawn

map and tried to discern where we might have made our mistake. We retraced our

steps and soon we found ourselves outside of the school. By that time, we were about

5 or 10 minutes late.

We hurried inside and found the principal's office only to learn that we were in

the intermediate school section; we were directed to the third floor of the school. On

the second floor landing, we found a locked door that prevented us from ascending

any further. Some students on the opposite side of the door looked at us, but offered

no assistance. Finally, the translator tried to stick her head around the door and ask

for the principal; someone came to us, unlocked the door, and we were led to the

principal's office.

We were really feeling a little uneasy. Things just seemed different here, from

the reaction of the men in the village to the locked doors. I realized that we were in a

different part of Saudi Arabia, one that perhaps outsiders do not often visit.

The room was the smallest, most cramped of the offices we had so far

encountered. There were three women and the principal sitting inside; previously used

tea and coffee cups sat on a tray on a small table. The principal rose to warmly greet

us and asked us to sit. She returned to her desk, which was covered with papers. She

wore her hijab, head covering, even though we were indoors and there were only

women present. She was dressed in dark clothing that was wrinkled perhaps because

she had been sitting; her clothing appearance was very humble.

The students of the 10, 11, and 12 th

grades were sitting for the second of two

exams scheduled for the day. The atmosphere in the room seemed busy, but at the

same time the other women seemed to be lounging. We were introduced to the

women in the room, and others soon joined us; one claimed to be a journalist, and

asked us if we were from a newspaper. The translator explained about the research we

were conducting. The journalist asked us if she could help us with anything. I told her

I really needed some maps of the Eastern Province and some statistics. She suggested

the Chamber of Commerce and offered to contact them for me. I assured her that this

was a great idea and that I would contact them so as not to bother her. She offered

further assistance, and then excused herself by telling me where she could be found

should I need anything from her.

The principal appeared very busy signing off on papers and taking calls on the

cell phone she kept in her hand. She apologized for ignoring us, after offering us dates

and Arabic coffee. She assured me of how willing she was to cooperate and how she

would be free to begin the interview shortly.

She continued for several minutes more with paperwork and phone calls, and

then informed us that we would be moving to a quieter location to conduct the

interview. We sat sipping our coffee as she finished her paperwork. The room looked

rather untidy; the cabinet that took up one corner of the room had a door leaning off

of one hinge. There was a picture of the current King, the Crown Prince and their

father, the Kingdom's founder, hanging over some chairs along one wall.

After about 10 or 15 minutes the principal announced that we would move

downstairs; we rose and started for the door. She was stopped outside her office by a

group of students. We were escorted by other members of her staff. We arrived on the

second floor and were taken to a large room that had been divided by a wall that

reached only three fourths of the way to the ceiling. Originally the room must have

been larger and must have been divided into two offices. One young woman sat at a

desk; she left soon after we were seated. The room was much larger and airier than

the first office, but the floors were covered in cheap-looking linoleum and were worn

bare in places. A rug covered the middle of the sitting area.

People kept coming in and out and each time someone opened the door it

made a terrible thud. The principal continually apologized for the delays and we could

see that she was bombarded. Soon things seemed to quiet down and she appeared

ready to begin. A young teacher came in, and introduced herself to us speaking in

English. She told us that she taught computer classes, and it appeared that she was

going to attend the meeting, perhaps to act as a translator for the principal.

We went through the beginning procedures of explaining our research and

having the principal read the consent form. We completed all of the formalities, and

the principal agreed to be audio taped, although she was somewhat reluctant when we

first discussed the issue with her. We were about to begin the taping when she

suddenly became very quiet. I looked at her and she seemed to be looking down at her

hands, her eyes opened; I turned to the translator for an explanation, but she looked

back at me and did not say anything. I started to ask the translator what was

happening, and then I realized the principal, Um Mohammad III (the pseudonym she

chose) had been praying or making du'aa, asking for God's guidance. It was apparent

she was nervous about the interview; earlier she had told me that she feared she might

not be much help with my research.

We began the interview. We were interrupted a few times, but we completed

the process quickly. At the end of the interview, we stood to leave, but Um

Mohammad III insisted that refreshments were being brought and we should stay and

eat something. We were served a modest breakfast of pastry, stuffed grape leaves,

juice, and tea. We politely took something to eat and drink, and made small talk. We

finished eating, and thanked the principal. Then we left the school to begin our drive

home.

6 th

Interview: Um Kumsa

The school for our sixth interview was easily located using the directions the

translator received the morning of the interview. It is located in Dammam, the capital

city of the Eastern Province. Dammam is a large city with which I am somewhat

familiar; I worked in the city for nearly eight years and some of my husband's family

lives there. Upon arriving at the school, we noted the three story building similar to

the others we had recently visited. The school guard kindly greeted us as we entered

the front gate, calling out to us in Arabic, Asalamu alaikum.

Once I was inside the actual school, the noise and hum of an active school

caught my attention. Students were on break between tests, and many young girls

were standing and walking about reading notes and books in a scene reminiscent of

my own days as a teacher and department supervisor during finals weeks in Saudi

Arabia.

We were directed to sit, once the translator informed the administration that

we were there to see the principal. The principal was out of her office, but was

quickly located and proceeded to meet us. She was polite and firm as she invited us

in. We were seated near her desk, and we began the process of introducing ourselves

and our purpose. There were several teachers moving about the large office, much

like the others we had visited. This one was not decorated, nor did it seem that any

particular attention seemed to have been given to trying to make it more

individualized. Perhaps this was because the principal had only been in the position

for one semester.

The principal was actually acting principal of both the intermediate and the

secondary schools in this building. Both schools were surprisingly small in

comparison to the schools we had visited so far; there were only ninety-one students

in the secondary school and one hundred fifty-six intermediate students. The principal

explained that the schools would be divided next year with the secondary school

students being relocated to a different building.

Throughout the interview, people came and went; there were some periods of

quiet, but we were almost never left alone. We were offered refreshments, but we

declined; cold water was served to us as we began the interview that the principal had

requested not be audio-taped. We waited until the second test of the day began so that

the noise from outside that penetrated the office might be less obtrusive once the

students were sent into the classrooms to sit for their final exam of the day.

The principal answered each question without a lot of hesitation, but her

answers were usually short, and she only expanded upon her replies if I pressed her

for more information. We completed the interview in about 1 hour. I felt that the

interview should have taken longer because I had to handwrite everything, but

because her responses were short and to the point it had not. At a couple of junctures

during the interview, we stopped, and the principal asked me and my translator

personal questions which we politely answered.

At the end of the interview, we reviewed all of the questions and the replies

she had given; the translator translated the notes I had taken, allowing the principal to

make changes or corrections, or add anything I had deleted from her answers. We left

with the feeling that the principal was very busy, and although she was polite and

congenial, we had interrupted her day. She saw us to the door with great politeness,

and we thanked her for her time. Because we had not audio taped the interview, we

assigned this principal a pseudonym; we decided to call her Um Kumsa, which means

mother of five, as she is the mother of five children.

7 th

Interview: Madera Subha

The translator and I arrived 10 minutes late for this interview. I had not timed

our travels well, and it took us longer to get through the morning traffic than I had

anticipated. My husband and I had located the school the day before with the help of

some local residents. As we drove into the large parking lot, in itself an anomaly from

most of the schools we had visited, we saw a large group of students standing near the

front door of the school. These girls must have finished their tests and were waiting to

be picked up. I thought it was unusual for the students to be allowed to wait outside of

the school. Normally, female students are kept inside the school until the guard

announces either that the buses have arrived, or in the case of girls who went with

family members or private drivers, the guard announces the family name of the

student over a loud speaker. Several cars were lined up in the parking lot at the front

of the school waiting to pick up students. The outside of the school was covered in

graffiti. Some of the schools we had visited and would visit were not well kept, but

this was the first and only school we saw that had graffiti and, in my opinion, a lot of

it.

We made our way through the throng of students to the front door and down a

short corridor into the main outdoor area of the school. The courtyard was scattered

with papers from students who had obviously been cramming before that days' exams.

Sand had drifted across the courtyard; it was a windy day. Empty boxes for bottled

water were stacked near the school in what should have been flower beds. We went to

the front door of the school, and found it locked; we retried the handle, not

understanding why an inside school door would be locked. The translator looked

around the side of the building and found another set of doors. She tried them; they

were locked. We knocked on the door; nothing happened. We walked away, trying to

look around the building again. Suddenly, a door opened, and a very pregnant teacher

walked out holding a cell phone to her ear.

We caught a break. We walked into the entrance she had just exited. Once

inside, the translator asked for the principal's office. A large woman wearing a

jalabeah, a traditional Arab dress, and hijab directed us to the principal's office right

next to her. She must have been the female school guard or perhaps a housekeeper.

She sat behind some type of podium and appeared to be the first line of defense before

anyone could enter the principal's office. Most schools have housekeepers or a female

janitor; sometimes there is just one employee who sits at the front of the school near

the entrance. This individual is responsible to take things to the male guard or bring

things inside from the door. Sometimes this person acts as a female guard at the

entrance to the school, other times she acts as a personal assistant to the principal in

running errands, and serving her and her guests. This was the first and only time that I

saw a female guard with her own station set up outside the principal's office.

The female guard told us to go in. We entered and there were two women

sitting inside at a laptop computer; the principal was not inside. The women directed

us to sit down; we started to sit and in walked the principal. She greeted us and

mentioned something about the time, making reference to the fact that we were late;

in a way this set the tone for the meeting. I felt really, really bad. Normally Saudis are

known for their irreverence for time and Americans are known for their punctuality,

and here I reversed that trend.

She invited us to sit again. We did so as she said first she must serve us some

refreshments. She brought out a box of nice, expensive chocolates; I recognized the

box and label as being from one of the finer chocolatiers found in the malls and nicer

shopping galleries in Al Khobar and Dammam. She offered us chocolate and then

pulled up a chair from in front of her desk to sit and face us.

The female guard entered the room, walked behind the principal to where she

had placed the box of chocolates and started to get it down. The principal informed

her that she had already offered us chocolate and told her to bring coffee. The woman

left and returned with the Arabic coffee cups and a thermos of coffee. She served us

coffee and we thanked her. This was not the first time, nor would it be the last time

during the course of the interviews that we were served by the housekeeper or guard,

but this was the only time I felt the air of a hierarchical relationship between the

principal and the server.

The office was large, but not the largest we had visited. The principal's desk,

however, was the nicest and largest we had seen so far; it obviously was not standard

issue; I guessed that she bought it on her own, it was that large. She had the

prerequisite leather arm chairs and couches we had seen in every other school thus

far. There was a nice rug in the middle of the room, and a matching mat at the

entrance to the door. The principal was neatly, but modestly, dressed.

We began the interview after some preliminary questions about the study and

a discussion of whether or not she would be audio taped. She declined by offering to

try the interview with note taking and see how it proceeded. She mentioned that this

was a busy time for her, but that she did not want to decline the interview. We offered

to leave and come again at a better time. She did not acknowledge this offer but made

reference to the translator having told her that the interview might take two hours. I

explained this was an estimate of how long the interviews might be if they were audio

taped. I informed her that by taking notes, it might take longer. Once we began the

interview, there were few interruptions, and the principal seemed very confident in

her answers. Although the principal was courteous and helpful, I left feeling that she

had not really wanted to take the time for us, and that we had intruded upon her day.

8 th

Interview: Um Saeed

The translator and I arrived on time, if not a little bit early, the morning of our

8 th

interview. The translator had called and gotten the directions to the school, and we

were able to find the school very easily. The school was the first that we visited in

what is called a "villa." I believe this term was taken from the Spanish to describe

homes in Saudi Arabia that are free-standing houses. This includes any home that is

not an apartment or duplex. These houses have private entrances and gardens

regardless how small that garden may actually be.

When there is a shortage of schools, the government rents private homes or

villas and turns them into schools. There are fewer and fewer of these villa-type

schools than in the past because the government is trying to build new schools as part

of the expansion project of Tatweer. At the same time, the Saudi population continues

to explode, making it hard to keep up with the demand.

The street near the entrance to the school was crowded with automobiles, in

part because we are in the middle of a residential area not intended to house a public

school. Young girls dressed in street clothes, not in uniform, were coming in and out

of the school; many were accompanied by younger siblings including little brothers.

As it turned out it was "report card" day. The students were coming to collect their

final report card for the year. Like in the West, it is sort of a day of celebration; here it

is a day when students are allowed to come to school out of uniform, and many

families allow the students to dress in their finest as if it is a holiday. Students also

like to bring younger siblings to introduce to their teachers and friends. Socializing

outside of school is uncommon between classmates, so students rarely meet each

other's families unless through the school.

The entrance to the school was concealed behind a standing wall like most

schools we had visited; it had a narrow entrance that opened into a small hallway.

This would be a fire marshal's worst nightmare. The translator turned to the first

office on our left. There was someone behind one desk, and the translator asked for

the principal; we were directed to the office directly adjacent. In the villa this

probably would have been the visitors‘ sitting room, a long wide room. There was

someone with the principal, and we hesitated before stepping in. The translator

announced us, and the principal quickly stepped around from behind her desk and

greeted us. She was a petite woman, probably a little older than the principals I had

interviewed thus far. She smiled widely and often.

She invited us to sit and pulled a second chair over near her desk to

accommodate both the translator and me. The principal quickly moved to offer us

Arabic coffee, and seeing that the cups had been used, went out to bring clean ones.

She offered us candy, a jellied like sweet somewhat like what many people know as

Turkish Delight. We both accepted a piece while the principal poured us coffee and

asked if she might adjust the AC that was blowing cool air from across the room. We

assured her that we were comfortable.

We made small talk, and the principal explained how welcome we were and

how she had made it clear to her staff that she was expecting visitors and had made

sure that someone else would cover her responsibilities during the interview. Unlike

the previous interview, it was obvious that this principal was very relaxed and pleased

to assist us. The translator explained the procedure and the purpose of our interview.

When it came time to discuss the possibility of audio recording the interview, the

principal quickly agreed, telling us she was "free." She seemed to imply that she was

not tied to some religious belief or cultural norm that would forbid us audio taping

her, or perhaps she meant that she was free in the sense that she was not worried about

what she said on or off the record.

During the course of conversation, I learned that we had a mutual

acquaintance, but I made it clear to the principal that I would not reveal to this

acquaintance that she had participated in this study. But if she wished to do so that

was her right. It was apparent that this principal was truly "free." From her family

name I realized that the tribe she is from is one of the largest, if not the largest, in

Saudi Arabia.

The principal appeared very confident in herself and her ability; perhaps her

years of experience made her self-assured in her position. She was humble, but self-

reliant and comfortable with herself. She was truly one of the friendliest of principals

and a delight to interview.

She kept her office door open during the entire interview. We were interrupted

a few times by her young students wanting to come in to say hello or introduce their

younger siblings to her. She was polite and friendly with her students, but also made

sure we were not kept waiting. The interview proceeded quickly and efficiently and

we finished the visit in record time, approximately 1 hour.

9 th

Interview: Ma'Sama (Rain)

The school for Interview #9 was the most difficult to find. We left Al Khobar

at 7:30 a.m. We arrived at the city of Jubail where the school is located around 8:30

a.m. We then spent the next hour and a half driving around and calling the school

trying to find the location.

Jubail is known as the Industrial City of the Eastern Province. It sits on the

Arabian Sea and is a port city. Many of Saudi Arabia's industries, those related to the

oil and gas business as well as other business lines, are located here. As it turned out,

this school was located in Jubail 2. Unknown to either the translator or me, the city of

Jubail is divided into two parts. The industrial city is called Jubail 2 and was

developed by the Royal Commission in the late 70's.

The school we visited was the most similar to American style architecture of

any of the schools we visited. From both inside and outside appearances it seemed to

be the best maintained and it was the largest of the twelve schools we visited. It hosts

990 secondary students with a faculty of 58 and a staff of 12.

The principal stepped out to meet us just as we opened the wide glass doors

that opened into the school. It seemed she must have seen us approaching from her

office windows. Accompanying the principal was one of her English language

teachers. We were greeted and then guided to the principal's office. Once inside, we

were offered refreshments and served by the principal. The English teacher stayed

throughout the interview and added comments on a regular basis, often adding to what

the principal was saying and sometimes adding something different.

The principal appeared not to speak any English, or if she did or if she

understood us, she gave no indication. Perhaps this is why she had included an

English teacher in the interview session. Or maybe she did not realize that a translator

would accompany me, although the principal and the translator had spoken over the

phone. The principal was a very quiet woman, young, and although married, she had

no children. Once the principal had agreed to be tape recorded, we asked her to give

us a pseudonym; the English teacher quickly suggested Ma'Asama, the Arabic word

meaning "Rain." No explanation was given for this choice, and we were happy to

move on to the interview.

When the translator had set the appointment time, the principal asked, as many

principals had, what type of questions we would be asking. Usually the translator

gave the principals a general idea of the scope and sequence of the interview

questions, but in the case of Ma'Asama, she had asked for the specific questions. It

was obvious, once we began the interview, that she had written down the questions

and had made notes of her answers.

Ma'Asama was a quiet woman. Her answers were very direct, and attempts to

get her to draw out her answers or elaborate were not very successful. She clarified

any point I asked, but would not give much detail. Many times throughout the

interview, the English teacher attending the interview interrupted to interject with

responses to my questions. The principal seemed to welcome these additions; I was

polite and listened to her, but I never followed-up with her responses.

The interview was also the shortest of any I conducted. Most of the time the

principal spoke very low, and her answers were extremely short. We were treated

warmly and hospitably, but I left feeling like my interview had yielded very little data.

10 th

Interview: Um Mishal

The interview with Um Mishal proceeded very smoothly. The principal

appeared to be an older woman, she told me her age was 50 plus when I asked. She

was kind and calm and collected. She greeted us warmly and welcomed us to her

school. She served us coffee and dates, and she was the first principal to offer the

traditional incense, bukrr, that Saudis have for their guests. At one point she asked us

if it bothered us and offered to remove it. The principal spoke English fairly well and

did address me in English, although the interview was conducted entirely in Arabic.

We were in Al Khobar; I live in a section of Al Khobar called Al Akrabeah.

The different sections of the city have developed quickly to accommodate the steady

growth of the Eastern Province. This school was clean and well maintained, although

it appeared to be quite old. In fact during the interview I learned the school was what

is commonly known as an "Aramco-built school." Saudi Aramco is the national oil

company of Saudi Arabia. It has been responsible in the past to build and maintain

schools in the Eastern Province, perhaps throughout the Kingdom. This school was

approximately 30 years old. The model and design of Aramco-built schools has been

updated since this school was built, and newer facilities are quite different. The color

of these schools is distinct; they are all painted bright blue and white. They are

designed in an open court manner with the school structure enclosing the courtyard.

Also unique to these Aramco-built schools is the size of the land on which they are

built. The main guarded gates opened into a generous sized garden approximately half

the length and width of a football field. The garden was clean and maintained; it had

both grass and trees which is unusual in most government schools. Due to the harsh

climate, lawns and grass are a luxury in most homes, and this is especially true in

schools. Inside the open garden was a large vacant sand lot to the right. It was most

likely intended as a soccer or activity field in a boys' school, but appears unused in the

girls' schools. Physical Education is not allowed in girls' schools in Saudi Arabia.

Some private schools do offer P.E. classes, but the MOE does not give approval to do

so.

To the left, we saw the opening into the main classroom section of the school.

We entered and quickly found the principal's office as it was distinctly marked. She

had been expecting us and invited us in to begin the interview. The principal seemed

at ease in discussing some of the issues she faced as an administrator and also briefly

discussed the educational reforms known as Tatweer. I was struck by her sense of

what needed to be developed in both her students and her teachers. She was probably

the eldest of the principals we interviewed, and by far, she had the most teaching

experience: thirty-one years.

I noted quite a contrast between her and some of the principals we had

interviewed in the smaller villages and towns. I think Al Khobar is considered by

many to be a modern city. People are a little bit more educated, not necessarily in a

formal sense, but perhaps in the sense of being better exposed to outside ideas and to

being more open-minded. This was something that I would note again in my last

interview.

11 th

Interview: Abla

We arrived in the city of Qateef a little before our scheduled appointment of

9:00 a.m. We were somewhat familiar with the location of the school because we had

been to the area approximately ten days earlier to a school where the principal

declined to be interviewed once we had arrived. We had returned home that day and

drawn a replacement school, and strangely enough, we had ended up at this school

just a few blocks from the original one we had drawn. This time, we also had an aerial

map of the area that made finding the school much easier.

There were several cars parked outside the building as we made our way to the

entrance. The high school shared a city block with an intermediate school. As we

made our way out of the car, the first thing that met our nostrils was the pungent smell

of the garbage dumpster taking center stage in front of the school. The school looked

a little run down and not too clean. We went inside, and observed that the entrance

was similar to some of the other schools we had visited.

As the translator looked around and spotted a sign printed "administration,"

someone walked up behind me and put her hand on my arm as if to excuse herself to

walk past. The translator took the opportunity to ask if we were in the right place to

find the principal. The lady replied, "Are you the doctora, the Arabic word for a

female doctor?" The translator replied affirmatively as I said, "Not yet."

The lady led us to a room filled with women and introduced the principal who

sat behind a desk. The principal walked around from the desk smiling and laughing

and greeted the translator and me the traditional Saudi way by kissing us each on both

sides of the face. I was surprised, but responded warmly to this respectful and kind

greeting. Meanwhile, the lady who had shown us in took the principal's place behind

the desk; she then began to introduce us to the other women in the room. I asked her if

she was the principal or vice principal; I thought perhaps she was the principal of the

other school that shared this facility. She gave the translator an explanation that we

were not clear about, she said she was "over everything."

The principal brought a chair and sat down next to our guide. For the next 5 to

10 minutes the other woman practiced her English with us, telling us her life's history

including her husband's marriage to an American as a second wife. Our "guide"

seemed to think this gave her some affinity to me. She told us that she was going to

the United States the next day and wanted to practice her English, and our visit had

provided the opportunity for her. At two or more points throughout the practice that

followed, the principal very politely told her that perhaps we had a schedule to keep

and we might not have the time for her to practice on us. I found this relationship

between the principal and the school's unofficial leader interesting and was happy for

the conversation to continue.

Finally, after some time, it seemed as though the principal was ready to begin

or had grown tired of her companion's talk, so we discussed the paperwork of the

interview. We went over everything including the fact that we would be tape

recording the conversation with her permission. The principal asked whether it was

necessary; we assured her it was up to her and gave the reasons for wanting to

conduct the interview through audio taping. She consented, and we started the

interview. First, she cleared the room, explaining to the teachers we would be tape

recording the interview. The roomful of women slowly made their way from the

office.

The principal is not married and does not have children; and she couldn't come

up with a pseudonym, so we decided to call her Abla, which is an Arabic slang, but a

respectful term for teacher. The unofficial leader who had brought us to the office

remained with us throughout the interview. She finally relinquished the principal's

chair behind her desk, but she remained at the principal's side during the entire

interview, often playing with her cell phone. The principal was cordial and answered

each of our questions; sometimes the other woman gave input but the principal never

added it to her own comments. I acknowledged her comments, but did not ask her to

elaborate or include her at any time. We were served coffee and tea and dates. At one

point in the interview, teachers started to wander back in, but the principal sent them

out again. The interview was fun and very relaxed. Abla gave direct answers to each

question, and remained very cordial throughout the process. We finished in just about

an hour, and were back on our way home an hour and twenty minutes after we had

arrived.

12 th

Interview: Um Ibrahim

Our interview with Um Ibrahim originally had been scheduled for the previous

week. However, when we had arrived the previous week, she had politely informed us

that she might have to interrupt the interview at some point. It seems that she was

principal of the intermediate school as well as acting principal for the adjacent

elementary school that shared the city block. It was report card day and she was afraid

at some point during the interview she might have to go to the other school. I was

happy to oblige Um Ibrahim's request to postpone, not cancel, the interview, and she

suggested an alternative date exactly one week later.

I was happy to be able to conduct the final of the twelve interviews for my

study back on my home turf, Al Khobar. This was specifically true because we

already knew the location of the school and had met Um Ibrahim. The Saudi summer

had been in full swing since May, and although each of our interviews had been

scheduled early in the day, sunup in Saudi Arabia is at approximately 4 a.m. so by 7

a.m. it is already scorching hot. The interview experience had been great, but I was

grateful to be about to complete the process.

When the translator and I returned to the school, Um Ibrahim was cordial and

welcomed us back. We arrived and found her in the office next to her own. The

school was much quieter than it had been the week before. Her staff was present, and

so were the majority of the teachers according to Um Ibrahim, but they were nowhere

to be seen. Most likely, they were sitting inside the air conditioned classrooms

because, although it was early morning, the sun was quickly bringing the temperatures

back into the 100s. This school had the same set up and design as the one we had

visited previously in Al Khobar with Um Mishal. It was also an Aramco-built school,

and according to Um Ibrahim it was the first intermediate school built in Al Khobar; it

was located only a block from the Arabian Gulf.

Um Ibrahim invited us into her office where coffee, tea, water, dates, and

candy had been laid out on a table. She sat across from us in her brightly colored

office, choosing to sit on a couch, not at her desk. She was an older principal. She

seemed to speak and understand a little bit of English, but did not try to respond to my

questions in anything other than Arabic. She was dressed in the same manner of every

principal we had met, a dark skirt and a long-sleeved blouse.

Several teachers popped in and out to greet us once we settled in her office,

and she introduced us. After reading the letter from the MOE and the consent form,

she asked if it mandatory to be audio taped; I told her it was not. I explained that

audio recording the interview was an option that would help facilitate the interview

process, but she was free to decline. She preferred not to be recorded, so we

conducted the interview and I handwrote all of her answers.

The interview lasted nearly two hours. Near the end of the interview, Um

Ibrahim seemed to open up more and wanted to discuss some of the issues she faced

as a principal. This had happened in some of the other interviews, and I had the

perception that perhaps some of the principals thought I might be reporting back to

the MOE and I would relay some of their school's needs to the Ministry.

I was both impressed and amazed when I asked Um Ibrahim the question

about her vision for her school. She jokingly asked me if "she could cheat." I was

unclear what she meant and then she pointed to a very large, brightly-painted sign

board displayed at the entrance to the main section of the school. We had passed by it

on our way into this section of the school; because I cannot read Arabic, I had not

noticed it. The translator had probably been too busy relocating Um Ibrahim's office

to pay the huge sign any attention, because it is hard not to notice it.

Um Ibrahim quickly explained that she had the sign made to display both the

MOE's vision for education in Saudi Arabia and the vision that she and her faculty

and staff collaborated on and wrote. We discussed the school's vision, and we told her

that we would copy it before we left.

By the time we got to the last question of the interview, most of her staff and

faculty had left, and her husband had called asking what time to pick her up. Once the

final exams are finished and report cards are distributed, the MOE requires that

faculty and administration remain in the school for an additional week to complete

paperwork. Other than paperwork for the staff, there is usually little to be done, and

teachers basically sit for the three hours a day they are required to be in attendance.

However, they are still required to attend the school from approximately 7:00 a.m. or

7:30 a.m. until 10 a.m. or 10:30 a.m. daily.

Um Ibrahim pointed out that her staff was very devoted to their work and to

her, which was why several staff members were still sitting in their offices, although

the prescribed departure time had come and gone. We realized that we were keeping

Um Ibrahim, and once we completed the interview, we quickly prepared to leave. We

stopped near the entrance to the school to copy the school's vision from the large

board on display. Then we said our goodbyes and left the school. I was happy and

excited to have completed the interview process. I was also happy and excited that my

last interview had gone smoothly and that the principal had appeared so open and

happy to participate. Probably the most noteworthy, and in my opinion extraordinary,

thing about this interview and this principal was that she had a specific vision for her

school that was so proudly displayed at the entrance to the school so that all

stakeholders were aware of it.

Summary

Meeting and interviewing twelve different principals in the Eastern Province

of Saudi Arabia to understand their leadership role and their perspectives of that role

was an enlightening experience. I have lived in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia

since 1984 and worked there since 1991. I have met many principals during that time,

but this was my first opportunity to interview and try to understand their leadership

role and their perspectives of that role. I found twelve extraordinary women, different

in many ways, but they all had similar traits, they were proud of their country and

they wanted the best for their schools.

In the next chapter, I discuss what these 12 women told me about their

leadership role and their perspectives of that role. The themes that emerged from their

answers gave me insight into their leadership. Their answers also gave an indication

of what kind of leaders will be responsible for initiating the reforms outlined in King

Abdullah's reform initiative, Tatweer.

CHAPTER V

THE INTERVIEWS

For five weeks during June and July, 2010, with the help of an Arabic

translator, I interviewed twelve Saudi female principals who lead either an

elementary, intermediate, or secondary school in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia

in cities, towns and small villages from Al Khobar in the center of the Eastern

Province of Saudi Arabia to Al Khufji near the Eastern Province northern border with

Kuwait. These interviews were conducted before, during, and after the two-week bi-

annual student national exams. I traveled to schools that were a mere 3 or 4 miles

from my home to a school more than 220 miles away. Because women are not

allowed to drive in Saudi Arabia, I relied on my family's driver or my husband to take

me to these schools. For each interview, I was accompanied by a translator of dual

nationality, Saudi and American. The translator completed her K-12 education in

Saudi Arabia and her undergraduate and graduate studies in the United States; she

fluently speaks both Arabic and English.

Nine of the 12 interviews conducted were tape recorded; but for three of the

interviews, I handwrote all of the principals' responses to my questions. The taped

interviews were reviewed for authenticity by a second translator who listened to the

tapes and compared them to my typed transcriptions. Corrections were made

according to her notes, and then the original translator listened to the tapes for a final

time to check for accuracy of the changes. The handwritten notes taken during the

three unrecorded interviews were translated back in Arabic to the principals at the end

of each interview so that the principal could make changes or corrections to what I

had written.

The purpose of conducting these 12 interviews was to describe the leadership

role of Saudi female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and the

principals' perspectives of that role. Describing the leadership roles and participants'

perspectives of those roles included identifying their educational visions and

motivations. Descriptions of the leadership role and the principal's perspective of that

role were achieved by focusing on the emergent themes relevant to the six different

interview questions used during each principal's interview. This chapter presents the

questions used to conduct the interviews and reports the analysis of the answers and

responses that the principals gave to each question. The chapter concludes with a

short summary of the findings.

The Questions and Responses

Question 1: Describe your Role as a School Principal

Asking 12 individuals to describe their roles as school principals inevitably

leads to 12 different responses as each woman describes how she interprets her role.

However, the descriptions these principals gave had shared similarities. Five central

themes or topics emerged as they each described their role as a school principal.

Those five themes were: providing the right environment, the role as a responsibility,

comparing the role to that of motherhood, describing the role as one of leadership, and

describing the role as fulfilling the goals of the Ministry of Education (MOE).

Providing the Right Environment.

Three of the 12 principals discussed providing a specific environment as part

of their role as a school principal. Um-Mohammad I, one of the least experienced

principals, told me that her role, in part, was to "…provide a comfortable, pleasant

environment that makes the students want to come to school." She explained the

importance of the environment to students' education, "I want the student to be

comfortable to an extent where she [the student] wants to spend more time in it [the

school environment] learning and doesn't want to go home."

The principal with the second longest tenure as a school principal, Bint Al

Watani, also described her role as a school principal as one of "…providing a positive

working and educational environment." She said that her role was to "bring her ideas

[be innovative] and improvements to the school and to motivate the students to want

to study."

The third principal who spoke about the environment when describing her role

as a school principal was Madeara Subha. She described the role as being aware of the

environment one is in, and she expressed that one of her many roles was to "provide a

good environment for the students to learn."

The Role as a Responsibility.

Um Osama described the role of principal as a responsibility. She explained,

"It's a huge responsibility, it has 3 layers: parents, teachers, and

students. With students, it's not just to stuff them with information, I want to

teach them (the students) principles and values and skills…and

responsibility…instill in them good values and talent and with teachers it is to

improve their work performance, and with parents…it's to receive them and

talk to them…."

Um Saeed also discussed her role as a principal as a responsibility. She

described the role thus: "It's a responsibility, because …it's a responsibility for me in

this position to run the school and also a responsibility--that was the main reason to

assign a principal for each school, and it's a responsibility given to me from the

Ministry…and the goals that they put are part of my responsibility to complete."

When Um Mishal was first asked to describe her role as a school principal, she

said,

Responsible for everyone in the school from the students to the employees….I

am responsible for administrative planning and revising and following

up…responsible for the students' levels…you know and checking on the ones

that have weaknesses and making plans to improve students, weaknesses and

to make them better and also the extra-curricular activities for the students; I

am responsible for that.

Comparing the Role to Motherhood.

A third response shared by two of the principals in describing their role as

school principals was that they compared the role to that of being a mother. Um

Mohammad II made the analogy between the role of a principal and that of a mother

by saying, "I'm like a mother in charge of her family. I feel like a principal is a

mother, she has to see what is missing from her people and fill it in. Every individual

needs improvement. Be happy, don't expect something or wait."

The second principal who compared being a principal to being a mother is herself

not a mother. Abla used the analogy to describe the role as well as referring to the

responsibility. She said, "It's a leadership role, a responsibility, the role of a leader is

someone who guides…a mother for everyone." Abla's description of the role as one of

leadership leads me to the fourth theme that emerged from the principals' description

of their role as principals - leadership.

Describing the Role as One of Leadership.

