• Learn how psychologists study and analyze human behavior.
• Determine the role of nature and the role of nurture in our behaviors.
• Gain greater insight into the behavior of ourselves and others.
• Understand the various theories describing human behavior.
• Develop critical thinking skills and prepare ourselves to be cautious and analytical consumers of information.

Introduction

During the final week of this course, many of the concepts we studied will be drawn together in our discussion of the psychology of personality. Often we believe that a high self-esteem is a good thing, but an inflated self-esteem often leads individuals to a feeling that they can discriminate against others or behave violently towards them. We will also discuss the need for individuals to attain self-actualization and the obstacles that may prevent it. The role of social patterns, attitudes, and obedience on the behavior of individuals will also be examined. Finally, we will discuss the documented effect of physical beauty on how one is judged.

Freud's Place in the Psychology of Personality

Sigmund Freud is perhaps the one person who is thought of first when talking about Psychoanalysis. While he did draw attention to the subconscious mind and its affect on our personalities, many of his specific ideas are considered invalid or have been contradicted by newer research.

Freud felt that our personalities arise from the constant conflict between our biological processes (desires) and the social restraints against them. Some of these include the concepts of identification, defense mechanisms, repression, regression, projection, rationalization and displacement. However, other psycholanalyists including Alfred Adler, Karen Horney and Carl Jung differed from Freud by placing more emphasis on the role of the conscious mind and de-emphasizing the role of aggression and sexual drives on personality. Others like Gordon Allport put forward the idea of personality traits. Allport felt personalities were more definable in behavior patterns.

From these simple beginnings, personality tests like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were born. While there continues to be arguments that these have their imperfections in identifying true personality, they are still in use today!

The Dark Side of Self-Esteem

Humanist psychologists assess personality by evaluating a person's concept of "self." It is based on the assumption that the "self" is the primary part of our personality. While there are benefits to a positive self-image, there are hazards in "pride."

In a recent Psychological Review article, Roy Baumeister and his colleagues drew the following provocative conclusion: "The societal pursuit of high self-esteem for everyone may literally end up doing considerable harm."

In a