Two principals, Um Mohammad III and Ma'Asama, described their roles as

principals as being a leader or concerned with leadership. Um Mohammad III said, "I

see myself as the leader for the school, I execute the goals of the MOE and I

implement the goals, and I implement the Ministry's directions in all

areas…educational, academics, and behavioral…"

Ma'Asama explained when asked about her role, "The principal is the

leadership." When I asked her to elaborate she said,

It's the ability to convince everyone, the people around you, with the ideas and

it is not--the leadership is through conviction, not force, and the goals of

wanting to accomplish these goals with the opinion of others. A leader is

someone that moves people to do better…to the leader is to like the

community, and the people that are with the school to choose the right or better

direction.

Fulfilling the Goals of the MOE.

Finally, three of the principals described their role as a principal as someone

who implements the goals of the Ministry of Education. I refer again to the response

of Um Mohammad III, the acting principal of a girls' intermediate school in a small

rural village, "I see myself as the leader for the school, I execute the goals of the

Ministry and I implement the goals…I implement the Ministry's directions in all

areas; educational, academics, and behavioral."

Madera Subha also referred to the Ministry of Education when she described

her role as principal. She stated,

The role of a principal you can't say is just one role because it is many roles.

And the first thing as a principal is that you must achieve the goals of the

Ministry…if you are firm you can achieve these goals…each principal will

achieve these goals in a different way because they all have different abilities.

Um Saeed also linked her role as a school principal to the Ministry of

Education when she discussed the role as a responsibility, "….and a responsibility

given to me from the Ministry…and the goals that they put are a part of my

responsibility to complete……and I am a link between the school and the Ministry if

there is a problem with the teachers or with money…."

Twelve women gave twelve different responses to my request to describe their

role as a principal. What stood out from the answers were not so much the

differences, but what they held in common in their beliefs about their roles. Some

described their role as one of leadership; others compared it to motherhood. The role

of principal was described as a responsibility that included providing the right

environment; others underscored the relationship between their leadership and the

goals of the Ministry of Education. Each of these twelve women defined how they

perceived their role as a principal of a Saudi girls' school.

Question 2: What personal qualities do you most value in a principal? What

professional qualities do you value most? What qualities are needed to fulfill

your role as a principal?

In Question 2, the principals were asked to give the personal and professional

qualities they valued most and then to name which qualities were needed to fulfill

their roles. In many cases the professional and personal qualities overlapped with each

principal and fortunately there were overlaps as well between principals, signaling the

emergent themes.

Trait theory of leadership suggests that some people may be born leaders and that

there are certain characteristics inherent in great leaders. Northhouse (2007) reported

five traits central to most lists of traits and characteristics of effective leaders:

intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability (p. 19). I used

this interview question to provide insight into what characteristics or qualities these

principals perceived to be important in fulfilling their roles as school principals.

Personal qualities.

Half of the principals interviewed for this study named patience or being

patient as a personal quality they valued in a principal. Six of the 12 principals also

cited fairness and/or equality as valued qualities. Three principals said that having an

open heart was a valued personal quality. Three principals referred to knowledge or

wisdom as desirable qualities while five others mentioned being lenient and being

flexible as important.

Several principals named having a vision as an important personal quality for

a principal. Bint Al Watani said,

A principal has to be patient, wise….she must take time to make a decision

and think about the consequences, she has to have future vision, she must feel

for the students, she must have humanity, appreciation, sympathy, be flexible

with teachers and loveable. She gives love to receive love and it is reflected –

someone who loves her job and the people...and a lot other…so that's the most

important thing because it will reflect on the teachers, students and everyone

around her…

When asked what personal qualities she most valued in a principal, Um

Mohammad II responded,

To be patient, if a principal doesn't have that, then she can't handle problems,

she must be precise in dealing with problems, be fair, have a work plan and

follow steps and procedures. The Ministry of Education gives rules, principals

try to follow them in the school, people are from diverse backgrounds and have

different personalities, and a principal must be able to deal with everyone. You

can't be team oriented unless everyone is; school isn't successful without

everyone using teamwork. If the principal is absent, it shouldn't interfere with

the running of the school, the school should still run smoothly with or without

her being there.

Finally, Abla also spoke of vision when she listed personal qualities for a

principal, "From my point of view the person [principal] has to be patient…she has to

have leadership skills, be able to see at a distance….like further looking you

know….able to handle responsibility, be flexible and to have excellence in specific

performance."

Professional qualities.

When asked to name professional qualities that they deemed valuable for a

principal, three principals; Um Mohammad I, Bint Al Watani, and Madeara Subha all

felt that the personal qualities and professional qualities overlapped. According to

Madeara Subha,

The professional and personal qualities are close; if the principal doesn't have

these qualities, the school will not run well. As a principal you go through so

many different steps, you teach…and you have to prepare yourself to run the

qualities you need; personal qualities; being observant, taking courses, but not

just MOE courses, courses from outside for example; the art of

communicating. Principals must have professional growth, she must improve

herself. A principal must be herself, she has to do things for herself; you

always have to see what's new in education, especially in the last few years;

there are many changes going on around her, like in technology; a good leader

has to be aware of changes as they are the role model. She can't just act

traditionally.

Um Osama also spoke of the need for self improvement to address change,

"The principal has to be a pioneer, she has to initiate, she must start things, she is the

first to change and fix; she must be ambitious for her to be able to develop and have

self improvement." Others mentioned desirable professional qualities of being tough

or strict but flexible. Still other principals spoke of planning and implementing plans

including the goals, rules, and guidelines of the MOE.

Finally, I asked the principals to tell me which qualities were needed the most

to fulfill their role as a school principal. Their answers included:

 Handle responsibility

 Handle order with flexibility

 Planning and working with people with different personalities

 Taking responsibility and planning and setting goals

 Pedagogy and raising students to have good manners, being a good role model, and not discriminating

 Having a big heart

 To be fair, have self awareness, be a role model, be fair in giving out assignments, and understanding the goals of the school and implementing

them

 Implementing the rules and being honest and straight forward

 To have a strong personality because that is what leadership is

 Strict and flexible for the future outlook or plan

 Be aware of the rules and guidelines and the changes and

 Be fair and equal

Question 3: Please explain the educational vision you hold for your school. What

are some of the specific things you would like to accomplish in your school? Why

is it important for you to accomplish these things?

The purpose of this research was to describe the leadership role of Saudi

female principals and their perceptions of that role. Understanding the leadership role

of a school principal involves examining the vision they hold for their school.

According to Bush (2003), "Vision is increasingly regarded as an essential component

of effective leadership" (p. 6). The interview question I asked the principals had three

parts, first I asked them to explain their visions.

Vision.

Having worked in the private sector of Saudi education since the early 1990s, I

admit that I did not have high expectations as far as each principal having a formal

vision for her school, but I was pleasantly surprised to find one principal who not only

could verbalize her school's vision, she also had it proudly displayed at the entrance of

the school. Um Ibrahim's vision statement was written in collaboration with her

faculty.

However the majority of the principals interviewed did not explain the

educational vision for their school in such formal terms as Um Ibrahim. Most of the

principals' visions involved graduating well prepared students:

 a generation that is excellent in creativity, committed to Islamic

values, focused on Islam and religion..

 students great in all aspects; personality, religion, and education…

 students who can help their society and to help teachers to become

good administrators…

 to give every single student in the school her right of a good

education, the best quality; to gain all the values…

 I want to graduate a generation that has good Islamic values….

 First I want to leave my mark on the school, my vision is the quality

of the education; I want to make students want to learn and be self-

confident and talented and prepared for life…

 …to have good outcomes that graduate students with a high standard

of education…

 To have a good administration as well as an excellent educational

outcome graduating outstanding students…

 …for the students to be at the highest level education wise,

emotionally and behaviorally…

Specific goals.

One underlying theme that emerged as I asked principals to tell me some of

the specific goals they held for their schools was that many were concerned with

the physical environment of the school and the need for technology."My goals

include technology in the classrooms, smart boards, computers; to have a garden

and playground for the students, to decorate the bulletin boards, these are specific

goals," Um Mohammad I told me. "Why are these important?" I asked as the final

follow-up to the question about her educational vision. She responded, "These are

important to help students to be innovative."

Um Osama and Um Mohammad II were also concerned with the physical

aspects of the school and/or technology. They told me respectively, "I want every

student to have her own computer and a plan to develop specific skills and talents."

"Classrooms should have the latest technology, and I wish we were on the ground

floor, also I want more space, and more money for cleaning and maintenance." When

asked why these specific goals were important, Um Osama told me that having

personal computers and plans for developing skills and talents will, "Help in the

learning process, something that is missing from students and we want them to be

confident in themselves and to communicate with the rest of the world." While Um

Mohammad II told me that her goals were necessary, "To make things easier for the

teachers and students, and this will encourage the students to learn."

Yet other principals cited goals that were more specific to the students. "I want

to accomplish a higher level of education and improve students' manners," Um

Ibrahim stated and then explained why these specific goals were important, "Because

in the end we are developing students' personalities and when you have education and

manners that is when students succeed."

Um Mishal told me her specific goals, "First is for the students to succeed, if

they are weak, then to find ways to improve the weak areas, provide extracurricular

activities so that they will be excited about coming to school and learning, also to

raise the level of the teachers and keep the training going, also to implement the goals

of the MOE." She also told us why these goals were important, "Because if the

students are weak and the teachers don't follow up they might fail, and teachers

because the teacher should give the subject in a way to make the students love

education."

Ma'Asama's goals included, "To enhance and improve the learning of all

students, to discover the students' skills and talents." This was important to her

because, "How else will students function or succeed if they don't get a good

education this is the point of learning, when they leave they are going to continue

their education and they are going to benefit the country, I want to have a generation

that creates."

Question 4: Please discuss some areas that you feel have improved in your school

since you've been principal. What difficulties have you encountered in reaching

your goals?

One of the central questions this study hoped to answer was, "How do Saudi

principals describe the impact they have on their schools?" Principals described their

individual impact through their responses to interview question four. According to

Bridges (2003), "Everyone knows that a leader's most important role is to lead

change," (p. 154). How had these principals impacted their schools? Had their

leadership brought positive change to the school? Were they able to implement their

vision? All three questions were relevant to understanding their leadership role as

principals. In the beginning, several teachers were humble, stating that they did not

like to discuss their accomplishments; but in the end, most were able to overcome

their modesty to give me an account of how the school had improved under their

tutelage.

Improvements.

Um Mohammad I, the least experienced principal, spoke once again about the

physical condition of her school, "The school is cleaner and the bulletin boards are

decorated." She spoke about her preoccupation with trying to hire a cleaning company

for the school when I had asked her about her role as a principal. She also had been

concerned about getting the outdoor bulletin boards decorated. It seems that she

viewed her impact on the school through this same lens. Um Mohammad, an acting

principal of a school in a small rural village, described her impact as it pertained to

providing new technology, "Since the school was established it is the same, except the

school is now a government building before it was a rental. The teachers and students

are basically the same except now they have computers."

Bint Al Watani, the principal with the second longest experience as a principal

and soon to retire, told me,

I made many building improvements. I made a more positive work

environment that won prizes; I improved the physical environment of the

school including bulletin boards and other decorations. I made improvements

with the teachers' personalities and the way they treated each other. I

introduced weekly planning and worksheets for the students.

Um Mohammad II, an intermediate school principal said, "The teachers'

behavior has improved. I got to know my teachers well and their background and

personality." Um Osama, the principal with the official title of vice principal also

focused on teachers, "Teachers had a lot of skills but they didn't use them; I have

helped them to be confident and develop their performance and the way they teach. I

also helped create the proper environment and got things for the teachers like lap tops

and projectors." Um-Kumsa, the recently appointed principal of an urban intermediate

school and acting principal of the adjoining secondary school, described school

improvements related to both her teachers and students, "The environment, the

students, the teacher, the students language, teachers are cooperating with me. The

environment has improved and the students' faces reflect the happiness for this,

renovation and newness reflects positively on students, teachers, and staff."

Madeara Subha gave me the details of her impact on the secondary school she

heads,

The first thing that I saw (when she first became principal of the school) was

that there was something missing as far as human relations, the atmosphere

between teachers was charged, I improved this by spending time with the

teachers. A person can improve on talents and be against change. I told

teachers that they had the right to take time off for personal leave; this

improved the human relations by making things easier for people. Secondly, I

put computers in for the administration, the school environment improved;

communication with the community improved. I added lectures for the

mothers.

Um Saeed, the principal with the longest experience as a school principal

(fifteen years), spoke about the impact of her tenure in her current school,

The teachers are more responsive; they are now accepting of each other as

sisters and they have good relationships and they want to reach the same goals.

Also the parents, when we ask their opinion about whether their children are

benefitting from the services and education we provide. We also try to

communicate with the supervisors of the MOE about our teachers'

performances."

Ma'Asama spoke about her impact,

We have students that did very well and got certificates from the Ministry of

Education, and our students have participated in research at SciTech [a private

educational center in the city of Al Khobar] and KFUPM (King Fahd

University for Petroleum and Minerals). They participated in a lot of activities

in the Eastern Province and they won both math and physics contests. The

faculty of the school is currently involved in a project to improve the national

curriculum.

Um Mishal, principal of an elementary school in a large urban city, explained

the impact she has had on her school, "I fixed and cleaned the school, and organized

the way it looks, and I raised the level of the students to the point where only three

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failed this year [out of a population of 540 students]. Also the teachers are very

comfortable with me."

Abla, principal of a large (700 students) predominantly Shiite secondary girls

school, gave her response to my request to discuss some improvements in her school

since she had become principal.

First thing is that I changed the learning environment using what little we have.

I tried to fix up the school. Because the MOE won't let me change the

curriculum, I motivate the teachers by changing the environment; the buildings

and where the students hang out. And I provide training for the teachers and

give courses to help the weak students. Human relations have also improved,

as a principal, I am a role model and my job is to fix problems between the

parents or teachers, and to give trust.

Finally, my last interviewee, Um Ibrahim, who is currently the principal of the

oldest intermediate school in a large urban city and acting principal of the nearby

elementary school described her impact on her school. "The school had a good

reputation before, but I improved upon it even more. I improved the relationship

between the teachers; they are like one family. My relationship with the students was

good but it's even better now." After asking each principal to discuss some

improvements in her school since she became principal, I followed-up by asking each

one what were some of the difficulties they had faced.

Difficulties.

The impetus for conducting this study was the call for national educational

reform, known in Saudi Arabia as Tatweer, and to try to understand how reform will

be actualized at the local level and impacted by the educational leaders of public

schools. The purpose of the study was to understand the role of Saudi female

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principals and their perspectives of that role. The conceptual frameworks guiding this

study were change theory, leadership and leadership theory. One leadership theory

focused on involves differentiating between leaders and managers. In responses cited

in the previous section, the principals discussed their impact on their respective

schools. Some of the principals described their role as one of a manager, not as an

educational leader. In the follow up question, as the principals described the

difficulties they faced in making improvements, I looked for evidence that defined the

principals' roles as that of managers versus that as leaders. This was important

because the literature suggested that leadership is needed to implement educational

reform. Reiterating Kotter's (1998), view "Managing change is important…..But for

most organizations, the much bigger challenge is leading change" (p. 30).

In responding to the follow up questions, the principals spoke of budget and

money as being central obstacles to making school improvements. Principals Um

Mohammad I, Bint Al Watani, Um Osama, Um Kumsa, Um Saeed, and Abla all

reported that budget or money had hindered improvements.

On the other hand, principals also cited human resource and human relation

problems they faced in implementing changes and improvements in their schools. Um

Osama spoke of the hardships she faced in helping to improve her teachers' skills and

develop their performance, the way they taught. She said, "There were a lot of

hardships and obstacles; a lot of teachers thought I was too young to be the principal.

Plus they used a specific way for handling everything, they were stuck on one way of

teaching, I had to deal with each teacher's personality."

Abla also addressed the issue of human relations as a difficulty after initially

focusing on the financial obstacles,

...the other thing, you know, is the human relations, sometimes it is difficult

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because people are different; they have different personalities, they come from

different places, and also the age can be a factor because there are teachers

that are older than me and you know you have to be a way where they can

accept you….

Perhaps, Um Ibrahim addressed the issue of the obstacles that principals face

in making improvements most succinctly,

When I became a principal, no one told me the bullet points of how to be a

principal…not just me, but all principals; we are put in this position and not

told what the role is. I researched what my role is, I looked online on how to

be a principal and set up a plan to run the school and I asked other principals

and then I looked at everything and then I improved upon it.

These two themes, money and budget, and human resources and relations

seemed at opposite ends of the spectrum. Concerns about money and budget seemed

to indicate the role of management; however, facing problems with human resources

and relations seemed to be more related to issues that deal with leadership. Just as the

principals had addressed the issues of improving the work environment both through

physical means and social means; here they addressed the issue of budget as a

difficulty that kept them from impacting the physical environment of the school.

The principals also described the improvements that had occurred with teachers'

professional behavior while at the same time they specified behavior and personality

of teachers and staff as one of the difficulties they had overcome.

Question 5: What motivates you as a leader to initiate changes in your school?

What kind of support do you receive that keeps you motivated to improve your

school?

"The essence of leadership is motivating others to follow and achieve"(Chance

and Chance, 2002, p. 127). If leaders must motivate others to follow and achieve,

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what motivates these 12 leaders to initiate change in their schools and what kind of

support do they receive that keeps them motivated? Are these principals self

motivated by internal stimuli, or does their motivation require external stimulus?

Motivation.

These principals spoke of both external and internal motivation that kept them

wanting to initiate change in their schools. Several were quick to explain that their

motivation was internal or linked to an internal desire to please God and to serve their

country. However, at some point, many of the principals described the satisfaction

they received through acknowledgement of the community and the Ministry of

Education for their efforts as a school principal.

Um Mohammad I told me how her motivation was external, "Certificates of

appreciation from the MOE. When the MOE see my effort that makes me want to do

more." While Bint Al Watani explained that her motivation was much more internal,

"I'm motivated by my work ethic; I was raised to be self-motivated."

Um Mohammad II explained her motivation in somewhat loftier terms,

My love for my country motivates me. God gave me the ability to work for my

country and for people. People should have a positive impact on humanity.

Islam says to be good to people and society and fear God and take care of

people and be responsible for them.

Other principals described their motivation in terms related to their impact on

students and on the education system. Um Osama described her motivation,

I feel that I am responsible for my students and when I see them reach the

highest grades in life, and I want my students to be the best and I'm never

pleased with my success because I am ambitious and I always want more. Also

I want to change the view the world has of Saudi education. Statistics rank us

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at very low around the world; I know that we have the abilities and the

potential.

Um Mohammad III's answer alluded to her religious beliefs and her desire to

help her students, "Getting rewards from God. If I improve anything and there is a

positive impact on students that motivates me."

Um Kumsa's response to the question about what motivated her was the most

practical, "Acceptance and positive reaction from the employees…..the convenience

of having the school so close to my home was a motivation so that I don't have a

problem staying late when I need to."

Madeara Subha and Um Saeed were both motivated by results. "First, is

getting results from what I have done. Support from the MOE has an influence

through thanks and appreciation and I have learned to appreciate others" (Madeara

Subha).Um Saeed explained, "Positivity; positive results from doing a good job,

teachers and parents saying that we are making a difference, students having fewer

absences because they are enjoying coming to school."

Ma'Asama and Um Mishal had simple motivations. "I love my school; it's my

second home" (Ma'Asama). "Because I want the school to be better, but some things I

can't accomplish," Um Mishal explained her motivation with a caveat.

Abla and Um Ibrahim were equally as cautious as Um Mishal. Abla told me,

"I am motivated by the changes I see and the reaction and the good that comes out of

it and the impact that I have on students, teachers, and employees. It is more

important than getting appreciation from the MOE." Um Ibrahim explained,

It's a hard question, I love change and improvement, but because there are so

many guidelines [from the MOE] they limit what improvements we can make.

Having students who are well educated and having good manners that

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motivates me. The main point is that a person wants to do for their country,

building good Muslim students. Because your country gives to you; you want

to give back. It's a responsibility, if one fears Allah (God), this is motivation.

Finally, in attempting to better understand their motivation, I wanted to

understand what kind of support they received that keeps them motivated. With he

second and final question about what motivates these individuals, I asked what kind

of support they receive.

Support.

The principals described the support they receive to stay motivated to make

changes in their schools in mainly one of two ways. Either they described the support

as an internal motivation, or once again, they spoke of support as external stimuli.

Responses such as, "The support is the certificates," and "Encouragement from the

MOE, letters of appreciation, the parents thank us, the teachers feel good at work and

relaxed and you don't receive a lot of complaints about them doing their work,"

indicated that these principals relied upon external notice and support. Two other

principals remarked similarly about the support of the MOE, "The employees reaction

and cooperation, and positive reaction from the MOE," and "Appreciation and thanks

from the parents, the good reputation of the school, happiness and acceptance of the

teachers and being noticed by the MOE because this means that I have made

improvements."

Yet the majority of principals spoke of support in terms related to personal

satisfaction achieved through personal fulfillment. Those included remarks such

as:

 When others notice the improvements in my school that motivates me.

When I see the teachers, students and parents are happy that motivates me.

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 I receive support from the administration and faculty, the smiling students,

when everyone is happy, I'm happy.

 I am pleased that I've done my responsibility, when I see my students

happy and my teachers being successful.

 Satisfying everyone is an unreachable goal, I'd rather please God.

 Moral support from the employees…When people work and accept ideas

and changes this is the biggest support.

 The administration gives me all that a person could want to continue.

 The cooperation keeps me motivated; the teamwork involved.

Finally, one principal took a different direction when she told me, "I don't get

the support I need, the MOE gives me rules to follow but I can't implement them."

She and all of the principals were given the opportunity in the next question to

address the role of the MOE in their leadership and their expectations of support.

Question 6: How do the goals of the Ministry of Education in the Eastern

Province influence the goals of your school? What expectations of support do

you have of the MOE?

In his study, Alsufyan (2002) believed Saudi school principals could have a

greater impact on leading their schools and making improvements in education.

However, because of the limitations placed on principals by the MOE, Alsufyan wrote

that principals are not allowed to act on their ideas for school improvement., Before

conducting my research, like Alsufyan, I was concerned about limitations placed on

principals by the Ministry. Question six was designed to elicit principals' perceptions

of the influence that the MOE had on their leadership.

Goals.

Almost every principal stated in one fashion or another that the goals of the

MOE and the goals she held for her school were synonymous. The difference lay in

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how they approached these goals. For example, Um Mohammad I said, "We do what

the MOE tells us. We try to do it and more; we try to develop the goals more." While

Bint Al Watani said, "I accomplish the goals of the MOE, but I add to them and I do

them my way." Along this same vein, Um Kumsa elaborated, "The MOE has some

things you have to follow, but in your own leadership you can balance things and do

them your way. You give them (MOE) suggestions and sometimes they accept them."

Madeara Subha's take on the MOE's goals appeared to follow the same line of

thinking, "The goals of the school came from the goals of the MOE. We can change

some, but the main part is from the MOE; even the mission, vision, and goals are

from the MOE."

Other principals such as Um Saeed clearly expressed her views somewhat

defiantly, "The goals are the same as the goals of the MOE, we take them and want to

achieve with the students and make it easier, we react actively to the goals that we see

directly benefitting the students, but when we don't agree with it (the goals of the

MOE) we decrease out action, and when we see that the goals from the MOE don't

have much purpose then we don't give as much effort." Um Mishal seemed to express

the same sentiment, "The goals of the MOE and goals of the school walk together, but

implementing them is not the same because of the problems we face."

However, Um Mohammad II described the goals and her approach to them a

little differently, "We have one goal, it's the same goal, it's one country, one people,

and they should work together. The MOE has educated goals, ones that they made

after much study. They [the goals] work for the Saudi society." Abla's response

seemed to parallel Um Mohammad II's answer, "Their goals are one goal they are

interlocking because you can't go with two separate goals." Ma'Asama was the most

adamant about the influence of the goals of the MOE on her goals for her school, "We

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adopt the goals and implement them. We go one way because we have the same

goals: to produce great successful students, graduating students, special students,

great students. The goals are the same."

Finally, my last question was a follow up to asking how the goals of the MOE

influenced the goals each principal had for her school. I asked what expectations of

support they had of the MOE.

Support.

Summarizing what these principals told me were their expectations for support

from the Ministry of Education left me with three clear impressions; financial support,

moral support through recognition, and a need for more authority. Receiving financial

support and a budget as well as receiving support in the form of maintenance and

materials and supplies was a leading theme that was addressed by the majority of

these principals. Um Mohammad I told me, "I expect support in the form of money or

getting the things I request." Um Kumsa also thought financial support was the most

important, "Financial support is number one, and we receive it. Second is the

maintenance, you keep calling and finally you get what you need."

Others addressed the need for financial support but, also included issues of

moral support. Bint Al Watani said, "Certificates of appreciation are support, money

or budget would be another kind of support." Um Mohammad II was equally

concerned with these two issues, "I expect both financial support and psychological

support. I need more teachers. They [MOE] provide everything, we don't lack much.

Appreciation, I want you to have a good impression of Saudi women, and how they

are able to lead with things they do and don't have." Ma'Asama also addressed both

issues, "Financial support, moral support….providing more managerial staff, about

teachers I'd like for them to have less teaching responsibilities so that they can devote

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more time to the students developing their talents and following up with the weak

students."

Madeara Subha succinctly addressed the expectation of support from the

MOE, "Moral support, certificates of appreciation, attending private courses, that is

the limit of support, they [expectations] don't exceed this." Um Mohammad III also

clearly was concerned with appreciation as an expectation, "If there is something that

our administration is doing that is good, I want the MOE to know it; appreciation

from the MOE. The most support that we receive comes from the students and

teachers; if they are happy that's my reward and the best reward for me." Um Saeed's

response was more of a suggestion, "I wish to see that the MOE reward teachers

differently for their performance; now they get the same rewards regardless of their

performance." She wanted to be able to encourage teachers based on an evaluation of

their performance.

Abla took a little different approach to the question,

There is support, they [the MOE] can't provide everything, but they are

supposed to provide the basics; furniture, books, equipment for the curriculum

and books, teachers; financial stuff, and moral support; they have contests for

both best teacher and best principal. Support comes from the school, not the

MOE. The MOE gives you guidelines, rules, general policy, but the support

comes from the school.

Um Mishal had a somewhat similar response, "I expect the MOE to provide

me with all of the things I need for education especially for the new curriculums being

introduced through Tatweer, and with specialized teachers for subjects and the

resources and aids, but I‘m not getting what I need."

The third theme that emerged from the principals' responses to this last

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question was the expectations of support in the form of authority. Um Mishal

continued her initial response, after describing the financial support she needed, "I

also wish that the MOE would give me more authority to deal with some of the

problems that we face." Um Ibrahim spoke about support in the form of appreciation,

but she too addressed the issue of authority,

The certificates of appreciation and these things are not given when they

should be. A way of support is when I am chosen to participate on special

committees for principals in the Eastern Province and also when I am chosen

to participate on special committees for the Kingdom, but nothing more, we

request a lot (of support) but we don't receive it. A principal gets respect, but

not authority.

Um Osama, the unofficial principal, spoke of the need for authority as a form

of support from the MOE, "The first one [expectation] is the right of choice, to

empower me with a lot of authority, to give me my rights; I also expect intense

courses especially with the curriculum changes."

Summary

My purpose for conducting this study was to understand how Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia view their role as educational

leaders and their perspectives of those roles. I wanted to examine their individual

educational visions for their schools, and I wanted to understand the impact the

principals felt they have had as school leaders. Equally important to this task, I

wanted to understand what motivated these individuals to make changes and

improvements for their schools. Finally I wanted to understand the role of the

Ministry of Education as it affects the leadership of these principals.

I interviewed 12 female principals who lead schools in the Eastern Province,

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one principal was serving as "acting" principal, and another held the position of a

principal although her official title was that of vice-principal. All principals were

proud of their schools, their country and their work. Most were proud of the

achievements they had made; others were not satisfied and spoke of the need for

continued success and improvements. One of the principals addressed the reform

project known locally as Tatweer, and she spoke only about the changes in

curriculum.

My concern in approaching this study was that the success of the national

reform initiatives would be actualized at the local level and would be greatly impacted

by the educational leaders of public schools. Believing that educational reform at the

national level could not succeed without the impact of leaders at the local level, I

attempted to understand the leadership of Saudi female principals in the Eastern

Province of Saudi Arabia. What I found was, although many of the school principals

spoke about their leadership and how they formed relationships with their teachers,

few addressed ways that they were prepared to lead educational reform in their

schools. Some addressed this issue by explaining how little authority they had to

make changes. This issue was clearly demonstrated in the last question when three

separate principals brought up the issue of authority and their lack of any decisive

authority in their respective schools.

This issue was further compounded by the agreement among all twelve

principals that their goals and the goals of the MOE were the same. They made it

clear, rather through design or through their own choice, that the goals of the MOE

were the most important. In the final chapter of this dissertation, I report and discuss

the conclusions I made concerning the role of leadership and the perspectives of that

role of these 12 Saudi female principals, my reflections on the process, and what I

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learned.

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CHAPTER VI

FINAL ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY

Proposing, conducting, and writing about a study of female principals in the

Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia was, in some ways, an analogy for lifting a veil to

reveal the leadership role and the perspectives of that leadership role of a population

of principals rarely described and a culture of education not well understood by many

Western educators. "Leadership studies in the Middle East are almost nonexistent due

to the inherent difficulty of conducting organizational research there," (House, et al,

2004, p. 64). Although national attention in Saudi Arabia is focused on the

educational reforms underway through Tatweer, attention of the media and

educational reformists has been focused on issues of curriculum and teacher

development. The problem still remains that the actualization of educational reform

will take place at the local level and will be impacted by the educational leaders of the

public schools - the principals.

The 12 women who participated in this study do not necessarily represent the

views on educational leadership of all female Saudi principals. However, as they

described their role as principals, listed professional and personal qualities valued in a

principal, explained their educational visions, discussed the impact they had on their

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schools, and described their motivation to improve their schools, themes and

similarities in their responses connected these women. These connections allowed me

to draw conclusions about their leadership and fulfill the purpose of this study.

The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership role of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and their perspectives of that role.

After interviewing and recording the responses of these 12 Saudi female principals to

the interview questions, revising the transcripts for accuracy and authenticity, and

coding and analyzing the data, in this final chapter I report the conclusions from the

findings of this descriptive case study.

Describing the leadership role of Saudi female principals and their

perspectives of that role can inform the reform process, resulting in a greater

understanding of the individuals responsible to implement the national reform

initiatives. Conclusions regarding the leadership role and perspectives of that role of

Saudi female principals interviewed for this study include the impact of religion and

the influence of the Ministry of Education on their leadership. In this chapter, I

discuss the theoretical framework and the conclusions of my study; my reflections on

the study and recommendations for further research. However, the final chapter

begins with a summary description of the principals. Reviewing the education and

professional backgrounds of the participants in this study is relevant to understanding

the leadership of these Saudi principals.

The Principals

The 12 principals who participated in this study were unique individuals,

women of different ages and backgrounds. They were a diverse group of educators

leading schools even more diverse. All of the principals were Sunni Muslim; several

of the principals were leading predominantly Shiite majority schools, an aspect worth

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exploring in future research. Some of the principals came from backgrounds of large

distinguished Saudi tribes; others were from less well-affiliated families. Their ages

and years of experience varied, as did their major field of study. The average age of

these participants was forty-four. Two of the principals had recently been appointed

to lead their schools; one principal was just a month away from retirement. None of

the principals held an advanced degree, and only one principal had her undergraduate

degree in school administration.

Education and Training

Before beginning the interviews, I met with the highest ranking female

member of the Ministry of Education in the Eastern Province to learn about the

educational requirements and standards for principals. Dr. Al Tayar told me, during a

personal interview, the MOE had standards in place for incoming school principals,

but that exceptions were made when there was a shortage of qualified candidates for a

position. She said that candidates were required to have a minimum of a bachelor's

degree and that once they held the position of principal they received ongoing

training. An exception was those principals who had held the position of vice-

principal before becoming principal; they receive on the job training alongside their

respective school principal. According to Dr. Al Tayar, "Training and experience are

better than education," (Personal Communication, 2010).

Alderweesh (2003) conducted a study in the southernmost part of the Eastern

Province, the Al Ahsa region and found that only 32% of the principals who

participated in her study held a bachelor's degree or higher. According to Alderweesh,

"In Saudi Arabia, any teacher could apply to be a principal or principal's assistant

after a few years of teaching" (p. 1). Dr Al Tayar confirmed this statement, explaining

that an individual needed eight years of teaching or administrative experience to apply

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for a position as a school principal. Of the 12 principals participating in this study,

nine held a bachelor's degree, and three held a diploma.

Um Ibrahim, the final principal interviewed for this study, summed up the lack

of prior education and professional development for Saudi female principals.

When I became a principal, no one told me the bullet points of how to be a

principal-not just me, but all-we are put in this position and not told what the

role is. I researched what my role was. I looked online about how to be a

principal and I set up a plan to run the school and I asked other principals then

I looked at everything and then I improved upon it.

Dr. Al Tayar described a process similar to what Um Ibrahim had. Dr. Al

Tayar explained that newly appointed school principals visit other more experienced

principals for mentoring. This is part of the ongoing training given to principals once

they are appointed to their position. Saudi female principals do not receive formal

educational leadership training, nor is an advanced degree or an undergraduate degree

a required prerequisite for the position, although it is preferred. This lack of formal

training and education may impact the influence of the MOE on these principals' role

and perspectives of their role as educational leaders.

Theoretical Framework

Identifying theory that would frame a study to describe the leadership role and

perspectives of that role of Saudi female principals responsible for leading

educational reform was an exercise in reviewing theory related to the problem under

investigation. Change theory, leadership, and leadership theory were conceptual

frameworks I considered relevant for examining leadership during a time of

organizational transformation. Leadership theory, particularly managers versus

leaders, was useful for defining the leadership role of these principals. However, as I

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reviewed the data in the framework of change and leadership theory, known theories

did not fit. During data analysis, culture and leadership became intertwined and what

emerged equally of value was the role of societal culture on leadership.

Culture and Leadership

Hallinger and Leithwood (1998) questioned the validity of applying Western

methods and theories of school administration and educational leadership to non-

Western societies, and suggested that Western values and culture may not fit or apply

to other cultures. I firmly believe that the leadership of Saudi female principals is

shaped by their religion and a myriad of other cultural aspects. The influence of the

Ministry of Education on a leader's role and her perspective of that role are tied to a

belief of respect for authority that Westerners, who have been taught to challenge

authority if felt that authority was misguided, may have a difficult time

comprehending. Many of these principals had ideas and beliefs on how to better lead

their schools, but they remained respectful of the directives of the MOE, and this kept

them from making changes they thought were necessary. On the other hand, the

Ministry of Education demonstrates a lack of confidence in individual ability by not

giving principals decision-making authority. This lack of confidence may also be

encrusted in cultural beliefs or perhaps it stems from the fact that many Saudi

principals lack formal educational and professional development.

Cultural values such as tribalism are extremely strong in Saudi Arabia.

Knowledge of an individual's religious sect, geographic origin, and family tribal

affiliation can be discerned from a person's family name. Some distinctions are valued

as a way of noting everything from leadership ability to terms for matchmaking. In

Saudi Arabia these tribal affiliations can get you everywhere and nowhere. Tribal

traditions influence all aspects of life and, as a consequence, managers are expected to

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act as fathers - viewing their role in a highly personalized manner characterized by

providing and caring for employees and favoring individuals within the family and

tribe over outsiders. The legacy of a highly structured bureaucracy left by the ruling

Ottoman Empire and European nations is superimposed on these Islamic family-tribal

traditions. (House, et al, 2004, p. 63)

The GLOBE Studies established a relationship between culture and leadership

(Northhouse, 2007). The relationship between culture and leadership is evident

through the impact of religion on the leadership role and perspectives of the role of

the 12 Saudi female principals who participated in this study. I also found the

leadership theory of managers versus leaders a useful concept for defining the

leadership role of Saudi female principals and their perception of that role. It was

ironic to me that the Arabic word for principal has a literal translation of ― manager‖.

Managers vs. Leaders

"Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of

individuals to achieve a goal," (Northhouse, 2007, p. 3). Much of the description of

the Ministry of Education's influence on the perception of the principals of their role

as educational leaders made these principals appear to be managers responsible for

implementing the instructions and goals of the MOE.

However, if leadership is indeed about individual influence, then several of

these principals view themselves accordingly. Three of the 12 principals directly

described their role as one of a leader or as a leadership role. Three other principals

described their role in accordance with what Northhouse (2007) defined as a leader;

they said their role was to influence, encourage, or convince others. One principal said

her role was to encourage teachers and people around her for the changes and

developments. Another principal said she has to influence the goals and see how they

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are suitable for her school. The third said that her leadership was the ability to

convince everyone around her with the ideas through conviction, not force, to

accomplish the goals.

Other principals described their role as a school principal in terms that were

more in line with the role as a manager than a leader. Kotter (1996) described

management as a process for keeping a system running smoothly. Several principals

described their role in these terms. One principal told me her role was to supervise.

Another told me that her role was to see what people need and provide that. "The role

is to check on everything; big and small," a third principal told me. Still three other

principals described their role as one of achieving, implementing or executing the

goals of the MOE.

Three of the 12 principals described their role as a school principal in terms

associated with the role of a leader while six of the 12 principals described their role

in more managerial terms. The demographics of the principals who described

themselves as educational leaders reveal that all three were younger than the average

age of the principals. The six principals who described themselves in terms more

closely related to the description of a manager were mainly above the average age of

the participants. Years of experience, education, and major field of study seemed to

have no influence on how the principals described their role.

Not only does the title given to a Saudi female principal, madeara, translate in

English as ―manager‖, the words and phrases these principals used to describe their

role as principal more closely reflect the role of a manager. Whether this is due to the

authority and influence of the Ministry of Education as Alsufyan (2002) suggested,

"Their [principals] relegation by the Ministry to the status of managers denies them

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use of their abilities to make and implement leadership decisions within their schools"

(p.2), or to the actions of the principals, is not clear.

Trait Theory of Leadership

During the interviews, each principal was asked to name the personal and

professional qualities she valued most in a principal and which qualities she needed to

fulfill her role as a principal. Half of the principals named patience as a personal

quality they valued in a principal, yet when asked which quality she felt was needed

to fulfill her role as principal, the responses were completely varied. There were no

other significant correlations between the principals‘ responses when they named

personal or professional qualities that were most valued.

Transactional versus Transformational Leadership

The relationship between the Ministry of Education and these principals could

be viewed as one of transactional leadership. Northhouse (2007) explained how

transactional leadership focuses on the exchange between leaders and followers. In

this scenario, the school principals seek the approval of the MOE through recognition

and certificates of approval. In exchange, the principals implement the directives of

the MOE. For example, according to Um Mohammad III, her role is to execute the

goals of the MOE, and to implement the Ministry‘s directives in all areas. Um

Mohammad I stated that the certificates of appreciation from the MOE and the

MOE‘s recognition of her achievements motivated her to do more.

Additionally, the relationship between these principals and their teachers can

be described in the same terms. Um-Saeed described her role as a school principal in

terms that linked her to the MOE. She explained how she was the go-between for the

teachers with the Ministry if there were any problems. However, neither of these

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theories fully explains the leadership of these 12 principals which was strongly

influenced by their cultural beliefs.

Conclusions

To understand people's behavior we need to understand their perception of the

situation (Richards, 2009, p. 74).

In conducting this study, I wanted to understand the leadership role and the

perspectives of that role of the individuals who will be responsible to implement the

Saudi education reform initiatives at the local level. As a result of the interviews and

the data collected, I made two specific conclusions concerning the principals' role and

the 12 participants' perspectives of that role. The leadership role and perspectives of

that role are: 1) highly impacted by their religion, and 2) greatly influenced by the

Ministry of Education.

The Impact of Religion on the Role of Leadership

Leadership is culturally contingent. That is, views of the importance and value

of leadership vary across cultures (House, et al, 2004, p. 5).

Whether it was in describing their role as a principal, defining personal or

professional qualities they valued, or explaining their educational vision for their

respective school, eight of the 12 principals spoke of the importance and role of

religion in their leadership. This should not have come as a great surprise, considering

that the Ministry of Education's vision for education in Saudi Arabia includes the

statement, "Engendering of a new generation of male and female youth who embody

the Islamic values in their persons," (Our Vision).

In a Western society like the United States, leaders are usually more sensitive

to their own personal religious views and usually make a concerted effort to leave

religion out of public school educational philosophy. However, in a non-secular

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society like Saudi Arabia, where religion is tied to all aspects of private and public

life, religion permeates even educational goals and objectives. In the early 1990s, as a

beginning teacher in Saudi Arabia, I was encouraged to write lesson plans for each

subject I taught, from Math to Language Arts, which included religious objectives

alongside educational objectives. Understanding Islam's influence is key to

understanding the Arab world (House, et al, 2004). In Saudi Arabia, the national

religion of Islam is the foundation of the culture.

Dimrock and Walker (2000) described the role of societal culture in defining

the role of leadership. "The inclusion of societal culture as a factor in investigations

covering such themes as curriculum, teaching and learning, leadership and school-

based management is an imperative for the development of the field" (p. 304). In

Saudi Arabia, perhaps more than many other cultures, religion is the dominant feature

of society and a major consideration in a study that examines the role of Saudi

educational leaders. Understanding the influence of societal culture on the role of

leadership is easily observed through the impact of religion on these principals'

perception of their leadership role.

"My vision is to graduate a generation that is excellent in creativity,

committed to Islamic values, focused on Islam and religion," Um Mohammad I

responded when asked to explain her educational vision. Um Mohammad II described

her role as a principal: "I am influenced by the Prophet [Peace Be Upon Him] and

how he led his nations." Religion was also a focus of Bint Al Watani's description of

her educational vision: "I want to be the top and to graduate students who are great in

all aspects: personality, religion, and education. I want to build in students a great

personality with ethics and scientifically wise and committed to their religion and

with great character."

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Um Osama explained some of the personal qualities she valued as an

educational leader, "To understand the huge responsibility, feel safe, and know that

God is watching you…." Um Mohammad III referred to religion as she listed

personal qualities she valued, "Patience, being balanced, fulfilling the Islamic

teachings, an open heart, wisdom and the ability to solve problems, honesty and it all

comes from fulfilling the laws of Islam."

The value these principals placed on their religion and how it should be

implemented through their leadership greatly impacts their role and their perspectives

of their role as an educational leader. During the interviews, the principals were quite

clear that religion was paramount to them and held a position of prominence as they

described their role as educational leaders. Second to religion were the influence of

the Ministry of Education on the leadership role and the perception of the role of these

12 Saudi female principals. Whereas the impact of religion on the role and

perspectives of the role can be described as a matter of choice to some extent, the

influence of the MOE was not always a welcomed influence according to some of the

school principals.

The Ministry of Education's Influence on the Role of Leadership

The Ministry of Education is a strategic management team dedicated to

fulfilling plans structured by other functionaries even further up the

bureaucratic hierarchy. As such, the Ministry has applied a management-

approach straight jacket to virtually the only individuals in the system

positioned to lead: the school principals (Alsufyan, 2002, p. 151).

The impact and influence of the Ministry of Education was very evident in this

study as the principals interviewed described their role and their perception of their

role as educational leaders. Three of the 12 principals interviewed directly described

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their role as a principal as one of responsibility to implement the goals of the MOE. "I

see myself as the leader for the school; I execute the goals of the MOE and I

implement them in all areas; educational academic, behavioral," Um Mohammad III

stated. Madeara Subha described her role as a principal, "It is not just one role; it is

many. First you achieve the goals of the MOE, if you are firm you can, each principal

will achieve them differently, because they all have different abilities." Um Saeed, the

principal with the longest tenure, explained the influence of the MOE at three

different stages in her description of her role as principal:

It is a responsibility from the MOE, and the goals are part of my responsibility

to complete. I am a link or a connection between the school and the MOE for

any problems for the teachers, if the teachers want anything from the MOE, I

am the go-between. I also supervise and oversee what the teachers are doing

and I implement what the MOE wants; curriculum-wise and behavior-wise.

Working with Saudi female principals as a private school teacher in Saudi

Arabia under the authority of the Ministry of Education gave me knowledge and

experience of the influence and power the MOE holds over both public and private

schools in Saudi Arabia. In my experience, very few changes can be made in a school

without the MOE's permission. Principals in private schools seem to have more

opportunity for decision making and developing their programs, curriculum and

teachers than the principals of public or government schools. In 2002, Alsufyan

examined what prevented Saudi male principals from being effective leaders. He

expressed his concern that the limitations placed on principals by the MOE prevented

them from leading and improving their schools.

Also important in describing the influence the MOE has on how school

principals describe their role is the power that the MOE has to motivate these

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individuals. When asked to explain what motivates them to initiate changes in their

school and what support they received that kept them motivated, four of the 12

principals included the Ministry of Education in their response. "Certificates of

appreciation from the MOE; when the MOE sees my effort that makes me want to do

more. The support is the certificates," explained Um Mohammad I. Madeara Subha

responded similarly, "First is getting results from what I have done. Support from the

MOE has an influence through thanks and appreciation I have learned to appreciate

others."

The responses received to the last interview question were the most revealing

about the influence and impact of the MOE on these individual principals' leadership.

The principals were asked how the goals of the MOE influenced the goals of their

school and what expectations of support did they have of the MOE. Every principal

explained that the goals of the Ministry of Education influenced the goals of her

school. Some principals indicated that they implemented the goals as directed; others

suggested they had to implement the goals, but they managed to do so on their own

terms.

Um Mohammad II was one of the principals who expressed her belief in the

value of the MOE's goals. "We have one goal, it is the same goal, it is one country,

one people, and we should work together. The MOE has educated goals, goals that

they made after much study. They work for the Saudi society." Um Mohammad III

similarly explained the influence of the MOE's goals on her school's goals, "They are

interlocked, the school goals finish the MOE goals, and they complete each other." As

did Madeara Subha, "The goals of the school came from the goals of the MOE. We

can change some, but the main part is from the MOE, even the mission, vision, and

goals are from the MOE."

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However, even though all of the principals described the goals of the MOE

and their school goals as being synonymous, several of the principals indicated they

were confident in exercising their power as a leader in implementing the MOE's

goals.

The goals are the same as the goals of the MOE, we take them and want to

achieve with the students and make it easier. We react actively to the goals that

we see directly benefitting the students, but when we don't agree with the

goals, we decrease our action, when we see that the goals of the MOE don't

have much purpose then we don't give them as much effort," Um Saeed

explained.

Um Kumsa described the influence of the MOE's goals on her school, "The MOE has

some things you have to follow, but in your own leadership you can balance things

and do them your own way".

In 2002, Alsufyan's study of 50 male principals in the Saudi capital of Riyadh

identified four major problems faced by school principals; one was the centralized

bureaucratic operation of the MOE and the resulting lack of authority and decision-

making power of principals. Two of the principals in my study of Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province alluded to the lack of authority they felt because of

the influence of the MOE. Both of these principals were from a larger, more

modernized urban city, both principals were in their fifties and had worked in the

Saudi public education system for more than 25 years each. Um Mishal described her

expectations of support from the Ministry of Education.

I expect the MOE to provide me with all of the things I need for education,

especially for the new curriculums introduced through Tatweer, and I expect

specialized subject teachers, and the resources and aids needed for

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implementing the new curriculum. But I don't get everything I need. I also

wish that the MOE would give me more authority to deal with some of the

problems I am facing.

Um Ibrahim succinctly made her point when describing the support she expected

from the Ministry of Education, "A principal gets respect, but no authority."

The Ministry of Education's influence also impacted these twelve Saudi

principals indirectly. Throughout the interview process, principals described their role

as principal, their vision for their school, and their personal impact. Several principals

described their personal impact in terms related to the physical environment of the

school. These repeated references to the physical environment lead me to examine the

significance of this aspect of their leadership.

MOE's influence on the principal’s vision.

Vision is increasingly regarded as an essential component of effective

leadership (Bush, 2003, p. 6).

In Leading Change, Kotter (1996) described an eight-stage process for

creating change. The third stage was developing a vision and strategy. Implementing

the reform initiative at the local level will require that each Saudi principal have a

vision for her school. Each principal was asked to explain her educational vision and

her goals and why those goals were important. In the U.S., principals' missions and

visions are often viewed as tied to their role as an instructional leader.

Surveys suggest that the vast majority [of principals] see instructional

leadership as a key mission. More than 9 in 10 public school principals (92%)

say that "ensuring that all teachers use the most effective instructional

methods" is an essential part of being a school leader today (Johnson,

September 2008, p. 72).

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Most of the principals participating in this study described their educational

vision as wanting to graduate excellent students prepared to serve their nation. When

asked about the goals for fulfilling this vision, several spoke about the need to provide

technology or make other physical improvements in the school. What seemed to be

missing was an explanation of how their goals would help them to accomplish their

visions. Um Osama explained her vision for her school, her specific goals, and why

they were important:

My vision is to give every single student in the school her right of a good

education, the best quality; to gain all the values. As for the environment, it

needs to support the child's learning, it needs to be a supportive environment

that enhances and develops the child's learning and education, instills that

quality they need for learning, to get her ready to evolve. A good education

means to be online with our religious teachings and the scientific

developments happening in the world today. My goals are for every student to

have her own computer, and a plan to develop specific skills and improve

talents. These are important because it helps in the learning process, something

that is missing from students and we want them to be confident in themselves

and to communicate with the rest of the world.

The majority of these principals shared a similar vision for their schools. They

described aspects of school improvement for the benefit of their students. Yet the

goals stated to accomplish these visions seemed to be mainly focused on school

environment issues such as technology or building requirements. In other words,

when they spoke about the school environment they were referring to the physical

environment. A real disconnect occurred between the vision and the goals for

achieving their vision.

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The significance of issues of environment, technology and building

requirements suggested these principals were concerned with cosmetic and physical

issues of their schools. Some had the tendency to be more concerned about the

appearance of their schools and others suggested that they had very little control over

issues occurring in the classrooms. When they described their impact on improving

their school, several named the physical improvements such as building

improvements or cleanliness of the school. Was this due to the fact that they felt they

had little control over what happened in the classroom and that they could exercise

more authority over the physical aspects of their school? The exchange during my

interview with Abla suggested her lack of authority to make changes in the

curriculum led her to use her authority to make changes in the only area she could; the

school's physical environment:

Interviewer: The fourth question, please discuss some areas that you think

have improved in your school since you've become the principal.

Abla: There are a lot of things that I have accomplished, but the first thing

is…you know it might not be as important….but it was the first thing that I did

was that I um…..changed the learning environment….what I could… what

little things that I have….I tried you know fixing the school….the area…

Interviewer: So you are talking about changing the environment, do you mean

the physical environment or the learning environment?(To the translator) How

does she mean that?

Abla: Look….. you know, not from education wise….um, because we don't

have the right from the Ministry to change ……I do what I can do…. um by

motivating teachers um, and changing the school environment from buildings

and the areas that students hang out in…training teachers….giving teachers

courses…..caring for the students and their problems….especially because of

the age that they are at, you know, helping students that are weak…..when it

comes to the curriculum we don't have the right to change it because this is

what they give us……

Abla described her impact on her school in physical terms. She implied that

the Ministry of Education did not allow her as a principal to make changes to other

aspects of the school. Whereas Abla's description of her impact on physical aspects

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seem contrary to a Western sense of a principal as an instructional leader, in Saudi

Arabia the influence of the MOE prevents these individuals from acting in any other

capacity. Another aspect of the influence of the Ministry of Education on the

leadership role of these principals was stated emphatically as the principals responded

to my question about what motivated them to initiate change and what support kept

them motivated.

MOE's influence on motivation to meet responsibilities.

The essence of leadership is motivating others to follow and achieve (Chance

& Chance, 2002, p. 127).

Not only does leadership require that principals motivate their teachers, but the

principals need motivation to lead their schools. Understanding the individual

motivation of each of these principals was considered a major component for

understanding her role as an educational leader and her perspective of that role.

"Recognition of the different values and motivations of the people who work in

organizations is an essential element if they are to be managed successfully," (Bush,

2003, p. 130).

In consultation with my dissertation committee, during the proposal stage for

this study, I decided that the research questions would not directly refer to the

educational reform program in Saudi Arabia, Tatweer. This decision was based on the

unknown factor of whether these principals were aware of the educational reforms. If

they opened the discussion of Tatweer or acknowledged the reform initiative, the

issue was discussed as it related to their leadership. Throughout the interview

process, only two principals referred directly to the educational reform initiative. One

principal spoke of the newly developed curriculum that is a part of Tatweer and her

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hope that the MOE would provide the necessary training for the teachers to be able to

implement the new curriculums.

The interview questions were worded in more general terms such as Question

5: What motivates you to initiate change and what support do you receive that keeps

you motivated? In response to this question, several of the principals discussed self

motivation as being the impetus for meeting their responsibilities. Some principals

explained that the success of their students motivated them to want to do more.

Several of the principals addressed the issue of positive response from their teachers

including cooperation and positive feedback. Others spoke about the positive response

of students and parents. However, many of the principals described the positive

support of the Ministry of Education through certificates of appreciation and other

positive feedback that provided them with the encouragement and motivation to

continue meeting their responsibilities.

Principals who described receiving motivation in the form of certificates of

appreciation from the Ministry of Education were working to please the individuals

responsible to evaluate their performance. One principal explained what motivated

her to initiate change: "The certificates of appreciation from the MOE; when the MOE

sees my effort that makes me want to want to do more." The impact of the Ministry of

Education on the principals' motivations to meet responsibilities exposed just how

much influence the MOE has on these principals.

The manner in which these principals acquiesce to the MOE may be the result

of cultural mores in Saudi Arabia that prevents individuals from questioning

authority. The impact of religion on Saudi principals' leadership is tied to their culture

and national identity. Understanding the role of societal culture on leadership proved

to be of great importance in building a conceptual framework for this study.

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Recommendations for Research

This study described the leadership role and perspectives of that role of Saudi

female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Obviously, there were

other areas of consideration and uncharted directions not included in this study of

Saudi female principals. Further study of the leadership role and perspectives of the

role of Saudi female principals is recommended.

My first recommendation is to examine the leadership role of school principals

in all areas of the country, most specifically including the capital area of Riyadh and

the Western Province area including Jeddah. An additional study should include as

many rural and remote areas of the country as possible. Secondly, an additional study

might be more effective if it were conducted by an insider, a Saudi citizen. Although

the translator who accompanied me on these interviews was Saudi, and I had

documentation from the Ministry of Education that supported the study, I was an

outsider; this may have prevented some of the principals from opening up with me.

Finally, additional research is recommended once the Tatweer reform initiatives have

gained more momentum and the full extent of the initiatives is more fully realized by

the principals serving the public school system.

Personal Reflections

I felt privileged to conduct this study and to describe the leadership of Saudi

female principals. These women will be the major change agents responsible for

implementing the national education reforms. Although much more research than one

individual could produce is necessary to fully describe their leadership, this glimpse

of the leadership role of Saudi female principals and their perspectives of that role is a

starting point for informing educational leadership practice in Saudi Arabia.

Furthermore, the value of this study is the contribution to understanding the

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leadership role of the individuals, and their perspectives of that role, responsible for

the actualization of reform initiatives at the local level. This study not only informs

educational leadership practice; it can be a valuable tool for those charged with

implementing the reforms at the national level.

Before conducting this study, I believed Saudi female principals acted more as

managers concerned with the day-to-day operations of managing their respective

schools rather than as educational leaders who will be responsible for educational

reform and school improvement. The conclusions I described in this chapter

suggested that although the Ministry of Education serves a major role in the

educational system, the MOE often hinders many principals from realizing the true

potential of their educational leadership. The role that religion plays in the leadership

of Saudi principals' works to their benefit as it is a necessary and guiding principle not

only accepted, but encouraged, in Saudi society.

Describing the leadership of Saudi female principals was a unique experience

for a non-Saudi who is deeply embedded in the Saudi culture both personally and

professionally. My personal background gave me first-hand knowledge of some of the

cultural aspects of the Saudi society. Professional experiences taught me the

educational culture of Saudi schools is much different than my own Western

education. I believed that before I undertook this research and I believe it even more

strongly now.

My concern for the educational leadership of Saudi schools was the impact

that school principals will have on the actualization of educational reform in Saudi

Arabia. I have often remarked that the current Saudi educational system did not serve

my own children well. I hope my grandchildren's education will be better. Perhaps

understanding the leadership role and perspectives of that role of Saudi female

134

principals will contribute to a better education for all Saudi children. I have high

expectations for educational reform in Saudi Arabia and great admiration for the

current Saudi Monarch, King Abdullah. I believe his educational reform initiatives

are visionary. I only hope that those initiatives will include the professional

development of all educational leaders.

135

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Wong, K. (1998). Culture and moral leadership in education. Peabody Journal of

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nakhlah/archieves/spring2006/yamani.pdf

http://www.sacm.org/Education.aspx

http://fletcher.tufts.edu/al-nakhlah/archieves/spring2006/yamani.pdf

140

APPENDIX A

Request Letter to Ministry of Education

Saudi Aramco Box 10549

Dhahran, KSA 31311

03-882-3533 H

050-481-2545 C

[email protected]

Dr. Sameer AlOmran

General Director

Eastern Province Girls Education

Dammam, Saudi Arabia

Dear Dr. AlOmran,

Asalamu alaikum.

I am very much interested in conducting my dissertation research here in the Eastern

Province of Saudi Arabia where I have lived since December, 1984. Being married to

a Saudi citizen, having raised and educated four children here, and having worked in

the Saudi private school system since 1993, I have a personal as well as professional

desire to better understand and hopefully assist in the educational reforms that are

expedited through educational research.

I have recently completed my studies of Educational Leadership in School

Administration with a cognate in Higher Education at Oklahoma State University in

Stillwater, Oklahoma, U.S.A. I am now preparing my proposal for dissertation and

hope to be admitted to candidacy in late Winter or early Spring of 2010. In order to

develop my dissertation proposal I am trying to finalize the focus of my topic. Hence,

I request your assistance.

I have contacted members of the Girls Ministry of Education in Al-Qateef and

individuals at the main office in Dammam. There I was directed to the Educational

Research and Studies Department and was informed that I should contact you to

receive permission to conduct research with schools here in the Eastern Province. I

would like to meet with members of the Educational Research and Studies

Department in Dammam, if possible, to discuss my ideas on topics in order to discern

what area of interest will be of most value to education in Saudi Arabia. Currently, I

am reading and researching two areas: 1) the role of culture on educational leadership,

and 2) the effect of school leadership on teacher efficacy.

At this time, I am requesting your permission and assistance for discussing with

members of the Educational Research and Studies Department these two topics as

possible focuses. Once I am accepted into candidacy I will kindly request your

assistance in conducting my research. My methodology will be subsequent to the

topic I undertake and will be discussed with you once my Dissertation Committee has

approved my dissertation proposal, insh‘Allah.

141

Any and all assistance you might render me will be greatly appreciated. I will be in

the Kingdom through December 6 th

and will return again on January 11 th

. Thank you

for your time and attention, I look forward to your reply.

Sincerely,

Mrs. Brenda Mathis

142

APPENDIX B

143

APPENDIX C

144

APPENDIX D

Interview Questions

1. How would you describe your role as a principal?

2. What personal qualities do you most value in a principal?

a. What professional qualities do you value most?

b. What qualities are needed to fulfill your role as a principal?

3. Please explain the educational vision you hold for your school?

a. What are some of the specific things you would like to accomplish in

your school?

i. Why is it important for you to accomplish these things?

4. Please discuss some areas that you feel have improved in your school since you've

been principal.

a. What difficulties have you encountered in reaching your goals?

5. What motivates you as a leader to initiate changes in your school?

a. What kind of support do you receive that keeps you motivated to improve

your school?

6. How do the goals of the Ministry of Education in the Eastern Province influence

the goals of your school?

a. What expectations of support do you have of the MOE?

145

APPENDIX E

Participant Demographic Questions

1. What is your age?

2. How long have you been a school principal?

3. Have you been a teacher before? If so, how many years did you teach? If not,

what previous experiences have you in the field of education?

4. Are you married? Do you have children?

5. What is your highest level of education?

6. If you have an undergraduate degree, what was your major?

7. If you have an advanced degree, what is your field of expertise?

146

APPENDIX F

Research Questions

1. How do Saudi female principals define their educational roles?

2. What are the individual educational visions of Saudi female principals for their

schools?

3. What motivates Saudi female principals in meeting their responsibilities?

4. How do Saudi female principals' describe the impact they have on their schools?

5. What theoretical framework(s) describes the leadership of the Saudi female

principals in the Eastern Province?

147

APPENDIX G

Protocol for Interviews

Interview: _________________ Date: ______________________

Procedures: Completed:

Introductions

Describe the purpose of the research, give a copy of the memo

from the MOE

Read the consent form and ask if there are any questions

Sign the consent form

Give a copy of the Arabic consent form to the Principal to keep

Either choose or assign pseudonym

Begin tape recorders

Begin interview with personal questions

Continue with research questions

Make observation notes

(other)

148

APPENDIX H

Consent Form for Interview, Observation, and Research Activities

Project Title: Educational Leadership: A Description of Saudi Female Principals in

the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia

Investigator:

Name of student researcher: Brenda Kay Mathis

Address: Saudi Aramco

P.O. Box 10549

Dhahran, 31311

KSA

Telephone number: 966 3 882 3533

Email address: [email protected]

Purpose:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research study with the doctoral

candidate, a graduate student at Oklahoma State University. This form outlines the

purposes of this research and provides a description of your involvement and rights as

a participant. The purposes of the research are the following:

1. To gain insight into the following research problem or question : a) The researcher would like to understand your role as a female principal in

the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

b) The researcher would like to understand your perspective of that role as a female principal in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

Procedures:

You are invited to participate in this study by agreeing to an interview. As the

researcher, I agree to meet the following conditions:

1. I will audiotape our interview with your permission and transcribe the tape for the purpose of accuracy. A translator will be available to translate all

questions and your responses. A second translator will review the transcripts

and interview tapes to ensure authenticity of translation. At the end of the

study, the tapes will be erased or destroyed.

2. A copy of this consent form in Arabic will be given to you. 3. I will assign a fictitious name on the transcript or you may choose one

yourself. Your real name will not be used at any point for this study.

4. Data collected for this project will be published in the form of a dissertation. However, your identity will never be revealed.

Risk of Participation:

There are no known risks associated with this project which are greater than those

ordinarily encountered in daily life.

149

Participants' Rights

As a participant in this research, you are entitled to know the nature of my research.

You are free to decline to participate, and you are free to stop the interview or

withdraw from the study at any time. No penalty exists for withdrawing your

participation. Feel free to ask any questions at any time about the nature of the

research and the methods I am using. Your suggestions and concerns are important to

me. Please contact me at the addresses/email provided above. Or you may contact my

advisor.

Contacts:

Name of Advisor: Dr. Bernita Krumm

Address: Oklahoma State University

Stillwater, OK USA 74075

Email Address: [email protected]

If you have questions about your rights as a research volunteer, you may contact Dr.

Shelia Kennison, IRB Chair, 219 Cordell North, Stillwater, OK 74078, 405.744.3377

or [email protected] .

Benefits:

There are no specific benefits to be expected from this study.

Confidentiality:

1. I will assign a fictitious name on the transcript or you may choose one yourself. Your real name will not be used at any point for this study.

2. Data collected for this project will be published in the form of a dissertation. However, your identity will never be revealed.

3. The tape recordings of our interview will be heard by me, the female translator who attends the interview, the second female translator who will review the

transcripts, and my advisor, Dr. Krumm, who is also female.

4. The tape recordings and transcription of the interviews will be kept separately.

The tape recordings will be stored in my home safe. The transcriptions and

USB devised they are stored on will be kept in a locked drawer in my home

office. Tapes and transcriptions will be destroyed and USB devise erased after

the completion of the study.

Please indicate your willingness to participate in this research process by checking

one of the following statements and providing your signature below. The signature

below indicates an acknowledgment of the terms described above.

______I wish to participate in the research described above, have read this consent

form, and agree to be audio taped.

______I wish to participate in the research described above, have read this consent

form, but I do not agree to be audio taped.

mailto:[email protected]

150

________________________________________________ _________________________

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT DATE

(The participant signs two copies; the participant receives a copy, and the researcher retains a copy)

151

APPENDIX I

Arabic Consent Form for Interview, Observation, and Research Activities

ملحق د

مراقبة انشطة البحوث ولمقابلة، ا على نموذج موافقة

وبٞ ِبثسثشٔذا : خاٌجبدث خاسُ اٌغبٌج

أساِىٛ اٌسؼٛد٠خ: اٌؼٕٛاْ

94501. ة.ص

39399اٌظٙشاْ، اٌسؼٛد٠خ

199-3-888-3353: سلُ اٌٙبرف

[email protected]: اٌجش٠ذ االٌىزشٟٚٔ

ِؼخ شىشا ٌّٛافمزه ػٍٝ اٌّشبسوٗ فٟ ٘زٖ اٌذساسخ اٌجذث١خ ِغ ِششذخ اٌذوزٛساح، عبٌجخ دساسبد ػ١ٍب فٟ جب

.٘زا إٌّٛرج ٠ذذد اٌغشع ِٓ ٘زا اٌجذث، ٚ ٠مذَ ٚطفب ٌّشبسوزىُ ٚاٌذمٛق اٌّزشرجخ ػ١ٍٙب. ٚال٠خ اٚوالِ٘ٛب

:اٌغشع ِٓ ٘زا اٌجذث ِب ٠ٍٟ

:إٌمبء ٔظشح ثبلجخ ػٍٝ ِشىالد اٚ اسئٍخ اٌجذث اٌزب١ٌخ .9 .اٌؼشث١خ اٌسؼٛد٠خ اٌجبدثخ رٛد ِؼشفخ دٚس اٌّشأح وّذ٠شح ِذسسخ فٟ إٌّغمخ اٌششل١خ فٟ اٌٍّّىخ ( أ

اٌجبدثخ رٛد ِؼشفخ ٚجٙخ ٔظشن وّذ٠شح ِذسسخ فٟ إٌّغمخ اٌششل١خ رجبٖ اسزؼذادن ٌم١بدح اإلطالح ( ة .اٌزؼ١ٍّٟ

:وّب اٌززَ أٔب وجبدثخ ثبٌششٚط اٌزب١ٌخ. ِشبسوزىُ فٟ ٘زٖ اٌذساسخ رزغٍت اٌّٛافمخ ػٍٝ اٌّمبثٍخ

ٚ س١ىْٛ ٕ٘بن ِزشجّخ . شش٠ظ ٌزذشٞ اٌذلٗدٛاسٔب سٛف ٠سجً ثٕبء ػٍٝ ِٛافمزه ٚس١زُ ٔسخ اٌ .9 وّب س١ىْٛ ٕ٘بن ِزشجّخ أخشٜ ٌّشاجؼخ إٌظٛص ٚ رذل١ك . ٌزشجّخ ج١ّغ األسئٍخ ٚ سدٚدوُ

.ٚفٟ ٔٙب٠خ اٌذساسخ، س١زُ ِسخ ج١ّغ األششعخ أٚ اٌزخٍض ِٕٙب. األششعخ ٌضّبْ دلخ اٌزشجّخ

.ٔج١ٍز٠خس١زُ رٛف١ش ٔسخٗ ِٓ ٘زا إٌّٛرج ثبٌٍغ١ز١ٓ اٌؼشث١خ ٚاأل .8 ػٍّب ثأْ ٠ٛ٘زه اٚ ِب ,اٌج١ٕبد اٌزٟ رُ جّؼٙب ٌٙزا اٌّششٚع س١زُ اسزخذاِٙب ػٍٝ شىً سسبٌخ دوزٛساح .3

. ٠زؼٍك ثّؼٍِٛبره اٌشخظ١خ سزىْٛ ِجٌٙٛخ

ٚ ٠ذك ٌه أْ رشفغ اٌّشبسوخ ٚ أْ رٕسذت ِٓ . وّشبسن فٟ ٘زا اٌجذث، ٠ذك ٌه أْ رزؼشف ػٍٝ عج١ؼخ ثذثٟ

ٚاٌشجبء ػذَ اٌزشدد ِٓ . اٌّمبثٍخ ٚ اٌذساسخ فٟ أٞ ٚلذ ِغ اٌؼٍُ أٔٗ ال رٛجذ اٞ ػمٛثخ ٌإلٔسذبة ِٓ اٌّشبسوخ

. عشح اٞ أسئٍخ رخض عج١ؼخ اٌجذث أٚ األسب١ٌت اٌزٟ أسزخذِذ

ٌّز٠ذ ِٓ اٌّؼٍِٛبد اٌشجبء االرظبي ػٍٝ اٌؼٕب٠ٚٓ اٚ اٌجش٠ذ . ّبِبرىُ ٚ الزشادبرىُ ِّٙخ ثبٌٕسجخ ٌٟا٘ز

.االٌىزشٟٚٔ اٌٛاسدٖ اػالٖ

ِغ رٛف١ش رٛل١ؼه د١ٌال ػٍٝ , ٌٍٚشغجخ فٟ اٌّشبسوخ فٟ ٘زٖ اٌؼ١ٍّخ اٌجذث١خ ٠شجٝ اخز١بسإدذٜ اٌؼجبساد اٌزب١ٌخ

. ِٛافمزه ٌٍششٚط اٌّزوٛسٖ ِسجمب

.أٚد اٌّشبسوخ فٟ اٌجذث اٌّزوٛس أػالٖ، ٚ أٚافك ػٍٝ أْ رىْٛ اٌّمبثٍخ ِسجٍخ طٛر١ب_______

.ٌّزوٛس أػالٖ، ٚ ٌىٓ ال أٚافك ػٍٝ أْ رىْٛ اٌّمبثٍخ ِسجٍخ طٛر١بأٚد اٌّشبسوخ فٟ اٌجذث ا_______

رٛل١غ اٌّشبسن _______________ _______________________

اٌزبس٠خ

سخٗ) ٌجبدث ٠ذزفظ ٕث ٚ ا ٗ سخ ٔٝ شبسن ػٍ ً اٌّ ٝ ٔسخز١ٓ، ٠ذظ شبسن ٠ٛلغ ػٍ .(اٌّ

152

APPENDIX J

Consent Form for Translator of Interviews and Transcription of Interviews

Name of student researcher: Brenda Kay Mathis

Address: Saudi Aramco

P.O. Box 10549

Dhahran, 31311

KSA

Telephone number: 966 3 882 3533

Email address: [email protected]

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research study by serving as an

English/Arabic translator for the doctoral candidate, a graduate student at Oklahoma

State University. This form outlines the purposes of this research and provides a

description of your involvement and rights as a participant. The purposes of the

research are the following:

1. To gain insight into the following research problem or question : a. The researcher would like to understand the leadership role of female

principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

b. The researcher would like to understand their perspective on the leadership role of female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia.

You are invited to participate in this study by agreeing to serve as a translator during

the interview process and/or as a translator to ensure authenticity of transcribed

interviews.

As the researcher, I agree to meet the following conditions:

1. The interviews will be audio taped as they are conducted and translated. The researcher will transcribe the tapes for the purpose of accuracy. The oral

translator will review the audio tapes with the transcripts for accuracy. A

second translator will review the transcripts and interview tapes to ensure

accuracy of translation. At the end of the study, the tapes will be erased or

destroyed.

2. During the interview process the translator will be assigned a fictitious name or may choose one. The real names of neither translator will not be used at

any point in this study.

3. Data collected for this project will be published in the form of a dissertation. However, the identities of the translators will never be revealed.

As a participant in this research, you are entitled to know the nature of the research.

You are free to decline to participate, and you are free to withdraw as a translator

from the study at any time. No penalty exists for withdrawing your participation.

Feel free to ask any questions at any time about the nature of the research and the

methods being used. Your suggestions and concerns are important. Please contact

the researcher at the addresses/email provided above.

153

If you have questions about your rights as a research volunteer, you may contact Dr.

Shelia Kennison, IRB Chair, 219 Cordell North, Stillwater, OK 74078, 405.744.3377

or [email protected] .

Please indicate your willingness to participate in this research process by checking

one of the following statements and providing your signature below. The signature

below indicates an acknowledgment of the terms described above.

______I wish to participate in the capacity of a translator in the research described

above, have read this consent form, and agree to be audio taped.

______I wish to participate in the capacity of a translator in the research described

above, have read this consent form, but I do not agree to be audio taped.

___________________________________________ ____________________________ SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT (Translator) DATE

(The participant signs two copies; the participant receives a copy, and the student researcher retains a copy.)

mailto:[email protected]

154

VITA

Brenda Kay Mathis

Candidate for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

Dissertation: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A DESCRIPTION OF SAUDI

FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN THE EASTERN PROVINCE OF SAUDI

ARABIA

Major Field: Educational Leadership in School Administration

Biographical:

Education:

Completed the requirements for the Doctor of Education in School

Administration at Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma in

December, 2010.

Completed the requirements for the Master of Education in Teaching at

Northeastern State University, Tahlequah, Oklahoma in 2007.

Completed the requirements for the Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and

Psychology at Northeastern State University, Tahlequah, Oklahoma in 1981.

Experience:

School Supervisor at AlBassam Private Girls School Dammam, Saudi

Arabia from 1998 until 2007

English Language Supervisor University Private Girls School Dhahran,

Saudi Arabia 1993 through 1998

Grade 3 teacher Manarat Private Girls School Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia from

1990 until 1993

155

Name: Brenda Kay Mathis Date of Degree: December, 2010

Institution: Oklahoma State University Location: Stillwater, Oklahoma

Title of Study: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A DESCRIPTION OF SAUDI

FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN THE EASTERN PROVINCE OF SAUDI

ARABIA

Pages in Study: 153 Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Education

Major Field: Educational Leadership in School Administration

Scope and Method of Study:

This is a qualitative study using a descriptive case study methodology. 12 Saudi

female principals in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia were interviewed

and asked to describe their leadership role and their perspectives of that role.

Findings and Conclusions:

Saudi female principals' leadership role and perspectives of that role are highly

impacted by the Saudi national religion, Islam, and influenced by the Saudi

Ministry of Education. Western leadership theories do not adequately explain

the leadership of these Eastern educators; societal culture contributes to the

leadership role and perspectives of the role held by these Saudi principals.

ADVISER‘S APPROVAL: Dr. Bernita L. Krumm

World Data on Education Données mondiales de l’éducation

Datos Mundiales de Educación

VII Ed. 2010/11

IBE/2011/CP/WDE/SU

World Data on Education. 7th edition, 2010/11

Saudi Arabia Revised version, August 2011.

Principles and general objectives of education The general goals of education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are: to have students understand Islam in a correct and comprehensive manner; to plant and spread the Islamic creed; to provide the students with the values, teachings and ideals of Islam; to equip them with various skills and knowledge; to develop their conduct in constructive directions; to develop the society economically and culturally; and to prepare the individual to be a useful member in the building of his/her community.

The overall vision orientating the Ten-year Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Education (2004-2014) can be expressed as follows: “Engendering a new generation of male and female youth who embody the Islamic values in their persons, both theoretical as well as practical, are equipped with necessary knowledge, skills, and endowed with the right orientations, capable of responding positively to, and interact with the latest developments, and deal with the latest technological innovations with ease and comfort. They should be able to face international competition both at the scientific as well as technological levels to be able to meaningfully participate in overall growth and development. This is to be achieved through an effective and practical system of education which is capable of discovering the potentials and predispositions, and, create the spirit of action. All this, in an environment of education and training, charged with the spirit of instruction and edification.” (Website of the Ministry of Education, 2007).

Within the framework of the Ten-year Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Education 2004-2014, education is considered to be the main source for the formation of the human capital which constitutes the essential element in all aspects of economic development, particularly in the achievement of high developmental economic rates. This implies that the educational process is not just a service provided to answer society’s demands, but it is also an investment aiming at the improvement of the individual’s standard of living and the achievement of the social and economic development of the community. (Ministry of Education, 2005).

The Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014 underscores the central role of education in achieving and strengthening human resources development, since education expands the scope of options available to citizens to gain knowledge and acquire skills, thus enabling citizens to benefit from the capabilities thus acquired. The Plan envisages the creation of an integrated and comprehensive education system that will strive to lay out solid pillars for the public, with the help of well trained and highly qualified education professionals who can develop students’ capabilities and help them acquire cognitive and innovative skills, guided by the knowledge society requirements. (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010).

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Laws and other basic regulations concerning education The Educational Policy Document, issued by the Council of Ministers Resolution No. 779 of 17 December 1969, has been the basic reference on the fundamentals, goals and objectives of education. It is a comprehensive document which emphasizes the right Islamic orientation and provides for extensive scientific and technological developments, with the ultimate objective of promoting human dignity and prosperity. The Ten-year Strategic Plan (2004-2014) of the Ministry of Education was approved by the Minister of Education’s Decision No.1581/1/5 dated 17 March 2003. The decision stated that the application of the Plan be effective in the year 2004 to coincide with the State’s Eighth Development Plan.

The issuance of the by-laws of the Higher Education Council, under the Royal Decree No. M/8 of 17 November 1993, has been a significant development in the field of education. These by-laws include sixty articles covering all administrative and regulatory aspects of higher education. The Higher Education Law provides for the creation of a council for each university or any institute of higher learning, under the name of University or Institute Council. It also provides for appointing the premier, who is the chairman of the Higher Committee for Educational Policy, as the chairman for the Higher Education Council. The new law supersedes all the preceding regulations and any contrary provisions.

In accordance with the Education Policy Document, it is the duty of the State to provide and spread education at all stages within the existing capacity and resources. Article 233 of the Educational Policy states that all types of education at all stages shall be free and that the State shall not charge tuition fees. A decision was taken in 2004 in order to enforce mandatory primary education.

Administration and management of the education system Education in the country is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, and the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (formerly, the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training). There are, however, other authorities that provide their affiliates and children with kindergarten, elementary, intermediate, secondary and adult education. Such authorities are: the Ministry of Defense and Aviation; the Presidency of the National Guard; and the Ministry of the Interior. For both boys and girls these authorities follow the educational ladder, study plans and curricula formulated by the Ministry of Education. The Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963, is the highest authority supervising education in the Kingdom.

The Ministry of Education is in charge of the following types of education: general education (elementary, intermediate and secondary); special education; and adult education and literacy.

The Ministry of Higher Education was established in 1975 to supervise the execution of the Kingdom’s policy in the field of higher education, including teacher training colleges and girls’ colleges, which was previously under the Ministry of Education.

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The Higher Education Council is the supreme authority for post-secondary education affairs with the specific task of supervising and coordinating its institutions, with the sole exception of military education. Some of the Council’s responsibilities are: directing university education in accordance with policy, supervising the development of university education in all sectors, coordinating among universities especially in the field of scientific departments and degrees, encouraging research, and formulating rules and regulations for compliance by all institutions of higher learning.

The mission of the National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment, established by the Higher Education Council, is to encourage, support and evaluate the quality of post-secondary institutions and the programmes they offer to ensure that the quality of student learning outcomes, the management and support services provided within institutions, and the contributions to research and the communities served by post-secondary institutions, are equivalent to high international standards. The Commission has developed a set of standards for quality assurance and accreditation of higher education institutions and programmes in eleven general areas of activity: mission goals and objectives; programme administration; management of programme quality assurance; learning and teaching; student administration and support services; learning resources; facilities and equipment; financial planning and management; employment processes; research; and relationships with the community. To be granted accreditation it is necessary for evidence of good quality performance to be provided in relation to all the eleven general standards and with all of the subsections of those standards.

The Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC, previously the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training) is the result of the integration of institutes and training centres which in the past were under the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. In order to finalize and complete the amalgamation of all technical and vocational training fields under one umbrella, a Decree issued by the Council of Ministers in 2005 amalgamated the female training sector with the TVTC. Another Decree issued in 2007 provided for the reorganizing of the General Organization, which was renamed TVTC. The new Decree states that one of TVTC’s purposes is to develop national human resources by addressing labor market demands for competent individuals through training.

The objective of Saudi National Commission for Childhood is to formulate a general policy on child-related needs and activities in the country and coordinate the efforts of the various agencies concerned with children’s affairs. The Commission is expected to: organize relationships between government agencies, national associations and institutions concerned with childhood in the Kingdom in order to achieve integration and avoid duplication; formulate a national strategy on childhood to help the competent authorities in the Kingdom to promote various aspects of child welfare; propose child-related programs and projects for implementation by government and private agencies; establish a database on all child-related affairs in the Kingdom, update its data and exchange such data with all the agencies concerned; monitor the implementation of the recommendations and resolutions of the Supreme Council and the Planning and Follow-up Committee; monitor activities of regional and international bodies and institutions concerned with childhood; and encourage researches, studies and all forms of children’s culture.

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Established in 1960, the General Presidency for Girls’ Education (GPGE) was responsible for defining study programmes and curricula for girls’ education, in order to satisfy the ambition of the Saudi people to educate girls in accordance with the teachings of Islam. The establishment of the GPGE had been a turning point and a start-up for a rapid development of girls’ education. The GPGE controlled kindergartens in addition to general education (elementary, intermediate and secondary), teacher training, colleges of education, adult education and literacy, as well as vocational education and training for women. Early in 2003 the GPGE was dissolved and all its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Education.

The Ministry of Education tends to delegate all operational and administrative responsibilities to the regional and provincial education bodies. Therefore, the Ministry’s headquarters concentrates on the strategic issues, as well as planning and supervising of developmental and promotional activities. Regulations concerning administrative areas have been modified through resolutions issued by the Minister of Education. As a result, the number of regional and provincial educational bodies has reached a total of 42 in 2006, including 13 General Education Departments and 29 Provincial Education Administrations. The above-mentioned resolutions have been accompanied by relevant by-laws for the educational areas and provinces along two main lines: the relationship between and among regional and provincial educational bodies, as well as the establishment of education councils in each area. The creation of an Education Council in each educational area aims at: democratizing the decision-making process in education; reinforcing the ties between the educators at various levels; and opening the doors towards the society. The Education Council, chaired by the director-general of education, is comprised of the provincial education directors and at least three members from the teaching staff at teacher colleges and faculties of education. The Council is charged with the following major tasks: active participation in all the matters regarding education development and enhancement, particularly in highlighting the role of education in society; and preparation of developmental programmes.

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Structure and organization of the education system Saudi Arabia: structure of the education system

Pre-school education

Kindergartens cater to children aged 3-5 years and are not part of the official education ladder, since attendance is not a prerequisite for enrolment in grade 1 of elementary education. Some private institutions have established nurseries with technical and financial aid from the State.

Primary education

Children enter elementary education at the age of 6; the duration of studies is six years. Exceptions can be made for children three months under 6 years, especially for those who have followed the pre-elementary stage. All elementary schools are day schools. Schools are not co-educational. Pupils who pass the examination at the end of grade 6 receive the elementary education certificate, qualifying them for study in the intermediate school.

Secondary education

The elementary stage is followed by the intermediate stage, which lasts three years (grades 7 to 9). Secondary education is the final stage of general education and lasts three years (grades 10 to 12). Students who successfully complete the intermediate stage receive the intermediate school certificate. All students in the regular secondary schools study a general curriculum during the first year and can choose for the

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remaining two years one of the following tracks: administration and social sciences; natural sciences; Shariah and Arabic studies. At the end of secondary education successful students receive the secondary school certificate. Technical and vocational education is provided at technical secondary institutes. Training programmes in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture normally last three years.

Higher education

Universities, colleges and higher education institutions offer a range of programmes and specialties in several fields. Colleges of technology offer post-secondary training programmes leading to the award of a diploma (two-year programmes) or the B.Sc. (three-year programmes). The duration of undergraduate programmes leading to a bachelor’s degree is normally four years (five years in the case of architecture, agriculture, pharmacy, and veterinary; five to six years in the case of dentistry; six years in the case of medicine and law). At the postgraduate level, the duration of programmes leading to a higher diploma in education or a certificate of qualification (for teaching) is typically one year. Master’s degree programmes take two years to complete, and the duration of programmes leading to a doctoral degree is at least three years.

The school year begins in September and ends in June. At the elementary and intermediate education level, it consists of 153 working days (or about 30 six-day working weeks), divided into two semesters, with two additional weeks for examinations. At the secondary level, the school year consists of 38 working weeks.

The educational process T The Educational Development Centre (EDC) is responsible for the development of curricula, following directives of the competent authorities and committees. The Supreme Committee for Programmes and Curricula, headed by the Ministry of Education, ensures coordination and cooperation, and evaluate the outcomes of the work of all the other committees. Committees consisting of subject specialists write or revise textbooks. These committees usually include an experienced teacher, a field educational supervisor, an educational supervisor from the General Directorate for Curricula within the EDC, and a university professor. National advisory committees under the EDC include educational supervisors, curricula supervisors, experienced teachers and university professors; they formulate recommendations to the committees responsible for the preparation of textbooks. New or revised textbooks are then applied on a trial basis generally in a sample of schools. General meetings or seminars attended by representatives from the different educational directorates are usually organized to present the new or revised textbooks.

For the development of curricula, the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training consults the private sector also in order to identify the skills required for the different professions, according to which the curricula are then defined.

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Pre-primary education

Kindergarten attendance (children aged 3-5 years) is not a prerequisite for enrolment in elementary education. Some private institutions established nurseries with technical and financial aid from the State. Pre-primary education is not part of the formal education system. The main objectives at this level are the following:

• nurturing the instincts of the children and looking after their moral, mental and physical growth in a natural environment similar to their family, and complying with the injunctions of Islam;

• familiarizing the children with the school atmosphere and preparing them for school life;

• teaching the children easy fundamentals that suit their age and are related to their surroundings;

• encouraging the children’s imaginative thinking, polishing their taste and opening the doors for their energies to blossom under guidance;

• protecting the children against dangers, treating the early signs of bad conduct and facing childhood problems in an adequate manner.

In 1999/2000, there were 962 kindergartens with 93,942 children enrolled. The number of female teachers was 8,789 and the number of administrative staff was 871. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), in 2008 the gross enrolment ratio at the pre-primary level was estimated at 11%. The Ministry of Education reports that in 2009/10 there were 1,521 kindergartens with 106,301 children enrolled. The number of teachers was 10,337 and the number of administrative staff was 2,047.

Primary education

The main objectives of elementary education are the following:

• instilling the correct Islamic creed in the spirit of the children and providing them with comprehensive Islamic education and feelings of belonging to the Islamic nation;

• developing various basic skills, especially language, numeracy and physical skills;

• developing the feeling of responsibility to understand rights and duties within the limits of the children’s age and the characteristics of their stage of development, and foster love of their country and loyalty to their rulers;

• creating in the children the desire to learn, as well as for useful work and training to make good use of their leisure time.

This educational stage gives the pupils the opportunity to learn more about their culture. Pupils’ abilities are enhanced so that they can make a better choice regarding their future academic or vocational direction.

The study plan puts emphasis on religious studies and Arabic, in addition to general culture and science. Proper educational evaluation methods are used. The children are promoted from one grade to the next if they pass the examinations at the end of each one of the two semesters (grades 1-4 pupils are exempted from these

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examinations and are instead regularly evaluated by their teachers). The pupil who passes the examination at the end of grade 6 receives the Elementary Education Certificate, qualifying him/her for study in the intermediate school. The weekly lesson timetable is presented below:

In 1996/97, the average pupil-teacher ratio was 14:1 (schools for boys) and 12:1 (schools for girls), and the average number of pupils per class was 20 (schools for boys) and 21 (schools for girls). In the same school year, the transition rate from grade 6 to the first form of intermediate education was 96.2% for boys and 99% for girls.

In 1999/2000, there were 6,148 schools for boys with 1,175,556 pupils enrolled, and 6,086 schools for girls with 1,084,293 pupils enrolled. There were 88,481 male teachers and 100,527 female teachers. (Website of the Ministry of Education, 2007). The Ministry of Education reports that in 2009/10 there were 13,602 elementary schools, of which 6,836 for girls and 6,767 for boys. The total enrolment was 2,493,125 pupils, of whom 1,227,699 were girls. The total number of teachers was 223,511 and the number of administrative staff was 11,673. The primary education gross enrolment ratio rose from 82% in 1990 to 99% in 2009, while net enrolment ratio in primary education stood at 95.3% in 2009. The proportion of first graders who reach grade 5 was 97.2% in 2009. (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010).

As regards special education, in 2006/07 2,274 boys were enrolled in special education institutions and an additional 40,475 boys were enrolled in special programmes at regular schools. Concerning girls, 3,431 were enrolled in special education institutes and an additional 9,868 girls were enrolled in special programmes at regular schools. (ABEGS, 2010).

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Intermediate and secondary education

The main objectives of the intermediate stage of education are the following:

• Supplying students with skills and knowledge suitable to their age, enabling them to learn the general principles and fundamental rules of education and sciences.

• Stimulating the students to search for knowledge and getting them used to scientific thinking.

• Developing, orienting and refining the various mental faculties and skills in the students.

• Nurturing the students along the Islamic social life which is marked by fraternity, cooperation, and sense of duty and shouldering of responsibility.

• Stimulating the students’ ambition to restore the glory of the Islamic nation to which they belong and resume the march on the path of dignity and glory.

• Training students to use their time for useful reading and in religious activities and to employ their efforts in strengthening and advancing their Islamic character.

It is possible for those who cannot attend the intermediate school during the day, because of their jobs or their age, to enroll in the evening intermediate school. It is also possible to apply for the final examinations of this stage without having to attend school regularly.

The system of examinations at the intermediate stage is similar to that of the elementary stage. The school year is divided into two semesters and the students’ marks are distributed in the same way. The weekly lesson timetable is presented below:

In 1996/97, the average student-teacher ratio at the intermediate stage was 13:1 (schools for boys) and 12:1 (schools for girls), and the average number of

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students per class was 26 (schools for boys) and 28 (schools for girls). In 1995/96, the transition rate from the third grade intermediate to the first grade secondary was 88.7% for males and 89.6% for females. In 1999/2000, there were 3,012 intermediate schools for boys with 522,428 students enrolled, and 2,637 intermediate schools for girls with 471,739 students enrolled. There were 42,102 male teachers and 44,588 female teachers. The Ministry of Education reports that in 2009/10 there were 7,910 intermediate education schools, of which 3,780 for girls and 4,130 for boys. The total enrolment was 1,188,342 students, of whom 553,415 were girls. The total number of teachers was 117,370 and the number of administrative staff was 6,289.

The main objectives of secondary education are the following:

• strengthening the Islamic doctrine which gives the student a correct understanding of the universe, man and life on earth and in heaven and supplying the student with basic concepts and Islamic education which enables him/her to be proud of Islam and capable of preaching and defending it;

• looking after the students’ gifts and various capabilities which unfold at this stage and directing them appropriately thus achieving the objectives of Islamic education in its general sense;

• developing the students’ scientific thinking and instilling in them the spirit of research, systematic analysis and the use of reference sources and the practice of sound academic methods;

• opening opportunities to competent students and enabling them to continue their studies in higher institutes and universities of all specialties;

• imparting in the students the best and useful reading habits and the desire to broaden their scope of knowledge and to use their leisure time in activities that improve their personality and the conditions of their community.

There are different options at the secondary stage. For girls, there are sciences and arts sections. For boys, there are religious sciences and Arabic; administrative and social sciences; natural sciences; and applied (technological) sciences. There are religion-oriented secondary schools, such as those under Imam Mohammad Bin Saud Islamic University, the Quranic Secondary Schools and Dar Al-Tawheed Secondary School. Some 34 vocational training centers offer two-year training programmes in a variety of fields.

There are also secondary schools training women teachers and, in the technical field, there are industrial secondary institutes, commercial secondary institutes, agricultural institutes, technical supervisor institutes and health institutes. Training programmes in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture last three years. In 1999/2000, there were 35 technical secondary institutes under the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training (now the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation). The total enrolment was 19,802 students and the number of teachers was 2,250.

The weekly lesson timetable for general secondary education is shown below:

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In 1996/97, the average student-teacher ratio at the secondary level was 16:1 (schools for boys) and 12:1 (schools for girls), and the average number of students per class was 29 (boys) and 28 (girls). In 1999/2000, in both the public and private sectors there were 1,441 secondary schools for boys with 328,489 students enrolled, and 1,497 secondary schools for girls with 338,445 students enrolled. There were 22,998 male teachers and 30,688 female teachers. The Ministry of Education reports that in 2009/10 there were 4,909 secondary schools, of which 2,440 for girls and 2,469 for boys. The total enrolment was 1,096,174 students, of whom 490,112 were girls. The total number of teachers was 99,753 and the number of administrative staff was 4,756.

Assessing learning achievement nationwide

The Ministry of Education started to prepare plans aimed at raising the standard of the evaluation of students in particular, and the concept of evaluation in general. Regarding the evaluation of students’ achievement, a new regulation was approved in 1999 in order to reduce the number of examinations thus ensuring more time for learning.

To enable teachers to evaluate their students, short-range courses and workshops can be held in provinces and regions to acknowledge the sound concept of examinations, their objectives, how to prepare them and how they have to be applied

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and utilized. The Ministry hopes that the graduates holding a Measurement Diploma will be the primary core for the Measurement and Evaluation Unit in every department of education.

The main goal of the school Comprehensive Evaluation Programme is to recognize the extent to which the school contributes to raising the level of achievement for students, and developing the students’ patterns of behavior and skills as designed by the educational policy of the Kingdom. The General Administration of Evaluation and Measurement has prepared a number of diagnostic tests which include the Arabic language and mathematics for grades 1 to 3, in order to: identify learning difficulties faced by students in Arabic and mathematics; prepare suitable remedial programmes and teaching methods; provide diagnostic tests for Arabic and mathematics; and train teachers to use aids and additional methods to identify their students’ problems.

Systematic Achievement Tests are considered the basis of a comprehensive group of educational evaluation and measurement tools. The goals and objectives of this project are based on the foundations and principals of the educational policy in the Kingdom and on the contents and goals of the curricula. Subjects covered by these tests include: Islamic Education, Arabic, mathematics and sciences. The Ministry has prepared a list of basic requirements (knowledge and skills) that pupils are expected to meet at the end of the elementary stage. The lists of requirements are based on an analysis of the contents of the teaching subjects in classes of the elementary stage. The requirements are not limited to the curriculum of grade 6, but rather represent the knowledge and basic skills that pupils are expected to acquire whether they are in grade 6 or preceding grades. Based on this analysis, a table of specifications has been produced in addition to three tests models. (Ministry of Education, 2004).

Teaching staff T The universities in the country accept their full role in preparing and training teachers. The faculties of education instituted in these universities have among their objectives the following: prepare and graduate qualified staff; upgrade the educational and professional standards of the current general education teachers, principals and administrators by offering various training courses in cooperation with the Ministry of Education.

The universities train teachers in different specialties. They convene training sessions for the elementary and intermediate principals. They also offer courses for teachers who do not possess appropriate qualifications. The minimum requirement for teaching at all education levels is a four-year bachelor’s degree. The schools of education at Saudi universities and colleges provide a broad curriculum in education theory and methods, and also have separate departments for mathematics, physics, biology, English and Arabic language, and Islamic studies. Every student is required to major in all specialties within one of these departments and must combine courses in education with courses providing in-depth knowledge of a particular subject.

Recognizing the importance of the material and social incentives and their critical role in motivating the teacher to higher performance and dedication, a special

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cadre has been approved for the education staff. This cadre covers teachers, principals and deputies, laboratory technicians, librarians and the students’ counsellors. The salary scale approved for teachers and teacher-related jobs is 20 to 30% higher than their corresponding government employees. Maternity vacation for female teachers has been extended to two fully paid months.

The qualifications required for teaching and the teachers’ workload at the different stages are summarized in the tables below:

Qualifications required for teaching (1996)

Level of education

Institutes and colleges

Admission requirements

Length of studies

Qualification upon graduation

Kindergarten Female teachers secondary institute

Intermediate school certificate

or equivalent

Three years Secondary Institute Diploma

Girls intermediate

education colleges

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Intermediate College Diploma

Girls developed education colleges

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree

Colleges of education

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree

Elementary education

Teacher colleges

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree

Intermediate education

Colleges of education

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree

Secondary education

Girls university colleges

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree in any subject

Technical secondary education

Other university colleges

General secondary school certificate

or equivalent

Four years Bachelor degree in any subject

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Teachers’ workload (1996)

Type Stage Average weekly hours devoted to

teaching

Average weekly hours devoted to other

educational activities

Kindergarten 14 13

Elementary

Intermediate 18 12 General education

Secondary

Technical education

Non-general education

Female teacher training

18 12

University

Higher education Girls colleges 12-15 10

Teachers colleges

References Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States (ABEGS). The experience of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in mainstreaming students with special educational needs in public schools. (A success story). Riyadh, 2010.

Ministry of Economy and Planning. UN Team. UNDP. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. Riyadh, 2010.

Ministry of Education. Centre for Statistical Data and Educational Documentation. The Development of education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1992-1994. Presented at the 44th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1994.

Ministry of Education. Centre for Statistical Data and Educational Documentation. The Development of education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996.

Ministry of Education. Educational Development Center. General Directorate for Educational Research. Development of education. National report about education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Presented at the 46th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 2001.

Ministry of Education. General Administration for Eradication of Illiteracy Programmes. The achieved progress in the field of the eradication of illiteracy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from 1997 to 2009. Riyadh, 2008.

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Ministry of Education. General Directorate for Planning. Executive Summary of the Ministry of Education Ten-year Plan, 2004-2014. Second edition, 2005.

Ministry of Education. Ministry of Higher Education. General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training. The Development of education. Presented at the 47th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 2004.

Ministry of Education. Ministry of Higher Education. Planning and Development General Directorate of Research. National report on educational development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Presented at the 48th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 2008.

Web resources Ministry of Education: http://www.moe.gov.sa/ [In Arabic. Last checked: August 2011.]

Ministry of Higher Education: http://www.mohe.gov.sa/ [In Arabic and English. Last checked: August 2011.]

National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment: http://www.ncaaa.org.sa/ [In Arabic and English. Last checked: August 2011.]

Technical and Vocational Training Corporation: http://tvtc.gov.sa/ [In Arabic and English. Last checked: October 2007.]

For updated links, consult the Web page of the International Bureau of Education of UNESCO: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/links.htm

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http://www.moe.gov.sa/

http://www.mohe.gov.sa/

http://www.ncaaa.org.sa/

http://tvtc.gov.sa/

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/links.htm

Saudi Arabia

Principles and general objectives of education
Laws and other basic regulations concerning education
Administration and management of the education system
Structure and organization of the education system

Pre-school education
Primary education
Secondary education
Higher education

The educational process

Pre-primary education
Primary education
Intermediate and secondary education
Assessing learning achievement nationwide

Teaching staff
References
Web resources

Perceptions of Secondary School Principals in Saudi Arabia of Time Management Techniques

Fathi Mohammed Abu-Nasser

This study explored the perceptions of some secondary school principals in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia toward time management techniques. a random sample of (52) secondary school principals was selected . For the purpose of data collection, a two- domain questionnaire covering time management techniques was developed, and Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for both domains of the questionnaire was (89.3). Findings of the study showed some time management Techniques that were adapted by school principals in their daily work, some obstacles of time management were also identified.

Success of any educational institution depends on the type of administration and its capabilities to drive the preplanned goals within the time framework set forth. The administrative work requires grate efforts and mental thinking on the part of staff running the institution during the stages of planning, organizing, directing and observing its acti- vates . With hundreds of decisions to make in a day, managing time in such a way that al- lows principals to prioritize issues effectively is a necessity. The administrative process is complex and demanding with continuous change, high stakes testing, dealing with people and a myriad of tasks both planned and unplanned(e.g. phone calls, meetings, email, discipline). Therefore, it is critical that principals take control of their lives and identify ways to efficiently make use of their time (Hager, 2006). Tracy (2004) stated that people are surrounded by others and circumstances that waste time and undermine effectiveness all day long There have been some researchers who have found principals spend the majority of their time focused on instructional leadership items (Glodt, 2006;

Dr. Fathi Mohammed Abu -Nasser, Assistant Prof, of Educational Administration, The National Research Center for Giftedness & Creativity, King Faisal University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Fathi Mohammed Abu-Nasser at [email protected].

1984; Wells, 1993). On the other hand, there have been other researchers who have found principals spend the majority of their time focused on managerial and organizational items, lack of planning, and weak responsi- bilities to maintain time (Katz, 1987; Larry, 2003). discovered that when principals make instructional leadership a priority; then most of their time is spent in that area despite the rest of the job requirements.

Similarly researcher in Saudi Arabia asserted that although of the educational development, and the government support for school principals, they still have many problems in different aspects: planning, coordinating, developing, and time manage- ment (AL-Zahrani ,1427h ;AL-Sharari,2004; al-athayleh,2004; Al-hameedi; 1415;qothay la,1999).

The problem of time arises to school to principals because they often face the problem of performing the required works or tasks in the specified time. They focus on the time factor more that the other factors( Rino ,2000). The interest in time management started in the late fifties and early sixties of the twentieth century communication , The first scientific attempt to study the issue of time management has emerged through the book the management of time by James Mehoy in 1958(al-hameedi,1415h).

It was important to co-ordinate all the various efforts in an administration work- ing within a specific organized and planned

Saudi Arabia .. / 19

timetable. This shows us the importance of time management for school participation which requires us to high light those defini- tions which refer us to the concept of time management. Al-gbari (2000)defines time management as the art and science of the rational use of time. It is the effective invest- ment of time, and it is a process for planning, organization, co-ordination, motivation, guid- ance, follow-up and conimunication(Temb, 1411h) .Time management is a qualitative and quantitative process at the same time. Temp sees that time management can be understood as synonymous with order and regulation and the daily procedure, scheduled for work. And with time effectiveness of these items, time management is more complicated that. It is a psychological case and being ready for personal commitment and most importantly the recording of priorities and habits. In a comprehensive view of what the term time management. Time management means con- trolling , organizing and investing time for the benefit of the individual and society.

Fitzwater (1996) stated that time man- agement helps school administrators get off the treadmill. Time cannot be borrowed, stored, or recycled; thus, time management ultimately means self-management in relation to a non-controllable resource, management categorized time-wasting activities according to the level of difficulty required to correct them (Cross & Rice, 2000; Hager, 2006).

The work time and the individuals' time are linked; each of them affects the other (Atwi,2001).AccordingtoHager(2006),the following is a list of the five worst mistakes people make with their time: Spending time on concerns that are not chosen priorities, underestimating the time tasks actually take, allowing too many interruptions, saying "yes" too often, and not getting help.

Study Problem and Questions The position of school principal has be-

come complex and pressure packed in the era of accountability and high-stakes testing(Abu

Nasser,2008).Hedges(1991)foundmany ad- ministrators waste time on low priority items, often without realizing it, and only recently has research on time. Time management can be viewed as a systematic approach to taking control of the issues that confront people on a day to day basis (Emmett, 2000) Re- search indicated that most time management techniques require minimal common sense strategies (Crouch, 2005; Hemphill, 2002; Kobert 1980) Principals' responsibilities include responding to demands from faculty and staff members, parents, central office and students. On top of those responsibilities. The follower of the studies in the field of general and in educational administration in particular finds that this topic had not re- ceived great attention, few studies have paid attention to secondary school principals in the last several years and the literature has sug- gested that principals need help identifying time management strategies to be successful instructional leaders and managers (Ken- nedy, 2002). Studying time management in schools, and identifying its obstacles has a high importance in achieving the objectives and the plans of the educational process, so this study problems was to answered the following questions:

1. What is the perception of secondary school principals of time management ?

2. What are the main obstacles to the ap- propriate investment of time allotted to the administrative process as seen by secondary school principals?

Study Objectives This study explored the perceptions

of school principals of techniques of time management. It also sought to identify some obstacles of appropriate time management in schools.

Significance of the Study Significance of the study lies in its at-

tempt to explore issues and concerns related to appropriate use of time by school principals

20/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 38, No. 1

in their daily administrative activities. Explo- ration of such issues and concerns is critical as it leads to figure out effective strategies for helping principals manage allotted time productively, which in turn leads to success- ful accomplishment of duties and/or tasks of school administration.

Limitations of the Study There are two limitations to this study.

First, this study focused on secondary school principals in the eastern region of Saudi Ara- bia which are only a sample of all principals nationwide, second it's limited to the most important obstacles to the administration of time allocated to school Administration.

Definitions Time management: The discovery and

application of the most efficient method(s) of completing assignments or tasks of any length in the optimum time and with the highest quality.

Methodology The descriptive approach was used in

this study that describes the most important factors in a particular position in addition to its interest in the analysis and interpretation of what is described previous studies.

Study Findings Findings of question no 1: What is the

perception of secondary school principals of time management ?Means of the responses of study sample were used on a measurement of five scale . The mean (3) is considered to stand for the response medium. table ( 1 )sho WS the results .

Table (1) shows that the most important strategies of time management that got a high percentage is: to make sure of the capaci- ties, of the individual to perform the tasks that are delegated to them. That means the delegation of tasks to the individuals and then to follow them and to make sure they perform the work delegated to them properly has a great importance for the rest of the

Table 1 Ranks an/] mpans of stratégies Items

Rank

1 2 3 4

10 ] ]

12 13

Strategies

Make sure of the capacity of the individual to perform The tasks that are dplppatp.d tn them To have a plan to achipvp, thp, poals F.vaiiiate. goals that have been achieved that were set in Advance. Form committees with expertise and high e.fficiencv Help the employees to develop and improve their Performance Identify the goals that are to be achieved accurately and Clearly Encourage the employees in meetings to express Themsp.lvps

KnowleHpe of errors throngh avoiding them in the. future. The use of thp manappment method that is compatible. With thp pvp.nt

Investment of the available human and material resource To achieve the best results Provide encouragement and psychological support to the Employees Prioritization of tastes to he achieved by the degree of Importance Thp. p.mnlovees should take, nart in decision makinp to fpp.l Resnonsible Reduce the unintended mistakes of the employees and try To treat them

Means

4 43 4.32 4.23 4.19

4.01

3.96

3 89

3.81 3 34

2.23 3.11 3.10 3.00 9.97

Saudi Arabia.. / 21

methods of time management. This result matches, the results of these studies:(Glodt, 2006; Darash & male, 2004 ; Mahoney 1998; AL-Sharari, 2004).

Findings of equation no 2: What are the main obstacles to the appropriate investment of time allotted to the administrative process as seen by secondary school principals?

Frequency Ratings of response of the members of the study sample of school principals were used about the most important obstacles of time management. And it was as in Table 2.

The table shows that the most significant obstacles were those concerning the admin- istrative pattern and the level of training of schools principals to follow the scientific methods of time management which requires the development of training programs, to school principals, dealing with aspects of time management .As the tables show that the social aspects and the social pattern play an important role in wasting the time of the mem- bers of the study sample Interviews increases during work, as well as telephone calls. These results match the results of Al-Zahrani 's study (1427h) and AL-sharari's study (2004) and AL-Adhayler's study (2004).

Recommendations of the Study The current study recommends adopting

the strategies of time management that got high percentages. Also it recommends the need for good planning of the administrative process and to identify the job description for their employer, and to train school principal on the modem strategies of time management.

References Abu Nasser, F. (200S).Educational Administra-

tion: Entry to Theories and Skills. Amman: Dar AL- Maseerah.

Al-Agbari, A.(2000). School Management : Con- temporary organizing and Planning Dimen- sion . Beirut: dar- al nahta al Arabia.

Al-Athayleh, A. ( 2004). Time Management for Male and Female Principals at Public High Schools in Kharak Province. Mo'tafor Stud- ies and Researches, 19(7), 175-201.

Al-Hameedi, A. (1415H). Time Management for Om-AL-Qura University Students. \Jm\emty of Om Al-Qura.

Al-Quthairy, M. A. (2000). Competitive Man- agement of Time . Etrak for Distribution, Publishing, and Editing.

Al-Sharad, M. A. ( 2004). Time Management for Principals at Schools in Quraiat Province . KingdomofSaudi Arabia,'Uni>\ih\is\\tàMA. Thesis, University of Jordan.

Table 2 Ranks and Frequency Ratings of the Obstacles of Time Administration

as Seen hv StiiHv Rank Ohstacles Freqiipnny Rating«:

Poor planning of time and managing it in a Scientific way

The lack of sufficient administrative powers To administrative, school affairs

Many problems of students or teachers that Require confiniioiis follow up

Many problems of students or teachers that Requirp. continuous follow np 15%

Unofficial interviews during the official work 14%

The absence of clear and accurate job description For all schools personnel n% Telephone calls

Tnfal

22/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 38, No. 1

AL-Zahrani, B. M. ( 1427 H). 7"/ie Range of Using Time Management Methods at Secondary and High Schools in Al- Baaha in the light of Administrative Jobs. Unpublished PhD, dis- sertation at AL-Nilain University, Sudan.

Atwi, J. E. (2001). Origins and Applications of Teaching Management and Educational Supervision. V Edition, Amman: Dar Al- Thaqafah.

Bahjat, A. (1993). The Efficiency Role of School Management in Preparing School Principals in Salt ant Oman (Evaluating Study). Edu- cational Studies, 8(54), 208-254.

Cross, C. T , & Rice, R. C. (Dec 2000). The role of the principal as instructional leader in a standards-driven system.lnNASSP Bulletin, 84(5). 61. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from, http://find.galegroup.com.er.lib.ksu.edu/itx/ infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC 125.

Crouch, C. (2005). Getting organized: Learn- ing how to focus, organize, and prioritize. Memphis, TN: Dawson Publishing.

Daresh, J. & Male,T.(2000). Crossing the Border into: Experiences Principals. Educational Management & Administration, 28(1), 46-58.

Emmett, R. (2000). The procrastinator's hand- book: Mastering the art of doing it now. New York: Walker & Co.

Fitzgerald, I. (1996). Time management for school administrators. Rockport, MA: Pro Active Publications.

Glodt, K. (2006). y4 study of principals 'perceptions of competence in common administrative roles. (Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University, Abstract retrieved January 14, 2007 from Proquest database.

Hager, J. (2006, June). How to gain discretionary time while on_ the job. Break out session pre- sented at the 4th Annual Nevada Leadership Institute, Las Vegas, NV.

Hedges, W. (1991). How do you waste time? Principal, 71(2), 37.

Hemphill, B. (2002). Taming the paper tiger at home & taming the paper tiger at work. Washington, D.C.: Kiplinger Books.

Katz, S .M. (1987). An investigation of the relation- ships among teacher perceptions of clinical supervisory practices, principal authenticity, and supervisory outcomes. (Doctoral dis- sertation. Northeastern University,1987). Abstract retrieved August 27, 2008 from Proquest database.

Kennedy, C. (2002). The principalship: Too much for one person? Principal,82(1), 28-31.

Kobert, N. (1980). Managing time. New York: Boardman Books.

Larry, C D . (2003). A study of time management use and preferred time selected southern states. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Alabama Birmingham, AL).

Logan, J. E. (1999). The E's of E-Mail: Tips for effective and efficient use in school admin- istration. NASSP Bulletin, 1, 84-90.

Larry, C. D. (2003). A study of time management use and preferred time management practices of middle and secondary school principals in selected southern states. (Doctoral Disserta- tion, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL).

Mahony, P(1998). Democracy school leadership in England and Denmark. British Journal of Educational studies, 46(3), 302-317.

Oqailan, M. (1990). Planning is a Fundamental Mission for Principals. King Saud Journal, /2(l),33-74.

Qothayla, H.(1999). Strategic Planning for Pre- Primary School Management. Arabic Gulf Message, 20(72), 53-71.

Rino, D. ( 2000). Informal Guide for Time Man- agement, Jeerer Library Translation.

Temb,D.( 1411H) .Time Manage/ne/ii. Translated by Waleed Abdul Lateef, KSA: Institute of General Administration.

Tracy, B. (2004). Time power: A proven system for getting more done in less time than you ever thought possible. New York: AMACOM.

Wells, G.A. (1993). Instructional management behavior, time management, and selected background variables of elementary school principals in Connecticut's urban school dis- tricts. (Doctoral dissertation,The University, of Connecticut, 1993). Abstract retrieved August 21,2009 from Proquest database.

not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written

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Challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia

Hanan Al-Ahmadi*

Institute of Public Administration, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

(Received 29 June 2010; final version received 22 January 2011)

As a result of increasing enrolment of women in all levels of education and various fields of employment and aspects of public life in Saudi Arabia, the last 10 years witnessed a growing participation of women in senior management positions and in the decision-making process in public and private sectors. Recent developments indicate a clear strategic direction of policy makers and development plans in Saudi Arabia towards an even greater role for women in public life and into top leadership positions in public domains. In spite of the considerable role of women in Saudi society, evidence suggests that women in leadership positions are facing a different reality from their male counterparts due to organizational, personal and cultural challenges that impede their effectiveness as leaders. Through a survey of 160 women leaders, this article attempts to identify the challenges that women leaders face in government sectors in Saudi Arabia. Findings indicate that the main challenges are: structural challenges, lack of resources and lack of empowerment, while cultural and personal challenges ranked last, contrary to common perception. The study ultimately provides a set of recommendations with implications for leadership development in general, in order to address challenges that women leaders face and enhance their leadership role.

Keywords: women; leadership development; KSA; empowerment

Introduction

This paper advances the scarce empirical knowledge that exists on women’s leadership development in the Saudi Arabia. As a result of the increasing enrolment of women at all levels of education and in various fields of employment and aspects of public life, the past 10 years have witnessed a growing participation of Saudi women in senior management positions and in the decision-making process in public and private sectors. The government of Saudi Arabia has adopted a clear vision for the empowerment of women as reflected in recent development plans that show a clear shift in the orientation of planning efforts towards the development of women’s roles instead of focusing on women’s right to education and employment. Empowerment of women and enhancement of their involvement in public affairs have been clearly emphasized not only as targets of development plans but also rather as a means to achieve strategic objectives of development.

Globalization and economic and social developments in Saudi Arabia indicate the strong conviction among policymakers that comprehensive and sustainable

*Email: [email protected]

Human Resource Development International

Vol. 14, No. 2, April 2011, 149–166

ISSN 1367-8868 print/ISSN 1469-8374 online

� 2011 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/13678868.2011.558311

http://www.informaworld.com

development could not be reached without activating all social actors of development in the global society (Metcalfe and Rees 2010). It is quite clear that Saudi Arabia is embracing a new strategic direction to recruit qualified women into positions of leadership at the top of the hierarchy in public and private sectors. Saudi women are slowly but definitely assuming high positions that include deputy minister, university president, Shura Council consultants, board members of Chambers of commerce and many other new and exciting positions in both the public and private sectors.

The roles and skills of women leaders have received increased attention by researchers and practitioners in business and public organizations all over the world (Omair 2008; Stead and Elliot 2009). This growing interest is triggered by the importance of leadership as an essential element to the survival of organizations and as an instrumental factor in their strife for excellence (Stead and Elliot 2009). This interest is also influenced by the increasing role that women play in organizations and in the economy in general.

This paper provides new understandings of women’s leadership progress and challenges in Saudi Arabia. The study presents results of a survey of 160 women leaders in various government sectors in Saudi Arabia to identify challenges and suggests human resources solutions to assist women’s empowerment. Findings and recommendations should prove useful in raising awareness among policymakers regarding the experiences of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and the challenges they face and in identifying factors that may facilitate their role. The study argues that commitment to women’s leadership development is an important aspect of broader social change in Saudi Arabia.

Research problem

Due to globalization forces, Saudi Arabia has witnessed major changes during the past few decades, with women taking more responsibility in public spheres and occupying higher positions in organizations (Alchoui 2009). In the past three decades, there has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development. The second strategic pillar of the Eighth Development Plan emphasized ‘increased attention to women’s affairs and development capabilities, and removal of barriers to participation in the development activities, in line with the Islamic values and teachings’. In this context, the plan identified one of its overall objectives as ‘The empowerment of women and increasing their participation in different areas, whether within the family or in the workplace, and to provide better opportunities in decision-making and empowerment’.

Furthermore, the recommendations of the Third National Dialogue Forum that was held in 2003 on women’s rights and responsibilities constituted a foundation for future organized efforts for reform. The recommendations called for the expansion of women’s role, their participation in public endeavours and expression of opinions, an examination of the legal system and its role in empowering women, the separation of traditions and customs from law and religion and the creation of new educational endeavours, both academic and vocational and new work opportunities for women.

Despite the considerable expansion in the role of women in Saudi society, evidence indicates that women in upper management positions are facing a different reality from their male counterparts due to various structural and cultural factors that impede their effectiveness as leaders (Almenkash et al. 2007). These factors have

150 H. Al-Ahmadi

been found to impede women in management in other Gulf countries. As reported by Al-Lamki (1999), the main obstacles for women managers were limited opportunities to higher education, discriminatory appointment and promotion practices, traditional attitudes of male bosses towards working women, male- dominated sectors, male resistance to women in management, absence of policies and legislation to ensure participation of women in management positions, a lack of professional networking, a lack of female role models, a lack of professional management development programmes, a lack of a sufficient number of quality day care centres, dual responsibilities of traditional and professional roles, balancing traditional and professional roles and family obligations as a wife and a mother for childbearing and child rearing.

Despite the similarities in the challenges facing women leaders in Arab and Muslim countries, the working environment of Saudi women may differ due to the relatively recent entry of women into the labour market and the gender-based segregation in the workplace and in all aspects of public life. Thus, this study attempts to answer the following questions:

(1) What are the challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia? (2) Do these challenges differ according to personal and professional character-

istics, including the level of education, specialization, years of working experience and years of experience in administrative work, job title, marital status and age?

Women, leadership and development

This part of the study reviews the literature on challenges facing women leaders in general and in Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries in particular. There are similarities that women face all around the world but the unique culture in the Gulf region poses a different set of challenges. In western countries, cross-cultural studies on women as managers have found a common rising trend in women’s enrolment in leadership positions and found that women managers worldwide share a number of similarities including stereotyping, lack of role models and lack of access to training (Stead and Elliot 2009). Research on women in top management positions in three Arab Gulf countries (UAE, Oman and Bahrain) found that the challenges faced by those women included discrimination at work, cultural taboos, negative attitudes towards working women and lack of confidence and trust in women managers (Wilkinson 1996). Research identified several inhibiting factors for women that include organizational factors, such as personnel systems/traditional career paths, male employee attitudes and women’s own attitudes (Cooke 2007).

Culture reflected in the set of beliefs and practices associated with the local community, as well as in the work place, can adversely reflect on the effectiveness of women leaders and their ability to exercise a positive leadership role. In her assessment of leadership role of women in the Arab world, Shahine (1997) argues that despite the growing leadership role of women in society, traditional beliefs and practices on behalf of the community prohibit the career advancement of women. Traditional beliefs are reflected in associating leadership abilities with men and not women, in questioning the effectiveness of the few women who have reached positions of leadership, and in the negative attitudes about women in leadership positions, with a common belief that in order for them to be effective leaders they

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need to adopt characteristics that are not naturally associated with women, such as assertive behaviour, commitment and motivation.

The cultures and customs of the tribal community prevailing in the Arabian Peninsula prior to Islam have contributed to the conservative orientation towards women in Islam (Alajmi 2001). Effendi (2003) further argues that because most Arab cultures are patriarchal, a substantial segment of the various Arab societies have, in fact, placed women in a passive role at work and in the family. Therefore, Effendi (2003) maintains that it is not Islam as such that places women in these roles, but rather the way that patriarchal societies interpret Islam to support their positions regarding what is and what is not an acceptable behaviour for women.

Abdulla (1996) studied attitudes towards women in the Arabian Gulf region and found that women are still locked into restrictive traditional roles. Results indicated the presence of a gender gap, with women having more favourable attitudes towards working women, while men are not willing to share public responsibilities with them.

Similarly, Ibrahim (1997) points out that there is a major contradiction in the views in the Arab world towards women, which reflects a deep rift in the fabric of Arab culture. Ibrahim (1997) further asserts that social institutions such as the family, school and the media play a critical role in perpetuating these negative values and attitudes towards women’s work and role in society and their contributions to the process of sustainable development. This attitude towards women is not unique to the Arab world; it is a problem in western societies as well. In a review of research on leadership and gender, Shimanoff and Jenkins (1991) state the following:

Research has demonstrated that there are far more similarities than differences in the leadership behaviors of women and men, and that they are equally effective. Still, women are less likely to be preselected as leaders, and the same leadership behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than a female (504).

In a review of women in management, Berthoin Antal and Izraeli (1993, 63) states that ‘probably the single most important hurdle for women in management in all industrialized countries is the persistent stereotype that associated management with being male’.

Structural factors can present an important challenge to women leaders due to managerial and organizational practices, women managers around the world are often found in lower management positions that give them little access to power and few meaningful challenges (Omar and Davidson 2001). Evidence similarly indicates that women leaders in Saudi Arabia face a number of structural challenges, including limited authority, which is disproportionate to the size of their responsibility (Al-Halawani 2002; Almenkash et al. 2007; Abdullah 2008).

A study conducted by Al-Halawani (2002) concludes that women in many sectors of government are operating under the umbrella of men, which impacts negatively on the performance of women sections, and that the constant intervention by men restricts their freedom to make decisions. The study further concludes that lack of authority and centralization of authority in headquarters run by men limit women’s ability to lead effectively and to make decisions, even those that concern their own departments (Al-Halawani 2002).

Research studies suggest that women’s sectors in Saudi Arabia face several organizational shortcomings including the lack of clarity in the organizational relationship between women’s and men’s departments, poor coordination and the

152 H. Al-Ahmadi

subordination of women’s sections on the organizational chart (and in some cases not including women sections in the organizational chart all together), as well as a lack of control over financial and material resources (Almenkash et al. 2007). Almenkash et al. (2007) indicates that poor communication and inadequate information system contribute to the widening gap between women sections and top leaders, as well as the isolation of women’s sections from the course of events that take place at the corporate headquarters, and the lack of participation in strategic planning and academic decision-making and membership in academic and administrative committees.

Lack of empowerment can be another challenge facing women leaders, which is reflected in their inability to influence the decision-making process and achieve organizational goals due to the lack of tools or methods of empowerment (Metcalfe 2008). Empowerment can be achieved through access to knowledge, the granting of sufficient authority and access to information, as well as through self-development, reward and encouragement, participation in setting goals and policy-making and identifying means and methods (Kubaisi 2004). Thus, any deficiency in any of these aspects will result in a lack of empowerment and, consequently, ineffective leadership. According to Effendi (2003), empowerment enhances the moral and physical sense of belonging and affiliation with the institution, leaving a positive effect on the psyche of the individual, and enhances feelings of appreciation and importance to the institution.

Evidence suggests a number of factors contributing to the lack of empowerment of women leaders. These include lack of administrative efficiency, limited training opportunities, lack of professional exchange opportunities and cooperation with other institutions to gain diverse experiences, the exclusion of women from some policies and regulations and from participating in decision-making (Almenkash et al. 2007) and lack of access to information (Sultan 1994). Evidence also shows that the amount and quality of leadership training available to women is not adequate to meet the demands of their role as leaders; women often undertake training based on self-initiative, which does not follow a strategic plan for leadership development in the organization (Al-Ahmadi 2005).

Several factors associated with the personality of women leaders and their social circumstances, may hinder their ability to fully exercise their leadership role effectively. These include lack of self-confidence, fear of responsibility, difficulty of balancing professional responsibilities and family obligations and the sense of isolation in the administrative position, in addition to physical and health factors and psychological pressures. Some scholars assert that women are subjected to socialization, educational and social pressures that may prevent the formation of values and attitudes appropriate to leadership roles, thus limiting the effectiveness of some women in leadership positions (Shahine 1997). Studies show that working women face role conflict as a result of the difficulty of balancing professional and social or family obligations in the absence of structural support (Al-Halawani 2002). Ibrahim (1997) indicates that feelings of frustration and suffering among women increase because of this dual role and the accumulation of the sense of marginalization, inferiority and lack of self-confidence. In the study by Alajmi (2001), the highest ranked personal traits identified by respondents as impacting women in leadership positions in Saudi Arabia are energy, self-confidence and independence; they do not rank very highly in initiative, taking risks or relationships.

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Based on the review of the literature, it is concluded that women leaders face many challenges that limit their effectiveness and prevent them from achieving their leadership potential. These include organizational structure, culture, policies and practices, as well as individual factors such as personal skills, capabilities, confidence, support, ability to achieve balance and a sense of empowerment. This is similar to many western regions, but the Middle East region faces additional concerns relating to greater importance of family ties and the significance of religion in governing all work and social relationships, which both men and women support (Metcalfe 2008). Although several studies have been conducted on this subject, the current study comes at a time that is critical in Saudi Arabia, where important social reforms for women are taking place. The advancement of women in the public sphere is an important goal for the region, given the implementation of the eighth development plan, and the millennium development goals (MDG), that strongly emphasize the need for women empowerment.

Population and sample

The population of the current study is women leaders who joined leadership development workshops provided in the Women’s Branch of the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) during the past 5 years (2005–2009). (Their total number is 527.) This particular population was selected due to the lack of information and updated databases of women leaders in the public and private sectors. The IPA maintains a database of women in certain civil service ranks, who are eligible to enrol in its leadership development seminars, which was convenient to this research project.

Data collection was conducted in the summer of 2009, a survey questionnaire was emailed or faxed to 300 participants that were selected randomly from the IPA database. A research assistant contacted participants by telephone initially to verify their contact information and to inform them of the study and explain its purpose. A follow-up phone call was conducted 2 weeks later to encourage the selected subjects to fill out the questionnaire. The total number of returned questionnaire forms was 162, with a response rate of 54%.

Measurement

Based on a study of the relevant literature, a special data collection tool was designed for purposes of this study. The tool includes two parts:

Personal data: Qualification, specialization, years of working experience, years of experience in administrative work, job title, marital status and age.

Leadership challenges: This scale included 36 items that were grouped into five categories: Structural challenges, personal challenges, lack of empowerment, lack of resources and cultural challenges.

To verify the validity of the data collection instrument, it was reviewed by a panel of six judges from academia working in the IPA and King Saud University and including specialists in the field of management and human resources development, in order to verify its suitability for the purpose of the study. Based on the comments received by reviewers, appropriate adjustments of the tool were made. In terms of reliability of the measurements used, reliability coefficient was calculated using Cronbach’s a coefficient and was found acceptable at 0.88.

154 H. Al-Ahmadi

Statistical analysis

To answer research questions, data analysis was conducted using SPSS, descriptive statistics including means and standard deviation and frequencies were used. Analysis of variance procedure was used to identify differences in leadership challenges according to personal characteristics, and post hoc comparisons were conducted using Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test. For purposes of this analysis, some categories in the personal background section were grouped because the number of cases in some categories was too small to conduct the analysis.

Limitations

The sampling approach utilized in this study might influence the results and may be a limitation, as the participants were selected only from attendees of leadership development programmes at the IPA. As a result, the sample did not include women leaders who never attended IPA seminars, including leaders in the private sector. Additionally, due to the fact that these seminars have a strict selection criteria based on civil services rank, most attendants are in their forties and are highly educated.

Results

Table 1 presents professional and personal characteristics of women leaders participating in this study. As shown in the table, the vast majority of women leaders are highly educated, and most of them hold a doctorate degree (75.6%) in diverse disciplines, including natural sciences (30%), arts and humanities (21.6%) and education (22%). The data also indicate that these leaders have a long career experience, as 43.8% have more than 21 years of experience. The situation is different in terms of management expertise; participants were divided as follows: 28.4% had less than 5 years experience in administrative work, and about one- quarter had more than 21 years of experience in management. In terms of personal characteristics, most participants were in their mid-forties or older, and most of them were married (64.8%).

Table 2 presents views regarding challenges facing women leaders who have been classified for the purposes of this study into five categories: structural challenges, lack of empowerment, cultural challenges, personal challenges and challenges related to lack of resources. Statistical analysis identifies structural challenges as the most important, with an overall average of 3.24 and a standard deviation of 0.4. Structural challenges include the centralization of decision-making, lack of participation in the formulation of strategic plans, limited powers and so on. This is followed by the challenges related to resources, which are limited financial powers granted to the departments of women, inadequate buildings and facilities, inadequate physical equipment and technology available, lack of financial resources and poor training on the use of technologies. The overall average is 3.20 with a standard deviation of 0.59. Challenges relating to lack of empowerment come in third place in terms of importance, with an average of 3.19 and a standard deviation of 0.46. These challenges include lack of training programmes to prepare women leaders before assignment into leadership role, limited opportunities to gain diverse experiences and learning outside and inside the organization, poor management skills necessary to exercise the leadership role and so on. Cultural challenges rank fourth in importance

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with an average of 2.8 and a standard deviation of 0.5, and they include poor professional culture of some subordinates, lack of top management confidence in women leaders, stereotypes and beliefs about women’s management capabilities, the dominance of personal over professional relationship in the work place, lack of acceptance of women’s authority by female subordinates and, finally, the difficulty of dealing with male colleagues. Personal challenges rank last in terms of importance of the categories of the various challenges facing women leaders with an average of 2.37 and a standard deviation of 0.8. Personal challenges refer to the subjective factors that have to do with family and social pressure, as well as personal capacity, and the underlying feelings of women leaders, which may limit their ability to exercise their leadership role efficiently and effectively.

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

Variables Frequency Per cent

Level of education Bachelor’s 14 8.6 High diploma 1 0.6 Master’s 18 11.1 Doctorate 121 75.6.7 Other 5 3.1

Work experience Less than 5 years 8 4.9 6–10 years 2 1.2 11–15 years 21 13 16–20 years 31 19 More than 20 years 71 43.8

Years in managerial positions Less than 5 years 46 28.4 6–10 years 27 16.7 11–15 years 17 10.5 16–20 years 11 6.8 More than 20 years 40 24.7

Marital status Married 104 64.2 Divorced 17 10.5 Widowed 10 6.2 Single 24 14.8

Specialty Arts and humanities 35 21.6 Education 23 14.2 Islamic studies 14 8.6 Administrative sciences 12 7.4 Sciences 49 30.2 Languages and translation 4 2.5 Medicine and health sciences 9 5.6 Others 11 6.8

Age 30–35 years 5 3.1 36–40 years 31 19.1 41–46 years 42 25.9 46–50 years 47 29 More than 51 years 29 17.9

156 H. Al-Ahmadi

Table 2. Types of challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia.

Item Mean Standard deviation Overall

Structural challenges

Lack of clarity of structural vision 3.27 0.65 Mean, 3.24; standard deviation, 0.41

Overlap between women’s and men’s sections

3.19 0.76

The limited powers granted to women leaders

3.34 0.72

The centralization of decision- making

3.47 0.67

The low level of participation in drawing the strategic plans of the organization

3.41 0.69

Lack of material and moral incentives

3.21 0.77

Poor administrative organization of the women’s sections

3.13 0.74

Weak feedback on the performance of leaders

3.22 0.71

Poor representation of women leaders in committees, boards and meetings at the corporate level

3.15 0.79

Wide range of administrative supervision (supervision of a large number of departments and sections)

3.06 0.70

Lack of empowerment

Lack of rehabilitation programmes for women leaders and poor preparation for them before they are assigned leadership roles

3.66 0.54 Mean, 3.19; standard deviation, 0.46

Poor management skills necessary to exercise the leadership role

3.21 0.66

Lack of managerial experience on the part of women leaders

3.11 0.74

Lack of information needed for decision-making

3.20 0.69

Lack of knowledge of regulations governing the work

2.79 0.82

Limited opportunities to gain divers experiences and learning within the organization

3.12 0.71

Limited opportunities to gain divers experiences and learning outside the organization

3.25 0.77

Limited opportunities for training and skill development

3.15 0.72

Cultural challenges

The confidence of senior management women leaders

2.84 0.80 Mean, 2.82; standard deviation, 0.52

Prevailing beliefs about men having higher capacity and management skills of women as leaders

2.84 0.81

A reluctance to accept the authority of women’s leadership by their subordinates

2.69 0.81

(continued)

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Table 3 identifies differences in the types of challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia according to their personal and professional characteristics. Post hoc comparisons are conducted using LSD test. For purposes of this analysis, some categories in the personal background section are grouped together to obtain meaningful results or as a requirement of the LSD test. Significant differences in personal challenges are identified according to level of education, with F¼3.778, P¼0.012. These differences are particularly observed between bachelor’s degree holders and holders of Ph.D.s or other degrees; the mean score is lower for bachelor’s degree holders indicating that they face a lower degree of these challenges than their colleagues in the other two groups.

In terms of marital status, results indicate that widowed leaders identified significantly higher levels of structural challenges than their married, divorced and

Table 2. (Continued).

Item Mean Standard deviation Overall

Tyranny of the traditional relationship as opposed to informal professional relationship between leaders and subordinates

2.83 0.75

Weak professional culture of some subordinates

3.24 0.66

The difficulty of dealing with male colleagues and superiors

2.48 0.81

Personal challenges

Poor self-confidence 2.02 0.75 Mean, 2.37; standard deviation, 0.56

Fear of responsibility 2.18 0.86 Difficulty of balancing between

professional responsibilities and family obligations

2.32 0.80

Sense of isolation in the administrative position

2.17 0.76

Health and physical aspects that affect the effectiveness of the leadership role

2.41 0.81

Sense of stress and tension due to the difficulty of balancing the needs of subordinate structural goals

2.75 0.74

Difficulty of travelling if required by work conditions because of family and personal circumstances

2.68 0.87

Lack of resources

Lack of financial resources available to the women’s sectors

3.17 0.80 Mean, 3.20; standard deviation, 0.59

Limited powers granted to the financial departments of women

3.33 0.78

Inadequate buildings dedicated to women’s sectors

3.20 0.83

Inadequate material and technical equipment available

3.19 0.80

Poor training on the use of devices and technologies available, which reduces the benefit derived from them

3.17 0.79

158 H. Al-Ahmadi

T a b le

3 .

A n a ly si s o f v a ri a n ce

p ro ce d u re

fo r d iff er en ce s in

le a d er sh ip

ch a ll en g es

a cc o rd in g to

p er so n a l a n d p ro fe ss io n a l ch a ra ct er is ti cs .

S tr u ct u ra l

E m p o w er m en t

C u lt u ra l

P er so n a l

R es o u rc es

V a ri a b le s

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

L ev el

o f ed u ca ti o n

0 .6 5 3

0 .5 8 2

1 .4 1 5

0 .2 4 1

0 .8 2 1

0 .4 8 4

3 .7 7 8

0 .0 1 2

(1 * 3 ,

1 * 4 )

1 .0 5 0

0 .3 7 2

B a ch el o r’ s

3 .5 0 0 0

3 .3 5 7 1

3 .0 0 0 0

2 .0 7 1 4

3 .1 5 3 8

M a st er ’s

3 .2 7 7 8

3 .5 0 0 0

3 .2 2 2 2

2 .2 7 7 8

3 .5 5 5 6

D o ct o ra te

3 .3 5 5 9

3 .3 5 2 9

3 .0 1 6 8

2 .5 6 3 0

3 .3 7 8 2

O th er

3 .5 0 0 0

3 .0 0 0 0

2 .6 6 6 7

3 .3 3 3 3

W o rk

ex p er ie n ce

L es s th a n 5 y ea rs

3 .5 0 0 0

0 .2 5 5

0 .8 5 7

3 .4 0 0 0

0 .6 1 1

0 .6 0 9

3 .2 0 0 0

1 .6 6 7

0 .1 7 7

2 .5 0 0 0

1 .9 2 3

0 .1 2 9

3 .2 0 0 0

0 .4 9 5

0 .6 8 6

6 – 1 0 y ea rs

3 .4 0 0 0

3 .4 5 0 0

3 .1 0 0 0

2 .6 5 0 0

3 .3 0 0 0

1 1 – 1 5 y ea rs

3 .3 6 6 7

3 .2 5 8 1

2 .8 3 8 7

2 .6 4 5 2

3 .4 5 1 6

1 6 – 2 0 y ea rs

3 .3 5 2 1

3 .3 2 3 9

3 .0 4 2 3

2 .3 8 0 3

3 .3 8 5 7

M o re

th a n 2 0 y ea rs

Y ea rs

in m a n a g er ia l p o si ti o n s

L es s th a n 5 y ea rs

3 .3 6 9 6

0 .9 6 2

0 .4 3 0

3 .4 3 4 8

0 .7 2 0

0 .5 7 9

3 .1 7 3 9

1 .3 7 8

0 .2 4 5

2 .5 4 3 5

0 .7 1 1

0 .5 8 6

3 .4 5 6 5

0 .8 8 7

0 .4 7 4

6 – 1 0 y ea rs

3 .3 0 7 7

3 .3 7 0 4

2 .9 6 3 0

2 .5 5 5 6

3 .4 4 4 4

1 1 – 1 5 y ea rs

3 .5 2 9 4

3 .3 5 2 9

2 .8 8 2 4

2 .5 8 8 2

3 .5 2 9 4

1 6 – 2 0 y ea rs

3 .5 4 5 5

3 .2 7 2 7

2 .9 0 9 1

2 .4 5 4 5

3 .5 4 5 5

M o re

th a n 2 0 y ea rs

3 .3 0 7 7

3 .2 5 6 4

3 .0 2 5 6

2 .3 5 9 0

3 .2 6 3 2

M a ri ta l st a tu s

M a rr ie d

3 .3 3 0 1

5 .0 6 0

0 .0 0 2

(3 * 1 ,

3 * 2 ,

3 * 4 )

3 .2 9 8 1

1 .1 3 3

0 .3 3 8

3 .0 9 6 2

3 .7 3 2

0 .0 1 3

(3 * 1 ,

3 * 2 )

2 .5 0 9 6

0 .3 2 9

0 .8 0 4

3 .3 6 5 4

0 .7 6 2

0 .5 1 7

D iv o rc ed

3 .4 7 0 6

3 .1 7 6 5

2 .4 7 0 6

3 .2 9 4 1

W id o w ed

3 .8 8 8 9

3 .3 3 3 3

2 .5 5 5 6

2 .6 6 6 7

3 .6 6 6 7

S in g le

3 .1 7 3 9

3 .4 7 8 3

2 .9 1 3 0

2 .4 3 4 8

3 .3 4 7 8

S p ec ia lt y

A rt s a n d h u m a n it ie s,

ed u ca ti o n , Is la m ic

st u d ie s, la n g u a g es

3 .4 9 3 3

3 .7 2 5

0 .0 1 3

(1 * 3 ,

1 * 4 )

3 .3 8 6 7

1 .1 3 8

0 .3 3 6

3 .1 2 0 0

1 .7 6 1

0 .1 5 7

2 .3 7 3 3

3 .4 1 0

0 .0 1 9

(1 * 3 ,

3 * 2 )

3 .4 8 0 0

2 .2 7 3

0 .0 8 2

A d m in is tr a ti v e sc ie n ce s

3 .2 5 0 0

3 .5 0 0 0

3 .0 0 0 0

2 .2 5 0 0

3 .0 0 0 0

(c o n ti n u ed )

Human Resource Development International 159

T a b le

3 .

(C o n ti n u ed

S tr u ct u ra l

E m p o w er m en t

C u lt u ra l

P er so n a l

R es o u rc es

V a ri a b le s

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

M ea n

F P

S ci en ce s, m ed ic in e a n d

h ea lt h sc ie n ce s

3 .2 6 7 9

3 .2 6 3 2

2 .9 1 2 3

2 .6 6 6 7

3 .3 5 0 9

O th er s

3 .0 9 0 9

3 .4 5 4 5

3 .0 9 0 9

2 .6 3 6 4

3 .3 6 3 6

A g e 3 0 – 3 5 y ea rs

3 .2 0 0 0

0 .3 0 8

0 .8 7 2

(1 * 2 ,

1 * 3 ,

1 * 4 ,

1 * 5 )

4 .0 0 0 0

2 .6 5 0

0 .0 3 6

3 .6 0 0 0

3 .1 1 2

0 .0 1 7

(1 * 2 ,

1 * 3 ,

1 * 5 )

2 .4 0 0 0

1 .5 6 0

0 .1 8 8

2 .8 0 0 0

2 .4 1 0

0 .0 5 2

3 6 – 4 0 y ea rs

3 .3 6 6 7

3 .3 5 4 8

2 .9 6 7 7

2 .5 8 0 6

3 .1 9 3 5

4 1 – 4 6 y ea rs

3 .4 2 8 6

3 .3 3 3 3

3 .0 2 3 8

2 .6 4 2 9

3 .5 2 3 8

4 6 – 5 0 y ea rs

3 .3 6 1 7

3 .4 2 5 5

3 .1 7 0 2

2 .4 4 6 8

3 .4 1 3 0

M o re

th a n 5 1 y ea rs

3 .3 3 3 3

3 .2 2 2 2

2 .8 5 1 9

2 .2 9 6 3

3 .3 7 0 4

160 H. Al-Ahmadi

single colleagues, with F¼5.060 and P¼0.002. However, widowed leaders observed significantly lower cultural challenges than their married and divorced colleagues at F¼3.732 and P¼0.013.

As for type of specialty, leaders in arts and humanities, education, Islamic studies and languages reported significantly higher levels of structural challenges than their colleagues in scientific and medical specialties and in administrative sciences, at F¼3.725 P¼0.013. Leaders in scientific and medical specialties reported significantly higher levels of personal challenges than their colleagues in adminis- trative sciences, and art specialties, with F¼3.410 and P¼0.019.

Women leaders in younger age group (30–35 years) reported significantly lower levels of structural challenges as compared to their counterparts in all the other age groups. However, this age group reported significantly higher cultural challenges than all the other groups at F¼3.112 and F¼0.017.

No significant differences were observed in terms of years of work experience or management experience.

Developing women’s capabilities

This study seeks to highlight the challenges faced by women leaders in Saudi Arabia in order to identify alternatives to overcome these challenges. Results provide a profile of women leaders in Saudi Arabia as highly educated in various disciplines, with long career experiences and varying degrees of managerial expertise. These results differ somewhat from findings of prior research that describe women leaders in the public sector as young with limited leadership experience (Khayat 1996). This disparity indicates that women leaders in Saudi Arabia have grown in terms of education and expertise in the past decade. It is also indicative of a policy shift in Saudi Arabia towards enhancing the role of Saudi women in the development process. Research in western countries has similarly shown that many of the women who are making their way into management careers are equally or better qualified in terms of educational attainments than their male colleagues (Wood and Lindorff 2001). These results confirm the maturity of the professional experience of women leaders and the importance of providing suitable leadership development opportu- nities to improve their capabilities and enable optimal use of their expertise.

Structural challenges, particularly those associated with the centralization of the decision-making process, lack of authority and participation in the formulation of strategy, are found to be the most important challenges facing women leaders in this study. This may be due to the fact that women’s access to leadership positions in Saudi Arabia is relatively recent, so there may still be concerns regarding their capabilities and managerial efficiency (Al-Halawani 2002).

Results further indicate that lack of empowerment is a significant obstacle to women’s leadership, which confirms previous findings regarding inadequate preparation of women prior to appointment into leadership positions and limited opportunities for learning and for enhancing their professional experiences (Almenkash et al. 2007). As a result of the Saudization process and absence of leadership development strategies, many women in public and private organizations find themselves relatively too soon in positions of leadership, before accumulating the experience and maturity necessary for effective job performance (Al-Ahmadi 2005). Saudi women also lack opportunities to learn by example, through mentorship and guidance, because of the limited experience of women leaders, the

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lack of role models and the isolation of women’s sectors in general due to cultural and social barriers (Al-Ahmadi 2005). Highlighting the importance of empowerment through education and support, a recent study found that the driving forces for success for Arab women in management are education and the support of their husbands and families, and that success is not defined in terms of financial gains but rather satisfaction, happiness and growth (Omair 2008).

Mentoring through identification with role models and adequate consultation is essential for developing the leadership capabilities of women. A study of women mangers in Saudi Arabia indicates that despite their importance, mentoring programmes are not rated high among the priorities of women leaders as the concept is considered relatively new in Saudi Arabia (Alajmi 2001). Similar findings were reached in a study of women mangers in Oman, which concluded that there were no programmes to facilitate the advancement of women as role models, no mentoring programmes, management training programmes or active shunning of affirmative action (Al-Lamki 1999).

Networking is an important strategy for leadership empowerment; it allows one to gain information and identify personal mentors and supporters that empower them to face the challenges of leadership role. Informal networks for women in the organization, and beyond it, contribute substantially to their ability to develop by creating an opportunity for sharing and exchanging experiences (Stead and Elliot 2009). Women in the region are found to be more isolated from peer group experiences that facilitate their role, while men often control key networks that have access to the organization’s powerhouse and valuable information (Omar and Davidson 2001). Scholars argue that good work performance by itself is not enough; promotion often depends more on how visible a person is in the organization and the nature of that visibility (Cooke 2007). Women leaders must be able to identify the clues to success criteria used in the organization, both the hidden and the declared.

Contrary to the prevailing perspective, cultural challenges are less important compared to the other challenges faced by women leaders. This is an indication of changing perception of the role of women in society and a reflection of the policy of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Abdullah who calls for the integration of women in decision-making positions. Studies have previously noted a prevailing traditional conservative mentality among some men in leadership positions, which reinforces the exclusion of women leaders and limits their effective participation in decision-making (Almenkash et al. 2007). Researchers have stressed that the role of women in management cannot be viewed in isolation from the general status of women in society and from the general targets of economic, social and educational development (Hammoud 1993). The current study confirms that there are signs of change in the general view of women in Saudi society, and thus, cultural aspects– despite their importance–are not the most serious impediment to women leaders. These results are similar to the findings of another study of factors determining attitudes towards women occupying supervisory positions in Kuwait, which indicates a relatively positive attitude towards women managers (Askar and Ahmad 2003). The study, however, finds that the gender of participant to be statistically significant in determining attitudes towards women managers with females being more supportive of women in supervisory positions (Askar and Ahmad 2003). Similarly, there has been a shift in societal attitudes towards women managers in the UAE from the expected restrictive traditional attitudes to a more liberal view (Mostafa 2005). However, the study also identifies a considerable gender gap in attitudes towards women managers with females being consistently more supportive than males (Mostafa 2005).

162 H. Al-Ahmadi

Personal challenges ranked last among the challenges facing women leaders as a sign on increasing self-confidence and the ability to take responsibility and to achieve balance between professional and family obligations, in addition to psychological and physical readiness to withstand the pressures of administrative work. Omair (2008) points out that although Arab women get domestic help either in the form of paid servants or relatives, housework and child care remain their most important responsibilities. Therefore, it can be concluded that women leaders in Saudi Arabia continue to take responsibility for their homes and family and are able to balance the two sets of obligations. This result is contrary to the beliefs prevailing in the Arabic and non-Arabic literature on the unwillingness of women to face the social, psychological and physical pressures of a leadership role. Findings by prior research show that women often knowingly behaved according to gender-based roles and often revealed a weak self-perception and underestimated their performance (Fondas 1997). Like Fondas, Morley (1993, 28) argues that women unknowingly act in accordance to male ideals, and thus are marginalized: ‘Women enter management as the ‘‘other’’, constantly under surveillance, which may produce a mental set which means women cannot afford to make mistakes and alienate others as the penalties are so high’. Unlike their male counterparts, women managers must manage dual social identity pressures: the effects of socialization and internalized notions of the inferior status of their authority (Morley 1993, 28). In practice, this means that they make strenuous efforts to please others and are vulnerable to criticism and attack from others and often unable to connect with either their institutional power or personal effectiveness. In the Gulf region, Al-Lamki (1999) finds that women managers in Oman report a feeling of inferiority towards men in the management cadre, and they also have to face the triple burden of domesticated wife, mother and professional woman.

Scholars point out the importance of adopting strategies for the empowerment of women leaders. This involves a process of enhancing feelings of self-efficacy through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness (Conger and Kanungo 1988). Empowerment is therefore a state of mind derived from the leaders’ realization of the value of the work they are doing and their confidence in their knowledge and managerial skills, their independence and professional freedom to make decisions and their ability to identify the impact of their performance. In light of the challenges facing women leaders in Saudi Arabia, it can be concluded that empowerment as a state of mind has not been fully achieved due to the lack of agency associated with authority, independence, knowledge and management skill. According to Gandz (1990), it is not logical to put workers in decision-making positions, assigning them important tasks, without provision of appropriate training that empowers them to do all these things. Results reflect the importance of management training as one of the essential components of the empowerment of leaders in women’s sectors in Saudi Arabia.

Given the expansion of women’s leadership role and their growing involvement in decision-making positions, results of this study emphasize the need to grant a degree of flexibility and autonomy in decision-making in women’s sectors, highlighting the importance of empowering women leaders as an integral part of performance improvement strategies. Such a step would enhance their ability to achieve their objectives and meet the aspirations of the public and would meet the needs of the comprehensive development process in Saudi Arabia.

Differences in personal challenges encountered by bachelor’s degree holders may be explained by the fact that leaders with higher qualifications usually work in

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academic positions that might create additional burdens on their personal lives, due to their academic duties and aspirations. In terms of marital status, results indicate that widowed leaders face more structural challenges and less cultural challenges than their married and divorced colleagues. There is no clear explanation for this result, so we can only speculate that widowed leaders might be older in age and rank and may observe organizational limitations, such as limited authority and power, but at the same time, their age and status might lessen social and cultural pressures on them.

Results also logically indicate that leaders specialized in administrative sciences, and also medical and natural sciences, experience less structural challenges, which confirm the fact that qualifications do facilitate empowerment of women leaders. However, the same groups experience more personal challenges that might be a result of their inability to balance personal and professional obligations. Women in younger age groups report less structural and more personal challenges, which might indicate that they are still in early stages of their careers and still struggling with personal and professional life balance. However, they are at a position in the hierarchy that they do experience structural challenges as their older counterparts.

Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that leadership development programmes in Saudi Arabia take into consideration the challenges identified in this study and to include different skills and activities to overcome them. Over the past decade, particularly, there has been a growth in the number of private and public organizations providing training for women in crucial areas that are generally accepted as being instrumental in women’s professional development. One of the key governmental agencies responsible for development of management skills in public institutions through training, consultations and research is the IPA, which plays an important role in the empowerment of women leaders. Leadership development programmes have several objectives, but they should generally focus on three areas. First, these programmes seek to enable women managers to develop the knowledge and skills necessary for effective leadership (Stead and Elliot 2009). Second, they support the transfer of learning of both men and women in adapting to a new understanding of gender relationships so as to reduce the negative bias and stereotyping that limit women’s advancement in leadership roles (Fondas 1997). And finally, to train human resource officers and other decision-makers conform to the specific demands of new regulations, a changing workforce and increasing recognition that organizations must foster a sense of inclusion if they are to make best use of their human resources (Burack et al. 1994).

Training of women leaders should not be isolated from overall development strategies but rather should be integrated into strategic planning efforts and in organizational projects. Women leaders also have to be aware of both their own training needs and the training opportunities available to them. Training should help women leaders identify their own personal style and leadership qualities as well as various sources of power and influence that relate to their role.

Policymakers and government legislatures play a major role in the formation of the social policies, development strategies and legislation that shape opportunities for women in public spheres. Organizations need to adopt human resources approaches that transform work cultures through the change of management, team building, sensitivity training and cross-gender communication. Human resources officers need to monitor organizational performance on gender participation and hold managers accountable in regard to the progress achieved in meeting gender targets (Gatrell and Swan 2008).

164 H. Al-Ahmadi

Organizing forums, workshops and conferences is also essential to keep up with the changing roles of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and with modern trends in management development and to discuss challenges faced by women leaders and ways to overcome them. Job rotation should be promoted in public sectors to create an opportunity to diversify and exchange experiences and gain new skills to introduce fresh changes in government agencies that benefit both the individual and the organization.

Conclusions

This study contributed new insights into the dynamics of women’s role and development in Saudi Arabia. The primary objective of the study was to capture the experiences of women leaders in Saudi Arabia and to highlight the challenges encountered by them in order to pave the way for future generations of aspiring women. The results of this study point out that despite their high qualification, job experience and full readiness to assume leadership roles in their organizations, women leaders in Saudi Arabia face several challenges that limit their effectiveness as leaders and prevent them from achieving their potential. For Saudi Arabia to move on with its current policy of empowering women, thestructuraland cultural barriers identified in this study need to be addressed. The study stresses the importance of training as a means for leadership development, as well as creating platforms for discussion and enhancement of women leadership, and establishing supportive legislation for women’s active role in society. However, any attempt to introduce social change will have to be in line with the cultural norms and values pertaining to women and Islam.

The study comes at a time where Saudi Arabia is undergoing a major reform on all fronts but especially in women’s issues. Results identify the recent positive changes in women’s role and in the official support to women’s participation in public life, which came along as a result of the consistent efforts of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and his conviction of the need to enhance women leadership and participation in the decision-making process at all levels.

Note

1. The Eighth Development Plan (2005–2009), Ministry of Economy and Planning, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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2008/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/1

Background paper prepared for the

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008

Education for All by 2015: will we make it?

Education for all programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abdulrahman I. Al shaer 2007

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2008 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008, Education for All by 2015: will we make it? For further information, please contact [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Education for All Programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The observer of long-term planning for adult education and literacy programmes in the light of the concept of Education for All in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia will notice that it has proceeded on the basis of a defined vision which accords with social requirements and subsequent formulation of general and specific goals on the basis of that vision and in line with a criteria-based strategy for the design and application of courses, textbooks, evaluation tools, teacher training and competent educational management. Given the variability of the pivotal elements, a strategy for change and development had to be put in place within the overall, long-term plan to keep pace with constant changes in science and technology.

Education policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is concerned with the education system as a civilizational demand which it endeavours to meet by the continuous development of educational systems and regulations to keep pace with the rapid developments in human activity. Education policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia believes in the principle, based on religious and social constants and engagement with international agreements and declarations, including the Dakar Declaration (2000), of equality of opportunity for all citizens. Eager to implement the recommendations of the Dakar Declaration, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia published its plans for Education for All for the next few years for all regions of the country, leaving space for state sectors and civil society institutions to participate in the Education for All programmes. Not neglecting the role of the teacher in fostering the concept of Education for All, the Kingdom has adopted the international “Education for All Week”, scheduled by UNESCO each year to remind nations of their commitments. In 2006, the Kingdom gave this the theme of “Every Child Needs a Teacher”, in affirmation of the role of the teacher and importance of the teacher being suitably qualified pedagogically to implement the educational process and achieve its goals.

“Education for All” in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia means the provision of basic education to those of suitable age. It includes all categories determined by the International Declaration on Education for All and International Conference on Education for All namely, early childhood, basic education, adult education, the education of those from deprived environments and girls’ education.

Turning to the strategic policies adopted by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to spread education and eradicate illiteracy, we find that serious consideration of this matter began with the introduction of statutory education and grew into a principal goal, given prominence through the activities of education departments and civil society institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, all of which strive to achieve equality of opportunity in education by extending the scope of enrolment and making all aspects of education universally accessible, beginning with basic education and materials and concern with the curriculum, course, teacher and educational environment. This concern recently took concrete form with the National Forum on Education for All which the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia undertook to set up in implementation of the recommendations of the Dakar Conference and which is considered a strategic step towards the serious and systematic task of providing high-quality education for all. This forum was not a review of previous achievements but an appropriate mechanism for improving the efficiency of the education system and increasing output in such a way as to help achieve the stated goals in accordance with international scientific standards and within a specific time-frame.

By referring to education policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which guarantees free education for all and for which purpose suitable budgets have been allocated, it is possible to analyse the conformity of policy goals to the current concept of Education for All pursuant to the Dakar Declaration (2000), which affirmed the importance of affording everyone access to education. The recommendations of the Dakar Declaration (2000) have been adopted by the

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Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in line with the country’s education policy goals. The Ministry has drawn up for itself a long-term plan to address these recommendations objectively and scientifically and in accordance with social and economic criteria, through the National Forum which aims to provide basic education for all by 2015 at the latest. All are agreed upon the aim of having male and female graduates equipped with Islamic values both in theory and practice, in possession of useful knowledge, skills and attitudes, able to interact positively with modern developments and deal effectively and flexibly with advanced technologies, capable of competing internationally in scientific and applied fields and able to contribute positively to the drive for sustainable development. This can be achieved through an efficient education system able to nurture abilities and propensities and disseminate a positive spirit towards work, in a school environment where education and learning are encouraged.

The National Forum on Education for All

The National Forum aims to provide basic education for all by 2015 at the latest. Its specific goals are:

1. To achieve the goals of Education for All specified at the Dakar Conference namely:

• expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education;

• striving to enable all children to have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality by 2015;

• ensuring that the educational needs of all young people and adults are met;

• achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women;

• eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005;

• improving all qualitative aspects of education and ensuring excellence for all so that clear and tangible learning outcomes are achieved by all students, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

2. To participate in and influence the drafting of policies and strategic plans relating to education (the development and drafting of national plans designed to achieve the goals of Education for All).

3. To monitor national activities in the area of Education for All, compile regular reports thereon and prepare strategies to develop processes to help achieve the goals of Education for All.

4. To strengthen and develop cooperative and collaborative relationships through dialogue and coordination between the relevant educational bodies.

5. To derive the maximum benefit from the entire available potential of all sectors related to the education process in order to maximize the effectiveness of planning for Education for All.

6. To strengthen the commitment of bodies associated with Education for All.

The Importance of the Forum

The importance of the National Forum on Education for All is clear from its setting of the following priorities:

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1. In addition to its concern with basic education, the Forum is concerned with programmes for early childhood, literacy, girls’ education and education of the most deprived groups and likewise affirms the importance of training in life skills. In this way, the principle of Education for All shall be realized.

2. The Education for All programmes comprise an integrated framework in which the various educational elements are brought together and the bodies, whether governmental or civil sector, which implement activities designed to achieve the goals of Education for All, join forces.

3. Education for All contributes to the development of social values through the various educational programmes and activities offered to members of society.

4. The provision of opportunities to meet basic learning needs, such as literacy and numeracy, thereby assisting in the acquisition of fundamental knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.

5. The expansion of basic education and making it universally accessible is the principal bulwark against the spread of illiteracy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It is also the foundation upon which the Ministry of Education builds other forms and the levels of education.

The Achievements of the National Forum on Education for All

1. The convening of the first meeting of the members of the National Forum, in which 23 members took part, representing the relevant sectors from the Ministry of Education and elsewhere;

2. The formation of a subcommittee of the National Forum on Education for All in all departments of boys’ and girls’ education, bringing together a number of departmental employees and representatives from civil society organizations;

3. The convening of the first meeting of the chairmen of the National Forum on Education for All subcommittees in all departments of boys’ and girls’ education;

4. The publication of the Ten-Year National Action Plan for Education for All (2004-2015);

5. The organization of a number of seminars and lectures on early childhood, deprived learners, adult education and girls’ education, within the framework of the goals of Education for All;

6. The publication of a number of introductory leaflets and pamphlets on the work of the Forum;

7. The invitation to a number of experts and specialists in Education for All from international and regional institutions to exchange experience;

8. The provision of international and regional institutions with plans, information and statistics on Education for All;

9. The promulgation of royal assent to compulsory elementary education;

10. The organization of a symposium entitled, “The Efforts of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the Field of Education for All”;

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11. Participation in the international “Education for All Week” (2005), with the theme of “Send My Friend to School”;

12. Participation in a number of symposia, conferences and workshops relating to the activities of Education for All.

Similar goals have been pursued through a number of activities in recent times. Perhaps the symposium “What Do Educators Want from Society and What Does Society Want from Educators?” was one of those which encouraged society and the private sector to take part in the educational drive in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The symposium included a number of themes:

The Qualities and Characteristics of the Product of Education

Regarding the nature of the social, economic, technological and political changes at domestic and international level and the future reflection of these on the needs of the individual and of society in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the school has an undeniably important function in providing a comprehensive scientific and practical education to the younger generation in the areas of doctrine and worship, ethics, individual and social rights and duties, self-development, the preservation of religion, the self, the intellect, property and the physical body. This necessitates greater direction, focus of effort and evaluation of inputs and processes in order to equip a generation of male and female students endowed with the following characteristics, qualities and traits:

1. profound belief in God;

2. informed worship of God;

3. representing praiseworthy Islamic morals in oneself and with others;

4. healthy body, mind and spirit;

5. taking pride in one’s religion and allegiance to country and nation;

6. self-confidence without conceit;

7. appreciation of responsibilities to oneself, society and nation;

8. readiness to assume one’s social roles and functions;

9. appreciation of the social order;

10. positive interaction with other cultures;

11. wise and honest interaction with others;

12. active participation in charitable activities and voluntary work;

13. efficient planning of one’s work and activities;

14. efficient management of self and time;

15. sound, scientific way of thinking.

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The manner of achieving these qualities

The preparation of qualified learners equipped with these characteristics, features and qualities requires the following:

I. Adoption of the policy of quality in education, the targeting of excellence and reducing the extent of mediocrity. Excellence in education, as in any qualitative activity, is based upon certain principles; these include:

1. standardization;

2. focus on the client (here, the student);

3. reliance upon evaluation at all stages;

4. continuity of development;

5. commitment of the relevant parties to the demands of quality;

6. continuous review;

7. ongoing accountability.

Indicators of quality include:

• A national commitment to quality whereby both government and society seek quality, requires them also to provide it by:

1. continuous review of the overall form of educational development and the strategic management of development such that the particular demands of continuous development are clear to those in the field. This is preferable to unconnected initiatives which quickly fade away.

2. the dissemination of a culture of assuming responsibility for the outputs of education, starting with the Ministry of Education, where problems are aired rather than covered up and allowed to worsen;

3. stable expenditure on and investment in development.

• A national plan for the development of education with the following features:

1. that the government takes charge of its drafting and ensures commitment to implementation;

2. that it be a national, cooperative effort by all partners in the field of development;

3. that it proceed in a scientific manner from a general State plan;

4. that it define powers aimed at achieving the goals of excellence in education;

5. that it include sustainable financial support;

6. that it be designed for a limited period and directed towards specific activities;

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7. that it incorporate regular indicators of performance.

• The existence of an environment with the following features:

1. action on the basis of institutional organization;

2. action on the basis of a system of strategic planning;

3. conformity to educational goals;

4. ability to embrace and adapt to change;

5. efficient use of technology;

6. systems of monitoring and accountability.

• The adoption of assessment indicators such as:

1. levels of student attainment;

2. levels of teacher performance;

3. level of school performance and the school’s relations with surrounding environments;

4. levels of inputs to the education process;

5. levels of policy, systems and regulations;

6. levels of education management;

7. levels of performance of the education system as a whole and its general results.

II. Development of all human, organizational and material elements and components of the educational environment such that the following features and requirements are present:

1. well-trained teachers;

2. a safe and fertile educational environment that encourages learning;

3. suitable educational facilities and materials;

4. effective learning technologies;

5. an appropriate academic methodology;

6. clearly defined and accurately assessed learning outcomes;

7. participatory management and administration;

8. development of policy and systems;

9. appropriate educational and pedagogic practice;

10. systems of standardization and accountability;

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11. linkage to the needs of the labour market;

12. ties to national and international life (global thinking and domestic behaviour).

Achieving excellence in the teaching and learning processes requires:

1. the use of information and communication technology (ICT) inside and outside the school environment, making it a fundamental element in the performance of the school, its administrative and teaching staff, and students;

2. the provision of a learning environment for learners focusing upon values, the formation of attitudes, the development of knowledge and skills, the use of self-directed and cooperative forms of learning and the use of methodical and scientific ways of thinking in problem-solving and in dealing with, analysing, processing and using knowledge;

3. support for the learner in a manner that will achieve all-round growth and permit interaction with and adaptation to a multicultural and multiskill society.

III. Adoption of action policies to facilitate positive change in the educational environment. These policies will include endeavouring to create a national education development plan and adoption of the concept of total quality, by means of the following:

1. planning at all stages of work and organizational levels;

2. adoption of a standardized and internationally-accepted system for regular, comprehensive and continuous evaluation of inputs, processes and outputs; the system will use international standards and precise pedagogic indicators and be reliable and objective;

3. application of a fair system of accountability at all organizational levels;

4. adoption of a method of managing by systematic and relatively stable regulations at all organizational levels, dispensing with emergency circulars and directives during the school year;

5. expanding the delegation of executive (procedural) powers at all organizational levels, especially to those in the field;

6. individual professional development at all levels and stages of work;

7. making use of modern management concepts;

8. continuous development of systems, regulations, aids, equipment and materials.

Expanding the participation of society (at individual and institutional level) in planning, implementation and evaluation by means of the following executive policies:

1. expansion of practical, material and moral support for private schools;

2. privatization of certain sections of the Ministry, for example: course development, educational technologies, educational evaluation, educational research, teacher training and certain aspects of student activity;

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3. expansion of the supervisory and administrative powers of parents’ associations in schools;

4. participation of members of society in planning and development committees.

Sustainable development of educational systems and regulations by means of the following executive policies:

1. adoption of the modelling method (development of models) as a comprehensive method of developing the elements and components of educational activity;

2. transfer of first-rate, international educational experience and its adaptation to accord with the fixed values of society;

3. liaison and cooperation with international organizations and institutions involved in public education;

4. endeavouring to conclude cooperation agreements and the exchange of experience with developed, international, education systems;

5. expanded use of modern technology in education and administration.

Focus on the development of the educational process and reduction of educational wastage by means of the following executive policies:

1. giving priority to projects and programmes concerned with developing the core elements and activities of the school itself;

2. reducing the cost of school building and furnishing by focusing on the fundamental educational specifications and dispensing with superficial, ancillary specifications;

3. development of the school programme, giving students the opportunity for personal and capacity development;

4. continuous course development;

5. expansion of staff professional development programmes;

6. downsizing the centralized administrative sectors in the Ministry (agencies, general departments, departments of education, etc.) by gradually reducing administrative centralization, the devolving of authority and privatization of functions.

Speeding up the work of completing fully-equipped school buildings by means of the following executive policies:

1. endeavouring to attract private sector partnership in the upgrading and furnishing of schools;

2. relaxing school building specifications by dispensing with superficial specifications which have no effect upon the process of teaching and learning;

3. raising the conditions for opening new private schools and renewing their operating licences to include the requirement that school building and furnishing meet standard criteria.

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Commitment to reinforcing links to the national economy by means of the following executive policies:

1. striving to strengthen cooperation and consolidate links to national economic visions and plans;

2. striving to give the next generation a broadly-based professional grounding and provide them with skills, knowledge, attitudes and positive professional and economic habits;

3. raising the degree of flexibility in payment systems for educational programmes;

4. striving to make use of theoretical, planning and practical economic experience to improve the performance of the educational system;

5. making use of information technology in the design of special education systems to help increase the effectiveness of education, rationalize expenditure and solve certain problems (such as the problem of small schools in remote areas).

Adult Education and the Eradication of Illiteracy

The report published by the General Secretariat for Adult Education of the Ministry of Education (Girls’ Education Branch) on the occasion of the Arab Day for the Eradication of Illiteracy noted a reduction in illiteracy among women from 40.1% in 1993 to 21.2% in 2005 due to the provision by the Ministry of Education of a number of programmes to reduce the level of illiteracy among female nationals and eliminate its sources of nourishment by expanding the quantity and quality of adult women’s education and literacy programmes. The scope of the plan put in place by the Ministry of Education to reduce the illiteracy level has been evident to observers and those concerned with education, especially the eradication of illiteracy. Moreover, the Ministry has endeavoured to diversify its programmes, offering formal and informal programmes to attract illiterate women into education. Analysis of the Ministry’s plan shows that the formal programmes involve three parallel stages of general education. Each stage has its own curriculum with a scientific and practical methodology linking the concepts and information to which adult female learners and illiterate women are exposed to the society in which they live. As such, it has been possible to transfer abstract knowledge and concepts to the reality of their daily lives. The result has been a success for the Ministry, when we realize that, in 1993, there were 1,254 schools, 4,544 classes and 67,814 female students while, at the end of 2006, there were 3,252 schools, 8,629 classes and 78,906 female students. Alongside the rise in enrolment and success of the programme, there was continuity to advanced levels. In 1999, there were three schools, three classes and 103 female students at intermediate level while, at the end of 2006, there were 106 schools, 260 classes and 4,087 female students at this level.

The secondary level of adult women’s education began in 2001 with eight schools, eight classes and 158 students; at the end of 2006, there were 43 schools, 127 classes and 3,043 students. Informal programmes include mobile adult education and literacy centres, given that geography makes it difficult to establish permanent centres. The goal is to eradicate alphabetic illiteracy among female nationals and raise their religious, health and social consciousness. In 2002, there were 29 centres and 1,531 beneficiaries rising, at the end of 2006, to 359 centres and 10,782 beneficiaries.

The summer campaigns conducted by the Ministry of Education to disseminate knowledge and information are one activity which has borne fruit in this area. The goal of the campaigns is to establish, within two months, educational centres and activities in villages and agricultural communities where the illiteracy level is high and migration is a feature of life. The focus is on

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teaching reading and writing and the religious and social sciences. Results show that in 2006 there were 2,326 women beneficiaries. This is all within the Ministry of Education’s plan of “Education for All”.

Also within the concept of “Education for All”, the Ministry has drawn up a pioneering plan entitled, “Town and Village without Illiteracy” which aims to declare towns and governorates free from alphabetic illiteracy. It has been implemented in Medina, where it targeted 9,750 cases of female illiteracy and is being implemented in Mecca, targeting some 32,032 cases, and the Governorate of Shaqrā’, targeting 622 cases. The programme is concerned with the eradication of alphabetic and civilizational illiteracy among adult women and with enabling them to acquire the skills to help them move into productive work. It was implemented in Jeddah in 2006, targeting 1,295 cases of female illiteracy and will be implemented this year (2007) in seven provinces and governorates. There are also professional development programmes that involve running various short vocational training courses to meet the needs of women and qualify them to become active members of the family and society. These programmes are implemented in accordance with the needs of each province and as either vocational development programmes or adult literacy programmes through vocational development. The idea of introducing a vocational element into the literacy programmes arises essentially from the illiterate person’s need for basic education, alphabetic literacy through knowledge of reading and writing, and the ability to perform the four arithmetic operations, and linking this to an occupation the illiterate person will practise. In this way, the daily needs of such individuals will be satisfied and their social and work-related capabilities increased, whether in respect of the occupations they actually practise and for which they are offered competence-raising courses or in respect of other occupations to help raise their income level and bind them with the local community as active, effective and productive members thereof. In short, a link is established between literacy and numeracy on the one hand, and basic vocational skills programmes directly related to the students’ occupational needs. However, such programmes have not been implemented on the ground as hoped, perhaps because the literacy programmes have lacked a vocational element. It was hoped that the terminology, processes, skills and tools of the occupation in which the adult is trained would be a point of entry to the process of eradicating alphabetic illiteracy, while the student acquired the skills of the job in which he is trained. The adult learner would thus graduate from the programme with a grasp of the fundamentals of writing and arithmetic and, through these, acquire knowledge and an occupation.

The Goals of Incorporating a Vocational Training Element:

• to underpin the literacy project with the occupations needed by illiterate persons to help boost their motivation to learn;

• to provide the illiterate individual with the basic skills to enable him to learn for himself how to meet the requirements of his life and occupation;

• to plan and implement experiments having an impact upon course and teaching methodology;

• to create literacy programmes directed towards work and fostering socio-economic development;

• to help the illiterate solve their social and economic problems and raise their economic capacity;

• to integrate adult education and the eradication of illiteracy with the needs of society.

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It was proposed to the Ministry of Education that an educational glossary be compiled which would include mention of the significance of the trade or occupation, its rudimentary elements, methods of best practice and ways of dealing with common mistakes. In this way, illiterate individuals might acquire a deeper knowledge of the occupation. Programmes might take the form of classes spread throughout the plan, with a full day devoted to each occupation.

The contributions of other sectors, including civil society associations, have played a role in driving the Education for All programmes forward. Both charitable societies and Qur’an memorization societies have conducted literacy programmes and have contributed a programme of one academic year targeting some 500 illiterate persons annually. The ministry launched a campaign entitled “A Ministry without Illiteracy”, designed to eradicate illiteracy among employees of the Ministry of Education (Girls’ Education Branch) and other ministries and government agencies. In addition, 206 women from different regions have benefited from the incorporation by the Ministry of the hearing-impaired into adult education schools. Other adult education programmes exist in women’s prisons and correctional facilities, from which 360 inmates of different nationalities have benefited and there are literacy programmes in old people’s homes, care hostels for girls and rehabilitation centres, from which 195 inmates have benefited. The Ministry’s goal of seeking to reduce the level of illiteracy to 19% this year is consistent with the Dakar Declaration on Education for All.

The Situation of Boys’ and Girls’ Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

There has been a tangible, qualitative development and both horizontal and vertical expansion of boys’ and girls’ education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In 2005, there were 29,735 boys’ and girls’ schools, an increase of 2.8% over 2004. These schools comprised 214,311 classes at all levels and in all types of education, an increase of 3.1% over 2004. At the same time, the number of registered male and female students in 2005 was 5,557,479 which, if compared with the figures for 2004, represents an increase of 734,389 or 1.6%.

This development follows an expansion in recruitment and numbers of staff working in education. The number of male and female educational staff (teachers, headmasters, deputies, librarians, laboratory technicians and student councillors) was 406,471 which, compared to 2004, represents an increase of 28,527 posts or 4.8%. The number of male and female administrative and administrative support staff was 20,478.

The indicators of boys’ and girls’ education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia show the extent of this expansion, which is the corollary of the following:

1. the wide-ranging concern with all levels of girls’ and boys’ general education;

2. the spread of adult education and literacy centres throughout the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia;

3. the markedly increased levels of enrolment in literacy centres in recent years;

4. the adoption of the most effective methods of designing an adult education environment, including the development of methods of assessment and open education at all levels;

5. the concern with quality education programmes providing the opportunity for all to benefit from;

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6. affording the opportunity for male and female teachers in adult education to train in modern technological aids and their use in adult education.

Education in Early Childhood

The policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia with regard to early childhood education is informed by the conceptual framework of early childhood and based upon care, play and education, with attention given to the qualities of excellence, fairness and effectiveness. The element of education in early childhood is represented by pre-school education – i.e. education from birth up to enrolment in primary school – to prepare infants for general education by means of:

1. Early childhood care and education (ECCE):

Priority is given to learning programmes and, thereafter, childhood care, taking into account that integrated care is the responsibility of the family.

2. Early childhood care (ECC):

The focus here is on the integrated care of the child and provision of care for the children of working mothers.

3. Early childhood development (ECD):

In this phase, attention is given to the cognitive, linguistic and social development of the child, focusing on the child’s growth and stages of life.

4. Early childhood care and development (ECCD):

Here, care is diversified to include all aspects, while stressing the development of natural talents through carefully-designed educational programmes.

5. Kindergarten education:

Here, all dimensions of early childhood education are integrated with all the tools and methods of early childhood development through an educational environment consistent with the concepts and theories of teaching and learning.

Through the Ministry of Education and the private sector, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia cares for and supports kindergarten education, for which it has established scientific bases, principles and concepts. The dimensions of kindergarten education are defined by the following concepts:

• integrated health care, together with the provision of security and protection;

• the development of the bond of belonging and affection towards the adults with whom they interact;

• the provision of an environment which prepares them to employ their five senses;

• the provision of opportunities to learn how to care for themselves and develop an independent nature;

• the provision of opportunities for structured play and programmes to develop motor abilities;

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• the encouragement of self-expression by telling stories, having oral exchanges and singing songs;

• the practice of activities which give them a sense of the ability to control things;

• the provision of opportunities for learning, training and discovery through daily action programmes;

• the development of self-control by appraisal of their achievements and awareness of their subjective values.

Planning for Education for All requires establishing an integrated, multidimensional strategy, including the pre- and in-service training of early childhood-level teachers at all levels. The teaching and training plan includes imparting the technical skills and knowledge relating to early childhood programmes. The Ministry is aware of the importance of this phase and of the requirements for preparing practitioners.

Through colleges of education and kindergarten sections of Saudi universities, the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have been concerned with the training of female graduates scientifically and professionally along approved academic lines in order to increase the numbers holding bachelor’s degrees in kindergarten education and employ them in the field to achieve 100% Saudization of pre-school education.

The Situation of Male and Female Adult Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

If we accept that the recognized, statutory education system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which takes the student from age six to age 18, is a normative progression, logic requires us to acknowledge that whoever does not set foot upon this ladder and advance through the learning process or fails to complete it before exceeding the age limit, shall be considered by the Ministry of Education as an adult and classified as educationally backward. There is, however, another education system which has appeared on the scene as the result of a number of social, economic and doctrinal factors and which has been fostered by successive developments in all areas of life and multiple sources of education and learning. It has given rise to a number of concepts, including qualification and upgrading, the eradication of occupational illiteracy and functional, developmental and social capacity-building programmes. The concepts of learning for the labour market, learning to learn and learning for life have acquired greater prominence, prompting the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in the form of education departments and governmental and civil educational and training institutions, to give consideration to adult education programmes and accord them the utmost importance.

The contemporary approach towards adult education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia proceeds from the principle of behaviour acquired through the educational process, the results of which are an intellectual, organic and psychological transformation reflected at the level of the individual’s productivity, his relations with others and his attitude towards his own position on the social map. The intellectual change generates the acquisition of new ideas or reorganization of existing ones, causing a professional change whereby the learner masters and values his work, feeling differently towards it than before his exposure to education.

Adult educators are aware that the adult learner is capable of learning by himself and, when given the opportunity of a richly-resourced educational environment, of deciding his own direction by himself. Learning means discovery and knowledge and how to use and consolidate knowledge, apply it in practice to acquire proficiency and then to develop proficiency to arrive at the stage of

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creativity. This confirms the saying that the learner is someone who wants something, someone who observes something, someone who does something and someone who gets something.

As understood in adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, education is a change; it is not accumulated additions to behaviour acquired prior to the learning process. Learning is a re-formation and re-organization of accumulated, linked intellectual elements. Accordingly, adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are fashioned in accordance with the concept of changing behaviour rather than imparting behaviour. This requires educational programmes and an educational environment which are different from teaching programmes developed in accordance with the statutory education system.

Male and female adult learners have different personal characteristics and physical abilities from the young and these are taken into consideration when thinking about establishing adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Adults are treated as adults and not as if they were schoolchildren. Things they are able to perform of their own accord will be those which correspond to their propensities as successful individuals. These facts must be taken into account when designing adult education programmes.

From the present writer’s point of view, the problem faced by adult educators in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia can be expressed in terms of the questions: How does the adult learn? And what does he learn? These two eternal questions would not dominate the thinking of educators and those concerned with education were it nor for the professional debate over theories of learning and disagreement over how to address the cognitive growth of the individual. While educators believe it is important for adult education courses to follow a methodology consistent with the cognitive abilities of adults, there are new social demands for adult education that not everyone may agree with but which nevertheless constitute a reality that has imposed itself on the educational arena and given rise to other problems for which solutions are needed. For example, the development occurring in human societies has obliged them to be in a state of constant change in many respects. Such change, which requires that there be continuous adjustment to the technological facts of the age, has left people constantly seeking to keep pace with and benefit from the wheel of scientific progress. However, people’s aspiration to keep up with the developed nations is accompanied by a process of constant evaluation of all emerging technologies, selecting those appropriate to their needs and, consequently, part of the needs of their society, without this influencing the human values and concepts of the society in which they live.

Designers of adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are aware that it is the level of general culture which determines the ability to be selective with regard to modern technology, to determine society’s need for this technology and to adapt the greater part of it to suit the nature of society’s requirements. This adaptation involves making use of the tools, materials, equipment, systems and ideas of technology to serve individuals and social institutions without encroaching on the basic structure of society. When technology imposes itself upon society, an adjustment and functional reorganization on the part of the individual is inevitable. It is clear that technology is there to increase the efficiency of the individual, if the ground has been properly prepared to make use of it but the adoption of technology without a suitable environment having being prepared for it will not serve the purpose, according to the theories of education and learning and their application. These hold that education is a subjective activity practised by the adult and from which responses are produced which help him to face situations and solve problems he may encounter during performance of his work. By saying that education and training are subjective activities on the part of the learner or trainee, we are stressing the role of the individual and his ability to comprehend what is taught to him. The teacher and various educational and training aids are agents which stimulate sound responses from the learner; these responses are acquired by adult learners exposed to the programme.

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Education is a desired change in behaviour, imparting knowledge and information to the adult to enable him to apply such knowledge and information in his working life. In other words and according to theories of learning, adult education is the conversion of knowledge and information into practical skills through which the learner is able to make use of what he has learned in adult education programmes.

These factors may seem at first self-evident and simplistic but they are the basic foundation upon which the adult education programme in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is built.

As the pace of development, technological progress and civilizational change have a positive or negative impact upon individuals, so education systems in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia have focused on the knowledge and skills of individuals to enable them to keep up with this change and raise their scientific attainment to a level more appropriate to the age in which they live. Those concerned with adult education continually have to classify and define the scale of needs in order to allocate priorities for implementation. Similarly, the designer of adult education programmes is aware that life progresses as an integrated system, governed by sub-systems that interact with each other for the sake of the cohesion of the whole.

Knowledge of the sustainable development plan and working within its framework make adult education more relevant and beneficial to the society it serves. The designer must emphasize his role as specialist in this field when drawing up the strategy for adult education – which should not concentrate on theoretical aspects at the expense of the practical, even if these are important in applying concepts and skills and forming the adult learner’s creative ability.

It has been observed that planning for adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has three basic stages namely:

1. Study and analysis of the current situation is extremely important for determining the starting point of the programme, once the vocational and educational levels of the individuals it is wished to teach have been ascertained. The study is carried out by means of descriptive analysis and the Ministry of Education’s reports and records, with documents on adult education and the eradication of illiteracy in education departments in all regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia being studied and analysed;

2. Study and analysis of the material, physical and human demands, the definition of adult education needs upon programme implementation and the time-frame for implementation;

3. Selection and appointment of the teaching staff in accordance with criteria determined by the preliminary job description studies of the teachers and learners capable of working in adult education programmes.

These three stages represent the preliminary studies undertaken for the Ministry of Education by educational experts commissioned to conduct programme planning. Together, they constitute one step in the development of the programme. They are extremely important since ignorance of them will not help the designer to design a programme that serves the goals of the State effectively. A national plan for adult education and training involves the precise definition of current needs and development, and the definition of future requirements. Adequate planning involves taking a number of factors into account, the most important of which are the educational goals and plans of the Ministry, the work-related and technological changes, the nature of the processes of application, the formation of the workforce, the capabilities of those responsible for teaching and development and associated costs.

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The curriculum of adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is underpinned by scientific, philosophic and pedagogic bases. We should distinguish here between the concept of the curriculum and the concept of the course. The course is the map which enables the learner to acquire knowledge, master skills, solve problems and develop competence. The curriculum is the objective statement of the knowledge, facts and concepts which assist the acquisition of skills and attitudes; it is built upon philosophic and pedagogic bases, as mentioned above. The use of reason in cognitive matters is governed by a number of psychological circumstances such as receptiveness, realism, intelligence, perceptiveness and skill in application. In itself, thinking is the process of organizing situations and events and retrieving information to meet an educational or training situation and is determined by the degree of intelligence enjoyed by the learner. Intelligence is considered innate and exemplified in reason. A man’s interaction with his environment and the behavioural changes he undergoes through education and training help to develop it. These premises are taken into consideration by adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

One of the elements of the curriculum of adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the promotion of the learner’s ability to transfer the effect of the learning, which is an extension of the ability to engage in the process of applying in practice the material acquired during study. While stating that one of the elements of a good curriculum is to help to transfer the effect of the teaching, we observe a number of issues with regard to adult education curricula in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia:

I. The definition of educational goals

The knowledge explosion which confronts people has left curricula and course designers throughout the world in a state of permanent confusion over the degrees of importance of the content and how the amount of scientific material it is wished to convey to the recipient at a particular time such that it leaves a significant benefit can be determined. The definition of goals helps the designer to determine the quantity of written material, the way of shaping it and method of distributing it to contribute to the effective transfer of information in the shortest time. The teacher helps to transfer the information to the adult learner in a manner consistent with his abilities. Likewise, the methodological sequencing of the material in accordance with the stated educational goals helps both teacher and learner to examine and analyse situations and understand the relationships between experiences associated with the educational situation. The designers of adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are not unaware of this fact.

II. Clarity of thinking

The success of the education process and the scale of acquisition of knowledge and skills depend on the ability of the designer to engineer the course and make use of educational, pedagogical and psychological ideas in the objective presentation of the curriculum. This helps to explain concepts and open channels of understanding for the learner in such a way that he will be able to generalize the concepts and skills and apply them in his working life. This has been observed in adult education curricula which have embraced the principle of individual differences in the understanding of course concepts and put solutions in place to ensure the gap is reduced.

III. The use of educational aids

The curriculum designer knows that the stiff, formulaic presentation of ideas and reliance on words alone in presenting subject matter may result in a failure to fix the information in the learner’s memory or the learner’s failure to understand the verbal explanation. Accordingly the curriculum writer relies on educational aids such as charts, pictures, diagrams, illustrations and

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examples to connect scientific facts with the actual social life experienced by the adult. This imparts to the learner the ability to interpret and apply such facts and to retain a substantial amount of information. Practical aspects of the educational plan, such as conducting experiments and field research, promote the ability to recall information and facts with the desired speed. As such, consideration must be given to direct, purposeful experience to enhance understanding, retention and recall.

Goals properly formulated in accordance with educational concepts help in choosing the curriculum. Accordingly, the Ministry of Education has been anxious to scrutinize goals and define areas of importance which determine the subject matter of the curriculum and method of presentation to learners. In fact, goals are a map for the acquisition of scientific, educational and practical knowledge.

The curriculum designer knows that intellectual activity is governed by a number of internal and external influences. Examples of internal influences are the psychological and organic aspects of the adult learner, such as intelligence, sensory perception and the physical ability to perform practical exercises. External influences include all outside influences and stimuli which steer the process of adult learning, such as need, motivation, receptiveness and conviction. Although these are considered as psychological factors, they are, in most cases, external influences. The most important external influence is the curriculum, which has an effective part to play in the adult learner’s intellectual activity.

For the curriculum to be comprehensive and realistic, the adult learner must be given the opportunity to have direct experience of tools and equipment, rather than theoretical explanation. This should be done under conditions comparable or similar to actual conditions of work and with educational equipment, tools and aids comparable to those found at work. All of these conditions produce good results when capable and experienced adult education teachers are chosen.

The design of the subject curriculum is a skill requiring pedagogic and technical abilities. Likewise, the organization of the curriculum and sequencing of ideas requires a thorough study of the nature of the educational programme, the level of the programme beneficiary and the educational environment. In the design of the content of adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the following points have been taken into account:

1. Determination of the nature of the culture of adult learners:

Culture may be either general culture, which includes language, values, doctrinal belief, social customs, etc., or specific culture, which characterizes a specific group of people linked by a particular discipline or profession.

2. Determination of the importance of the curriculum in eradicating adult illiteracy:

Knowledge of the importance of the curriculum in adult education programmes and its benefit to the individual in the performance of his work helps to define the amount of material and content the learner needs to study.

3. Accuracy and modernity in the curriculum of adult education programmes:

It is important that the scientific concepts in the curriculum be accurate and up-to-date in order for it to keep abreast of scientific developments and help to raise the adult learner’s competence in modern technology. This requires that the entire scientific content of the material be carefully examined and that the scientific concepts be tightened up.

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4. The general framework of the curriculum:

There has been no departure from the Islamic framework of values and ethics; instead, these have been observed when providing examples, presenting philosophical aspects or reviewing concepts which make use of dialectics and logic. The general framework of the curriculum is thus consistent with the Islamic principles and values to which society adheres, thereby gaining a degree of acceptance.

5. The internal organization of information (knowledge, skills and attitudes):

The interconnectedness of information and its organization within the curriculum have been observed by sequencing ideas and simplifying all information. This is apparent in the sequence of knowledge levels. It also helps in the choice of teaching method and appropriate tools.

6. The degree of accuracy in the presentation of ideas within the curriculum:

Accurate presentation of ideas in the curriculum, their appropriateness to the level of the adult learner, the importance of the educational programme and the focus on priorities in the presentation of ideas, concepts and facts;

7. Soundness of language:

The writing of a memorandum or educational material requires attention to linguistic accuracy. This has been observed in the curriculum of adult education programmes, where the language has been simplified to the level of understanding of the illiterate person.

8. Creativity and innovation in curriculum design:

The skilful linking of scientific principles and workshop applications to the reality of the local environment and not borrowing other people’s ideas enables the learner to use the information in the curriculum to develop his creative abilities.

9. The cognitive and affective aspects of the curriculum:

The curriculum does not focus upon cognitive aspects alone, as this would cause the scientific material to lose flexibility and fail to elicit a response from the learner. Affective aspects such as the stimulation of feelings, sensations and impressions concerning the programme materials have been taken into account. It is possible to highlight this by concentrating on exemplary values, teaching the love and virtue of work and the need to perfect this in practice, as far as possible.

10. The general clarity of the curriculum:

The curriculum has been designed with sufficient clarity to direct the adult learner to information with ease, thereby helping him to examine and solve problems. It is necessary to affirm the importance of learning tools, activities, exercises and projects to assist the process of understanding and, consequently, of mastery. The curriculum should be provided with references which the learner may consult to obtain further information.

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The educational programme designer develops education strategies on the basis of the general concept of the adult education programme, designed to impart knowledge, develop the skills of individuals and enable them to acquire new skills, thereby preparing workers who are able to cope with the situations of daily life, assume supervisory and managerial positions or improve their productivity in different departments. The programme’s educational strategies are divided into two principle types:

I. Strategies related to the adult learners themselves

Strategies related to adult learners are represented in the distribution of educational programmes on the basis of the levels and ages of the learning group. The program is constructed and prepared for implementation in accordance with these levels and features; consequently, learners will be in a position to effect the desired, lasting change. The change in knowledge, skills and attitudes is brought about in accordance with the methods used by the institution which implements the educational programme. Adult education programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are prepared with a high level of thoroughness, flexibility and adaptability to rapid change. There are general factors to be taken into consideration when defining the strategies of adult education programmes on the basis of the capabilities and comprehension of learners; these are:

1. the educational levels of the learners;

2. the relationship of the programme to the learner’s employment and occupational future;

3. the appropriateness of the programme to the learner’s social circumstances;

4. the scale of the material and moral incentives the learner has;

5. the place and time of holding the educational programme.

II. Strategies related to the nature of the educational programme

The strategies of the educational program are represented by the programme’s primary and secondary adult education goals. These help to define the quantity of ideas, information and skills it is wished to convey to the learner. On this basis, the forms of teaching and training and methods of implementation increase in number.

The basic elements of adult education programmes designed in accordance with strategies relating to the programme itself may be summarized as:

1. the educational needs in society;

2. definition of the desired knowledge, skills and attitudes;

3. the educational environment of literacy programmes and the teaching conditions;

4. the material and human demands of programme implementation;

5. the educational equipment and aids available in the environment;

6. the timescale of programme implementation.

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These frameworks make an effective contribution to the development of a design model for adult education programmes. System input to programme design may be summarized as the response to the following questions:

(a) Why is the educational programme being prepared?

(b) For whom is the educational programme being prepared?

(d) To what extent will the educational programme achieve the goal?

Adult Education Institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Consistent with the concept of Education for All, the number of statutory and non-statutory areas of adult education is multiplying. In consequence, the number of bodies implementing programmes for adults is also increasing. Some of these educational areas have been designed in accordance with scientific, educational and psychological criteria, while others are specific knowledge-, concept-, time- or scientific fact-based programmes. These areas are categorized in accordance with the adult curriculum. In sum, they consist of concepts, knowledge, facts and skills from which everyone can benefit to varying degrees, as determined by need, experience and psychological, social and environmental reasons. Material and moral incentives promote commitment and continuity. These are important bases for fostering the concept of Education for All, although the extent to which they are adopted varies in accordance with the goals and approaches of the implementing bodies.

Cognitive and Skill-Related Areas in Adult Education Programmes:

1. General culture (theoretical and practical);

2. Applied sciences;

3. Continuing education;

4. Skills acquisition (intellectual and performance);

5. Eradication of alphabetic illiteracy;

6. Eradication of vocational illiteracy;

7. Direction and guidance.

The above programmes represent the general concept of education represented in:

• Education for knowledge;

• Education for life;

• Education for dealing with others;

• Education for the labour market.

The above concepts have been put into effect through a great number of educational areas on offer to the adult. These areas have been harmonized scientifically and functionally and a

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methodological, content-related and geographic balance has been established in order to achieve the comprehensiveness which is one of the objectives of the concept of Education for All.

Education for All in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has witnessed significant developments, leading to a deepening and expansion of the field and making adult education an applied educational arena where efforts are being made to increase knowledge and develop the skills, attitudes and experience associated with its programmes.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has paid special attention to adult education, believing it has a major role to play in the development plans which commenced implementation in 1970. In its broadest sense, illiteracy – alphabetic, civilizational and functional – is one of the main obstacles to sustainable development plans and a manifestation of technological, political and civilizational backwardness.

It was therefore natural that adult education institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia should multiply and diversify, making it essential for them to be monitored in order to achieve an education system which will realize the concept of Education for All. These programmes and institutions may be categorized as follows:

I. Statutory Education Literacy Programmes

These include study in literacy centres for a period of three years, evening intermediate schools for a period of three years and evening secondary schools for a period of three years.

Within the framework determined by the Higher Committee for Literacy and Adult Education, the Ministry of Education is responsible for technical matters relating to this kind of education, including:

• preparation of executive and organizational plans for study;

• supply of manpower and training programmes;

• preparation of courses, textbooks and educational aids;

• monitoring and supervision of programme implementation;

• organization of summer consciousness-raising and literacy campaigns;

• supervision of examinations and awarding of certificates.

The Ministry of Education has been charged with the task of supervising literacy programmes in the military sectors of the State namely: the National Guard, Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior, as well as the schools of the Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu.

According to the 2002 statistics, there were 3,760 literacy centres, 342 evening intermediate schools and 224 evening secondary schools with more than 175,000 male and female students currently studying in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

II. Non-Statutory Education Literacy Programmes

Non-statutory education refers to all educational activities conducted outside the formal education system. It is natural that the institutions providing this type of education in the Kingdom

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of Saudi Arabia should be as diverse as the goals of the institutions and the needs of their students. These institutions may be categorized as follows:

1. Institutions which are concerned with Islamic studies, such as mosques, charitable societies, Koran memorization groups, offices of missionary work and religious guidance etc., offer programmes of religious doctrine and ritual. These take a variety of forms, including forums, conferences, lectures and seminars. Desiring to increase the awareness of adults and equip them with the weapons of faith and from concern for their capabilities and potential, the Grand Mosques of Mecca, Medina and Riyadh, the Qubbā’ Mosque and the Mosque of Sheikh Muhammad bin ‘Uthaimīn in ‘Unaiza play a major role in providing these programmes, as well as contributing to the success and realization of development plans in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

2. Educational institutions are those which provide educational and training services and seek to help adult members of society to achieve their goals. Examples are the programmes provided by the Ministry of Education, university social service centres and the Institute of Public Administration. They seek to achieve the following goals:

(a) to organize the programmes needed by individuals and institutions;

(b) to enable nationals in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to keep abreast of the age in which they live;

(d) to spread cultural, social, scientific and vocational awareness among nationals.

To achieve their goals, these institutions seek to achieve human development by the following means:

(a) general education services (lectures, seminars, awareness and guidance programmes);

(b) specialized education services (specialized training courses, language programmes);

3. Vocational institutions are concerned with the development of human resources to enable these to contribute to development plans. Programmes include those provided by the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training, the Ports Authority, Saudi Arabian Airlines, the Saudi Electricity Company, Saudi Telecom, etc. These programmes are receiving increasing interest from both youth and adults because of the rapid development the Kingdom is experiencing, the general resurgence in all administrative, economic, industrial and agricultural sectors and the need to create a technically qualified and trained workforce capable of meeting the requirements and needs of sustainable social development plans.

4. Commercial organizations: Believing in the need for employees to keep abreast of the civilizational, educational and technological changes witnessed by society, forms of business education have emerged in the private sector to develop the capabilities of employees or those enrolled in its training programmes. Private sector institutions are interested in adult education programmes, such as those provided by the Chambers of

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Commerce and the computer, language and medical science programmes, etc., offered by private sector institutions. The large commercial organizations have departments to teach and train employees, either on-site or off-site, to enable them to achieve their goals and keep pace with ongoing changes. The benefits to these organizations take the form of improved employee performance.

5. Social organizations seek to develop and advance society socially, economically and culturally. Programmes include those provided by the Ministry of Social Affairs and women’s associations, as well as agricultural guidance programmes. As a developing country, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has, since development planning began, been concerned with social development programmes and has contributed actively to the creation of and funding of charitable societies and women’s societies, as an affirmation of its belief in their role in the development of society and enhancement of its ability to keep pace with the successive changes it is going through.

6. The contributions of cultural institutions: These are organizations of mass communications – print and audiovisual – which take an active part in the dissemination of knowledge and spread of cultural awareness among all groups of society by means of educational, scientific, managerial, political and economic programmes and articles. Programmes include the offerings of exhibitions, museums, theatres and the various media. Programmes are characterized by flexibility and are not subject to precise criteria in terms of age, educational level, length, time and type of methodology, teachers and students. In most cases, they are optional programmes to enable students to achieve their goals and meet their needs.

This diversity of programmes, activities and institutions makes the creation of a national plan to coordinate educational services for adults in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia essential. Such a plan will include the standardization of goals and strategies in preparation for putting in place a long- term plan for this type of educational activity. It will include a strategic organization and executive organization consistent with the social, psychological and geographic dimensions and the overall concept of Education for All. Accordingly, the national group for adult education in the Ministry of Education has drawn up a proposal to coordinate adult education services, taking into account the economic, social and geographic dimensions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The group has also endeavoured to investigate the nature of the free manual, intellectual and automated professions and has been anxious to formulate a plan to eradicate illiteracy by cooperating with the professions practised by illiterate men and women, establishing a link with the actual situation of these individuals and explaining abstract terms from the literacy curriculum to enable them to understand these and bring about an educational impact which will help reduce illiteracy rates.

The Proposed Plan for the Coordination of Adult Education Services in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Planning the coordination of adult education services in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, within the concept of Education for All, is carried out in a manner consistent with the needs of all elements of society, including individuals and public and private institutions. The basic objective is to prepare individuals with a solid education who are able to undertake functional and professional tasks at as high a level of competence as possible. In an age characterized by its technological realities and the knowledge explosion, the need for such coordination has become urgent. However, there are several important aspects which must be taken into account when planning coordination namely, concern with the cultural, occupational and civilizational balance in society. The shape of the plan will be governed by the general structure of society, as represented by educational levels, geographic distribution, the level of acceptance of change and the age levels of those targeted by the

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plan. However, this will only be feasible if the plan is drawn up by initially defining the scale of society’s needs for these educational services. Accordingly, the starting point of the plan must be the study and analysis of the current situation of institutions providing adult education services.

Planning is a fundamental process for each aspect of programme implementation and development. It is also a continuous process, subject to constant evaluation and revision, rather than a single project measure taken at one specific time. Sufficient time and resources for the programme need to be determined and a realistic time-frame established. Goals and the possible return also require to be defined clearly and precisely. Information and recommendations from previous planning and assessments will require to be reviewed at an early stage.

In such cases, input from systems’ methodology will be applied to short- and long-term planning, with reference within the plan to the implementation mechanism by means of which the roles of the institutions concerned with adult education are to be defined. There will also be a focus on the scientific foundations on which coordination must be based. These include:

1. qualitative and quantitative excellence and avoidance of unjustified duplication between adult education programmes in order to achieve the required integration;

2. adult education programmes should be tied to two fundamental approaches namely, service to the natural and social environment of the region, and anticipating the future and preparing to meet the needs thereof in the light of the age of technology, the knowledge explosion and globalization;

3. directing educational efforts and resources towards consolidating Arab and Islamic values, considering these to be civilizational foundations for the building of contemporary societies;

4. planning a set of activities and services designed to assist students and teaching staff to interact with sources of information in order to facilitate teaching and learning;

5. making available suitable information, staff and the necessary location to support the above activities and services, and constructing databases using modern methods;

6. making available the necessary material and intellectual facilities to make use of all types of educational resources;

7. facilitating access to educational information and materials outside the educational environment;

8. appreciating the value of making the link between critical reading, listening and viewing, and success in life;

9. knowledge of how human and material resources and potential should be distributed and managed;

10. providing the information necessary to evaluate individuals’ activities and capabilities and the programme delivered to them.

In order to put the coordination plan into effect, work shall be required within the framework of systems’ methodology to identify and meet the human input needs, such as teachers, learners, school management, materials, equipment, the educational environment, etc., with the maximum possible efficiency and effectiveness, together with the allocation of time, labour and costs. These

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needs must then be translated into specific and quantifiable goals which can be achieved through the educational processes employed within the educational environment and measured by the outputs of the system.

Success in the process of coordinating adult education services in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the light of the concept of Education for All is dependent on its intellectual input, which is the basis for all elements of system input. These, in turn, form the basis for implementing the educational process with a high degree of competence, with its outputs attaining exemplary levels of scientific, practical and intellectual achievement.

God is the Provider of Success

Dr. ‘Abd-ur-Rahmān bin Ibrāhīm ash-Shā’ir

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education

Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission Washington, DC

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN SAUDI ARABIA

2006

Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission to the U.S.A

2600 Virginia Ave., N.W., Suite 800 Washington, D.C. 20037

Tel: (202) 337-9450 • Fax: (202) 337-2978 Website: www.sacm.org

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Educational System in Saudi Arabia

Education has been one of the first and most prominent benefits accompanying the development of the modern State of Saudi Arabia. In 1925, the Directorate of Education was established. It was fol- lowed a year later by the Basic Instructions that laid the foundation for a centralized national system of government.

A new era in the development of modern educa- tion began in 1953 with the establishment of the Ministry of Education on December 24, 1953, as part of the Council of Ministers. The late King Fahd Ibn Abdulaziz, who was appointed the first Minister of Education, guided the Ministry’s unprecedented expansion and modernization of educational resources. With its establishment, more schools were opened, and public education started to expand throughout the country. The expansion in education was so rapid that the Ministry of Education found it necessary to create "school districts" in different parts of the country to assist the Ministry by distributing some of its responsibilities.

In 1958, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia along with other members of the Arab League agreed upon a uni- form educational system that provided for a 6-year elementary, a 3-year intermediate and a 3-year sec- ondary cycle with a separate higher education pro- gram.

National development plans stressed a basic phi- losophy for the successful modernization of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This philosophy was based on two major principles: 1) developing needed human resources through education and training, and 2) building a comprehensive economic infrastructure. Due to their importance to the National Development Plans, human resources development along with infra- structure, economic resources and social resources, including education, were given high priority.

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The following flow chart of the educational ladder in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia provides a quick reference of the organization of the education system.

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THE EDUCATIONAL LADDER

The educational system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia consists of the following levels:

1 – Pre-Elementary Level The pre-elementary level prepares boys and girls

for elementary education. The Children are taught at this level for the duration of two years. Children are enrolled at the age of four years old in the nursery school and at the age of five in the preliminary school.

2 – Elementary Level Elementary level schooling is compulsory in Saudi

Arabia and is also regarded as the foundation for the development of an overall educational program.

Children are enrolled at the age of six and spend a total of six years at the elementary level. The school year consists of two semesters, each with at least 15 weeks of classes and a two-week examination period Grades 1-4 are exempted from these examinations and are instead regularly evaluated by their teachers . The daily elementary school schedule has six 45- minute classes. The standard curriculum is studied by boys and girls in separate schools.

3 – Intermediate Level Upon finishing the elementary level, students

between the ages of twelve and fourteen are encour- aged to continue their education at the intermediate level (the equivalent of grades 7-9 in the U.S. educa- tion system).

The school year at this level consists of two 15- week semesters and a two-week examination period. There are thirty-three class periods per week, each of which is forty-five minutes in length.

At this level, English becomes a required subject and remains compulsory throughout secondary school. Passing a completion examination is necessary to receive the Intermediate School Certificate, which is a prerequisite for entering secondary school.

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4 – Secondary Level

4-1 Regular Secondary Education

Secondary school education spans three years and generally serves students in the fifteen to nineteen year-old age group. All students in the regular second- ary schools study a general curriculum for the first year and choose for the remaining two years one of the following majors:

• Administration & Social Science

• Natural Science

• Shariah & Arabic Studies

Students who maintain high grade-point averages in mathematics and physical science at the 10th grade level are encouraged to enroll in the natural science program.

The school year consists of two semesters, each of which is twenty weeks long, including a two-week examination period. Class periods are forty-five min- utes long, and weekly schedules vary between a total of twenty-six and thirty-three periods, depending on grade and subject emphasis. To earn a Secondary School Certificate students must complete the required credits and pass their individual subject examinations with a grade of no less than fifty percent of the maximum score.

4-2 Vocational and Technical Secondary Education

National development policy makes a compelling case for the importance of technical education and vocational training in Saudi Arabia. The technical and vocational skills of the Saudi work force is a critical factor in increasing productivity and staying apace with the rapid technological developments sweeping the international business world. The programs in industrial, commercial, agricultural and vocational training described here play an essential role in preparing more highly skilled Saudi workers.

Technical education is divided into three types:

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• Industrial. • Commercial. • Agricultural.

These institutes have three year programs for inter- mediate school graduates.

King Saud University

5- Higher Education Level

The post secondary system of education in Saudi Arabia is, to a certain degree, similar to the educa- tional system of the United States. The patterns and procedures of these educational systems have been adopted in accordance with Islamic systems, tradi- tions and customs.

In 1975 a segment of the Ministry of Education became a separate entity, and was renamed the Ministry of Higher Education, with the purpose of dealing exclusively with higher education. Among its responsibilities were:

■ Proposing the establishment of higher educational institutions and authorizing them to offer special programs in accordance with the country’s needs.

■ Creating and administering universities and colleges in the Kingdom.

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■ Raising the level of communication and coordina- tion between institutions of higher learning and coordinating with other governmental ministries and agencies in terms of their interests and needs in higher education.

■ Representing the government abroad in all educa- tional and cultural affairs, through various cultural and educational offices distributed over 32 countries.

The Higher Education Council is the supreme authority for post-secondary education affairs with the specific task of supervising and coordinating its insti- tutions, with the sole exception of military education. Some of the Council’s responsibilities are: directing university education in accordance with policy, super- vising the development of university education in all sectors, coordinating among universities especially in the field of scientific departments and degrees, encouraging research, formulating rules and regula- tions for compliance by all institutions of higher learning.

Higher education in Saudi Arabia has undergone a tremendous growth over the last five decades. The higher education system, which is based on diversifi- cation has expanded to include:

• 11 major universities (109 colleges & 9 institutes) • 18 primary teacher's colleges for men • 102 primary teacher's colleges for women • 40 colleges and institutes for health • 24 technical colleges • 9 private universities and colleges

The universities and colleges offer graduate studies programs which grant master’s and doctoral degrees in some fields. Like other elements of the educational system in the Kingdom, higher education is designed and evaluated in relation to the overall national devel- opment plan, and is considered essential for fulfilling the potential of the Kingdom’s greatest resource- its people.

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SPECIAL EDUCATION

In 1960 the Ministry of Education started a special education program and opened the first governmen- tally supported training institute for blind male stu- dents, the Al-Noor Institute in Riyadh. In 1964, the first school for blind girls was founded. In the same year the first school for the hearing impaired, the Amal Institute in Riyadh, was opened to provide education, training and care for deaf children. By that time, resources for blind students had expanded to five insti- tutes. The first specialized institute for children with mental disabilities, Al-Tarbiyah Al Fikriyah Institute for boys and girls in Riyadh, was opened in 1971.

There has been a steady expansion of resources for disabled students as new institutions are founded in different geographic locations according to the needs of each province. Schools for the handicapped have increased from one school in 1960 to 27 schools in 1987, and most recently to 54. Presently there are 10 schools for the blind, 28 schools for the deaf and 16 schools for the mentally challenged.

King Abdulaziz University Exhibition Hall

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ADULT AND EVENING EDUCATION

The Ministry of Education and the educational authorities give considerable attention to adult educa- tion. An ambitious plan was launched to eradicate illiteracy in twenty years through four stages:

1. The Initial Stage: The goal was to eradicate 20% of the illiterate population in the first five years.

2. The Expansion Stage: The goal was to eradicate an additional 25% of the illiterate population, in the second five years and another 30% in the third five years.

3. The Third Stage: The goal was to eradicate 24% more of the illit- erate population in the following three years.

4. The Final Stage: The goal is to eradicate illiteracy among the remaining 1% of the illiterate population in the last year.

Adult educational programs were established throughout the Kingdom to help combat illiteracy. These programs were developed and are supervised by the General Secretariat for Adult Education. Over 90% of adult education classes are coordinated by the Ministry of Education, and utilize public school facil- ities and teachers. National education policy requires all private schools to offer their share of adult educa- tion classes in order to qualify for government assis- tance.

The basic program teaches reading, writing and arithmetic up to the fourth grade. Students who com- plete the requirements of this program receive a Literacy Certificate. There is a standardized curricu- lum that is used in all adult education classes, and the textbooks for this introductory level have been spe- cially designed for adult students.

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Adult education does not end with combating illit- eracy. Adult education also provides for the continu- ing education at higher levels. Evening schools are made available throughout the country to enable male adults, and those who work during the day, to pursue their education and sit for the general examinations held by the Ministry of Education. These students may continue their university study or use the certificates they obtain to improve their standard of living.

GIRLS’ EDUCATION

The Kingdom has been at the forefront of many countries in providing equal education at all levels to both males and females. As a result of these efforts, the Kingdom has provided a distinguished level of educa- tion for women that guaranteed the continuation of their education. Recent statistics (which are presented in the following table) indicate close equality in the number of students according to gender enrolled in the three stages of education.

Number of Students in all levels of Education

2004

Level

Elementary Education

Intermediate Education

Secondary Education

Higher Education

Total

Male

1,242,959

614,211

453,038

236,996

2547204

Female

1,084,293

548,483

463,526

334,817

2,431,119

Total

2,327,252

1,162,694

916,564

571,813

4,978,323

% of female

46.6

47.2

50.6

58.55

48.8

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According to these official statistics, one can see how the education of girls in the Kingdom has out distanced, in many aspects, the education of boys.. The recent decision to place the education of girls under the Ministry of Education has increased the importance of the educational system in the Kingdom, and has led to the unification of policies, procedures and regulations, without changing the special nature of girls’ education.

Institutions of higher education can be found throughout the Kingdom, especially in large cities and governorates. Female graduates, of course, are also served by these institutions.

As a matter of fact, the number of female students in higher education has exceeded 58%. Although most of these female students specialize in education and human sciences, many are enrolled in medicine, pharmacy, medical sciences, economics, accounting, administrative sciences and computers. Additionally, female students specialize in agriculture and the basic sciences.

The announcement of the establishment of a women’s university in Riyadh was the first step towards opening other women’s universities in different parts of the country.

King Fahad University of Petroleum and Minerals

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TEACHER TRAINING

Teacher training programs have developed as an integral part of the educational system in Saudi Arabia. Over the last five decades the standards for teacher training have been rising steadily, paralleling the general development of the educational system in the Kingdom. The new minimum requirement for teaching in all education levels is a 4-year bachelor’s degree.

The schools of education at Saudi universities and colleges provide a broad curriculum in education the- ory and methods, and also have separate departments for mathematics, physics, biology, English and Arabic language and Islamic studies. Every student is required to major in all specialty within one of these depart- ments and must combine courses in education with courses providing in-depth knowledge of a particular subject.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The curricula used throughout the educational sys- tem in Saudi Arabia undergo a constant process of change and improvement in response to social and economic developments in the Kingdom as well as international developments in technology. National committees established by the Ministry of Education are devoted to curriculum development and review and advise the Educational Development Department of the Ministry. These committees study the subjects being taught in schools at different levels and special issues such as adult education, measurement and test- ing, special education, audio-visual aids, and student guidance and counseling.

There have been many innovations in curriculum development in the last several years such as the development of new texts for primary and secondary education. Schools have been equipped with variety of audio-visual media, including television monitors, computers, slide and overhead projectors, and school

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broadcasting facilities that have been integrated into the teaching of mathematics, science and geography. Language laboratories have been built for the study of English and other foreign languages. School libraries have been converted into comprehensive educational resource centers stocked with books, reference works, newspapers, maps, posters and films.

Textbooks are updated periodically to reflect devel- opments in different subjects. Textbook materials in fields such as mathematics, science and social studies, however, are reevaluated even more regularly.

Similar textbooks are used by male and female students who also follow the same academic curricu- la. It is compulsory that private schools use the same textbooks and curricula employed in the public school. The government provides textbooks to private schools free of charge. Supplementary textbooks are sometimes used by private schools for the extra sub- jects that are not available in the public schools such as English or French as a foreign language.

Over the last three decades, Saudi National Development Plans have provided for a massive pro- gram to improve the physical facilities of the educa- tional system. This has included the construction and furnishing of new schools and the upgrading of exist- ing schools. Most schools in Saudi Arabia are now fur- nished with science laboratories and appropriate equipment and supplies. Audio-visual media are fully integrated into the curriculum and schools are provid- ed with a full complement of equipment. Schools, from the elementary level through the secondary level, can produce their own media materials, such as educational videos that can be broadcast through an in-house closed-circuit television system. Some schools also have photographic equipment and photo processing laboratories.

The government provides all schools with comput- ers. They are introduced to students beginning at the elementary level. Software in Arabic is abundant and specific programs are used in the teaching of Islamic studies, reading, mathematics, Arabic language and social studies.

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education

Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission Washington, DC

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN SAUDI ARABIA

2006

Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission to the U.S.A

2600 Virginia Ave., N.W., Suite 800 Washington, D.C. 20037

Tel: (202) 337-9450 • Fax: (202) 337-2978 Website: www.sacm.org

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International Journal of Social Science Studies

Vol. 3, No. 3; May 2015

ISSN 2324-8033 E-ISSN 2324-8041

Published by Redfame Publishing

URL: http://ijsss.redfame.com

169

Leadership Role of School Superintendents in Saudi Arabia

Mohamed A. Almannie 1

1 Professor Education Administration, College of Education, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia

Correspondence: Mohamed A. Almannie, Professor Education Administration, College of Education, King Saud

University, Saudi Arabia.

Received: February 25, 2015 Accepted: March 17, 2015 Available online: April 21, 2015

doi:10.11114/ijsss.v3i3.780 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v3i3.780

Abstract

This study examines the practice of school superintendents in Saudi Arabia in five roles as seen by education

supervisors within school district offices. The purpose of the study is to examine the leadership of school

superintendents in these five roles: work environment, rules and regulations, implementation of technology,

accountability, and professional development of the education supervisors in school districts. The study sample consists

of 276 education supervisors working in 30 school districts. The study reveals that the respondents (education

supervisors) perceived leadership roles enacted to a low degree for the five roles. The final results show that school

superintendents’ leadership needs to be developed in order to provide a high quality of education, by improving the

selection of superintendents and offering better training in the five roles. The Ministry of Education should decentralize

major decisions to school superintendents so that they can be active in leading change and perform leadership roles in

their school districts.

Keywords: leadership role, education office, school district, education supervisor, Saudi Arabia

1. Introduction

The education system in Saudi Arabia started in 1925 under the Directorate of Education, which changed to the

Ministry of Education in 1954. Girls’ education was officially established in 1960 with a separate agency, and the two

systems unified in 2003 under the Ministry of Education (Ahmed Rumi-Amer Suwadani, 2013). There have been rapid

changes due to the continuous development of technology and competitive markets around the world, and highly

qualified educational leaders are needed to meet the challenges posed by these changes. The development of education

depends on local school district officials, for they have close supervision of education. The education system in Saudi

Arabia has continued its quantitative and qualitative development through consecutive development plans. There is a

remarkable growth, by all standards, as a result of the policy of free education for all citizens. The number of students

enrolled in public education has reached over 5 million.

According to the U.S.-Saudi Arabian Business Council, the upward trend of budgetary allocations highlights the Saudi

government’s conviction that education is the cornerstone of sustained economic development, as it enhances human

capital and knowledge, which are both essential ingredients for economic growth and social cohesion. Public spending

for education is estimated at 5.7 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP), comparable with the U.K. (5.3

percent), Germany (4.3 percent), and South Korea (4.2 percent). Yet, although the budget for education is increasing,

the quality of education lags, as Saudi students do not rank highly on international examinations such as PISA.

The Ministry of Education decentralized major operational tasks to school districts. The director of a school district,

called the “school superintendent” in many countries, is considered a very important position in the school system of

Saudi Arabia. The director is responsible for the supervision and implementation of policy, planning, and programs in

the school district.

Although major steps have been taken toward the decentralization of management of education, an analysis of the

Organizational Guide for the Administration of School Districts in Saudi Arabia (Ministry of Education, 2012) shows

that the tasks and duties of the director of the school district are more administrative in nature rather than geared toward

the development of local schools.

With all the efforts and high budgets to provide free formal education for both men and women and increasing adult

literacy rates, school leaders face new challenges, many of which are the result of advances in information and

International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 3, No. 3; 2015

170

communication technologies, and increased globalization and competition among nations, which has created a demand

for skills that Saudi education needs to promote (Tatweer, 2010).

Therefore, school superintendents face challenges because of their limited leadership roles for the implementation of

policies and regulation. Most of them are not prepared to carry out leadership responsibilities for the development of

education in their school district. The development of learning is not embedded in the educational system of school

districts, for school superintendents tend to act more as mangers than educational leaders.

Tatweer (2010) indicated that the education system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia faces new challenges, many of

which are the result of advances in information and communication technologies, and increased globalization and

competition among nations, which has created demands for skills that Saudi education needs to promote.

Research shows that schooling centers around two basic functional domains: teaching and learning, and organizing for

teaching and learning. Over time, these functions became largely segregated by role, with teachers assuming nearly all

responsibility for the former and administrators taking responsibility for the latter (Prestine & Nelson, 2005). The case

in Saudi Arabia is that organizing for teaching and learning overcomes the domain of teaching and learning, for

decentralization and accountability are not fully embedded in the system of the school district. The literature shows that

in school-based management (SBM), decentralizing decision making to the local level brings decision making closer to

the people so that their preferences can be better reflected in policy (Besley & Coate, 2003); however, the schools in

Saudi Arabia and many developing countries cannot be described as using SBM because school districts are not

involved in the development of learning process at local schools. Moreover, stakeholders’ involvement in the

development of schools is very limited.

Al-omrani (1992) suggested that secondary school principals in Jordan be assigned a special role in the education

administration arena. Principals should also be more involved in the educational decision-making process and should be

trained to provide better quality of education. Botha (2007, p. 39) indicated that effective SBM encourages schools to become self-managing systems with improved performance that pursue long-term school effectiveness in a changing

environment. SBM includes stakeholders’ active involvement and participation in the self-management of schools,

which ultimately has an influence on decision making; therefore, educators should realize the importance of

stakeholders’ involvement in education and value their ideas and contributions.

Most analysts argue that more successful districts are able to balance centralized expectations, accountability, and

resource management with school-level flexibility support that enables school personnel to adapt district goals and

plans to the circumstances of their schools with appropriately individualized district support (Fullan et al., 2004;

Hightower et al., 2002).

In order for SBM to be effective in Saudi Arabia, there is a need for further decentralization for school districts, as well

as more authority for school superintendents to be active in the development process of schools and to provide a better

environment for engaging stakeholders in school participation (Botha, 2007). The issue in Saudi Arabia is that, although

decentralization is recognized and preferred by officials in the Ministry, in practice, there is no balance between

centralization and decentralization.

The Ministry of Education established the General Agency of School Districts to raise the standards of school districts

in terms of performance indicators, which are now implemented on a low scale in some school districts. Yet other major

steps still need to be taken toward the professional development of school superintendents, decentralization of education,

and more effective outcomes in education. Therefore, the objective of this study is to shed light on the leadership role of

school superintendents for the purpose of achieving better quality of education at the local level.

The structure of school districts in Saudi Arabia consists of three levels: 13 school districts are considered “general

directorates,” which report directly to the Deputy Minister of Education. The general school districts form several

intermediate-level school districts called “administrations of education,” which report to the general directorate, and

there are also small school offices of education districts called “education offices,” which report to the administration of

education.

An earlier study about education districts (Al-Salloom, 1974) indicated that there is a relationship between school

district size in Saudi Arabia and the administrative power and authority exercised in the district: the smaller the school

district is in both area and number of schools, teachers, and students, the more administrative power and authority is

exercised; conversely, the larger the school district is in area and size, the less administrative power and authority.

Recent data show that school districts have more authority and responsibilities, but the organization of teaching and

learning still higher than the domain of teaching and learning.

Anderson, Mascall, Stiegelbauer, and Park (2012) demonstrated variability in district orientation and the capacity to

understand school needs to improve performance; their findings suggest that the process of professional learning

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304387811000927#bb0035

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communities (PLCs) helped change school districts by creating high-performing collaborative teams, developing a

district-wide sense of efficacy, and emphasizing the use of data to improve education. However, in order for this to

occur, the superintendent must be a highly visible actor in the process of change and must be decidedly engaged in the

majority of visioning and mission-setting activities.

Horton and Martin (2013) reported that board members, administrators (both central office and building-level), and

teachers agreed that PLCs provided staff with additional tools to positively influence student achievement. For this to

happen, the superintendent must be actively engaged in the processes. Evidence also suggests that the process of PLCs

has helped change school districts by creating high-performing collaborative teams, developing a district-wide sense of

efficacy, and emphasizing the use of data to improve instruction. However, in order for this to occur, the superintendent

must be a highly visible actor in the process of change and must be decidedly engaged in the majority of visioning and

mission-setting activities.

2. Education Supervisors

An education supervisor is defined by the Ministry of Education as an expert in his/her field of study who helps

teachers develop professional skills and solve educational problems they face, in addition to improving teaching

methods to guide the educational process in the right direction (MOE, 1998),

Education supervisors play an important role in the development of education in a school district. The superintendent

cannot perform his/her duties in the development of education without the education supervisor’s evaluation reports

following visits to schools; therefore, the development of education depends mainly on the education supervision office

of the school district.

The main selection criteria for education supervisors are as follows:

1. Hold at least a B.S. degree in education with a minimum of a “C” average

2. Have working experience in teaching for at least 4 years

3. Have an evaluation of “excellent” or higher in teaching for the last 4 years

4. Have the ability to communicate and influence others

5. Follow new innovations in the relevant field.

3. Qualifications of School Superintendents

The school district superintendent is the essential element for the development of schools and is considered the face of

the district. Although superintendents in Saudi Arabia are most responsible for the success of the district, they are not

accountable for failures. Superintendents spend most of their daily work time on administrative and paper matters rather

than on the development of education and future planning. The minimum qualification for school superintendents in

government schools is a B.S. degree; a Master’s degree or Ph.D. is not required.

There are 303 international schools in Saudi Arabia, and their school superintendents have higher qualifications than

those in public schools, as they are required to have an advanced degree in education (e.g., a Ph.D. or Ed.D.) and meet

the following criteria (International Schools Group [ISG], 2012):

 A minimum of five years demonstrated success in leading an educational organization to greater levels of

achievement and success

 Experience in the development of organizational capacity

 Strong knowledge of the U.S. curriculum

 International experience preferred

Superintendents are also required to have personal qualifications such as “integrity, fairness, transparency and

trustworthiness,” to “promote a collaborative working style,” and to be “problem solver[s] with proven track record[s]

of successful leadership.”

Superintends of public schools obtain professional development through conventional methods and training sessions

locally and abroad. Although the Ministry of Education spends millions of dollars on professional development for

superintendents, school principals, and teachers, there are no measures of the output of training programs on a national

level. Hess and Kelly (2005) indicated that the current procedures and management of education cannot produce

exceptional leaders with unique skill sets to serve as effective school superintendents. In order to lead today's schools,

principals must have the capacity to lead. The King Abdullah Project for the Development of Public Education in Saudi

Arabia (Tatweer, 2012) aims to develop public education in general and leadership in schools in particular by providing

professional development to teachers and school administrators. However, the project is still in its initial stages, and

there is more concentration on resource management than on the development of leadership capacity to improve

education at the school level.

International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 3, No. 3; 2015

172

Superintendents can act as educational leaders by focusing on professional development related to instructional issues

and basing principal evaluations on instructional improvement. The superintendent’s role can be strengthened by having

universities revise their leadership preparation programs to provide district leaders with practical knowledge and skills (Lashway, 2003). Districts appear to have relatively weak processes and systems for finding, sharing, and using relevant

research (Cooper & Levin, 2013). The effectiveness of the management of Resource Program Centers at the school

district level is moderate (Omran, 2010).

Alsobiae (2009) investigated the important leadership roles of administrators of education (superintendents) in Saudi

Arabia. They are as follows: 1) motivating staff in the school district, 2) practicing distributed leadership, 3) building

and developing strategies in collaboration with staff, 4) developing strategies for the development of the school district,

5) developing infrastructure for change management, and 6) building a culture for change. Preparation, competencies,

and dispositions enhance effective leadership. Therefore, effectiveness must begin with a quality preparation program

that offers opportunities for participants to understand theory as well as experience the practical aspects of leading a

school (Green, 2013). Abaalkhail (2013) emphasized that universities and other educational institutes should plan and

allocate required budgets for the implementation and maintenance of all aspects of quality in education.

4. Problem of the Study

The idea of the study originated from the author teaching a doctoral level course on the Administration of Education

Districts. There are many aspects to be investigated about the leadership roles of superintendents. The role of

superintendents has become increasingly demanding and requires a new type of leadership. Algarni and Male (2014)

concluded that to implement pedagogical leadership appropriately, leaders in the Saudi educational context need, in

addition to flexibility and autonomy, to be offered more training programs, which should focus on important areas that

have a direct influence on learning and teaching, development, group dynamics, organizational theory, and various

teaching approaches; give leaders more freedom; and encourage their creativity to exercise their skills and influence

appropriately in the context for the benefit of the learning environment. Therefore, the study focused on five areas

related to the learning environment that have relative importance for leadership roles in changing schools in the districts.

These roles relate to the following: work environment, participation and communication, technology implementation,

professional development of education supervisors, and accountability.

The new accountability system focuses on performance rather than compliance with regulations. It is noticed that the

role of superintendents in Saudi Arabia consists of more managerial tasks and paperwork than educational development

of the schools in the district. This study is concerned with examining this issue. The study will answer the following

questions:

1. What is the leadership role of superintendents in facilitating the work environment and collaboration and participation

in decision making?

2. What is the leadership role of superintendents in technology implementation and accountability?

3. What is the leadership role of superintendents in the professional development of education supervisors?

5. Research Method

The study used two instruments. A questionnaire was designed to examine five leadership roles of superintendents. The

questionnaire was distributed to education supervisors from 30 school districts in Saudi Arabia, with the sample

consisting of 276 education supervisors. The other instrument consisted of interviews with 22 education supervisors

attending the training program at the College of Education at King Saud University in the spring semester 2015.

Education supervisors were chosen for this study because their tasks and duties are mainly for the improvement of

school education, and they can give better perceptions of the leadership roles for the development of education at the

district level than other district employees.

Twenty-two education supervisors were interviewed about superintendents regarding the following:

1. the relation between the tasks and duties of school superintendents and their leadership role

2. the five roles investigated in the study

The interviews supported the results of the questionnaire:

The participants answered each item of the questionnaire by indicating either a high or low degree of agreement, and

their responses were analyzed by frequencies and percentage.

Table 1 indicates that the education supervisors generally had low agreement that the factors were present in the work

environment of their school district: 77% of respondents expressed a low degree of agreement that there were clear

policies for motivating education supervisors, and 70% expressed a low degree of agreement that there were clear

standards for the evaluation of education supervisors.

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Table 1. Work Environment in the School District Office

Degree of Agreement

High

Degree

% Low

Degree

Clear policy and procedures 121 44 155 56

Clear vision in the office 121 44 155 56

Participation in the vision and mission 117 42 159 58

Clear policies for motivating education supervisors 63 23 213 77

Clear standards for evaluation of education supervisors 82 30 194 70

Table 2. Participation and Communication in the School District Office

Degree of agreement

High degree % low degree %

There is effective communication in school district office. 178 64 98 36

There is electronic communication with education supervisors. 181 66 95 34

Education supervisors participate in the decision making of the

office.

82 30 194 69

The plans and suggestion of education supervisors are taken into

consideration.

107 39 169 61

Distinguished education supervisors are motivated. 91 33 185 67

The school district office makes use of feedback from education

supervisors for the development of schools.

83 30 193 70

Table 2 shows that although there was a relative higher communication degree of agreement about the items in relation

to the school district office, there was low degree of agreement that education supervisors participated in decision

making (69%), that their feedback was taken into consideration for the development of schools (70%), and that

distinguished education supervisors were motivated (67%). Further, 69% of the respondents expressed a low degree of

agreement that they participated in decision making.

Table 3. Technology implementation

Degree of agreement

High degree % Low

degree

Integration of technology into the curriculum and management is part of

the office plan.

133 48 143 52

The office depends on many technology resources for the development

creativity of the employees.

77 28 199 72

There is an internal network to be used by education supervisors. 106 38 170 62

Email is used for communication between education supervisors. 209 76 67 24

WhatsApp is used for work duties. 209 76 67 24

The office integrates technology into education supervision. 155 56 121 44

Table 3 shows that there was a relative low use of technology in school district offices and higher use of technology for

WhatsApp and emails, which do not require high infrastructure and training. Most of the school districts did not have an

internal network to be used by school supervisors.

Table 4. Professional Development of Education Supervisors

Degree of agreement

High

degree

% Low

degree

International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 3, No. 3; 2015

174

There is an adequate facility for the education supervisors to

engage in research activities.

47 17 229 83

There is motivation for employees who follow new trends in

education.

80 29 196 71

There is encouragement for teamwork. 130 47 146 53

There is a yearly plan for the professional development of

education supervisors.

72 26 204 74

Training programs are designed for the professional

development of school principals and teachers.

86 31 190 69

Education supervisors are encouraged to use modern methods

in education.

88 32 188 68

Management of the office encourages education supervisors to

enroll in specialized training programs.

116 42 160 58

Table 4 shows that the majority of the education supervisors perceived low professional development in the school

district.

Table 5. Accountability

Degree of agreement

High

degree

% Low

degree

There is a system of rewards for distinguished employees. 44 16 232 84

Every employee in the office knows his/her duties and rights. 88 32 188 68

There is fairness in distributing duties to education supervisors. 110 40 166 60

The office manager discusses performance with education

supervisors.

99 36 177 64

Every employee in the office is accountable for his/her tasks. 113 41 163 59

Evaluations based on standards are applied to all employees. 83 30 193 70

Table 5 shows that accountability is not implemented to a high degree in school districts, for the Ministry of Education

did not embed it in the system of education in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the superintendents cannot practice their roles as

leaders without having employees accountable for their tasks.

6. Discussion

According to the King Abdullah Project for the Development of Public Education (Tatweer, 2012), there are major

efforts to develop leadership at the school level in order to initiate SBM, but the developments are still in the initial

stages and will be limited because the emphasis is still on the centralization of decisions, although there have been some

positive developments toward decentralization, and more significantly than before the Tatweer project. The past

decentralization reforms in Saudi Arabia connected directly to provide education for all and focused more on mobilizing

resources than on improving instructional quality.

All attempts at the development of instruction and learning at public schools in Saudi Arabia are weak in moving

responsibility to local districts. Superintendents of government schools still are not authorized to make decisions

regarding the development of learning at schools because they lack leadership roles for change; moreover, motivation,

employee motivation in decision making, feedback, and accountability are still practiced only to low degrees. The

interviews with 22 education supervisors support the results of the study. In order for decentralization attempts giving

decision making power to local school districts to be successful, there should be investment in professional training for

school superintendents and principals in the five areas investigated in this study.

7. Conclusion

The survey of research shows that superintendents have leadership roles in the development of school districts, and this

study reveals that the respondents indicated low degrees of agreement regarding all of the five roles investigated. The

overall results indicate that education supervisors perceive the leadership role of school superintendents as low. This

may be due to the centralized system of the Ministry of Education and lack of qualified leadership of school

superintendents.

International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 3, No. 3; 2015

175

There is a very important implication of the study for the development of school superintendents in all of the roles

investigated (i.e., work environment at the school district, participation and communication, technology implementation,

professional development of education supervisors and accountability). Therefore, training programs should be

designed in these areas to provide increased leadership roles and develop the ability of school superintendents to lead

changes in education at the district level.

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http://www.ijepl.org/

javascript:__doLinkPostBack('','ss~~JC%20%22RIEAPR2003%22%7C%7Csl~~rl','');

http://www.tatweer/

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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

I need to find out :

1- Ages when children enter and leave school, and is this mandatory for all/some/none “provided Below”

2- Teacher qualifications

3- World ranking of Saudi public education system “this is done”

(Saudi Arabia ranked 66 globally and sixth Arab).

4- How the system is funded?

5- Is there a private system that is significant (BC’s private schools account for about 5%....they exist, but it isn’t huge)

6- Create a category called Religion and Public Education. This is significant in both countries, and you need to spell this out clearly. (In Canada and Saudi Arabia)

I provided all lits you will need

Thank you

Type of Education	Gender of teachers	Gender of students	Grade	Age	Level of study	Public schools
	Female only	Mix (Female and Male)	Infant	Under 4	Kindergarten (not mandatory)
			Nursery	3-4
				5-6
			Preliminary
	Female teachers for female students Male teachers for male students	Separate	First	+6	Elementary
			second	+7
			Third	+8
			Fourth	+9
			Fifth	+10
			Sixth	+11
			First	+12	Intermediate
			Second	+13
			Third	+14
General curriculum			First	+15	Secondary
Administration & Social Science		Selective majors	Second	+16
Natural Science
			Third	+17
Shariah & Arabic Studies

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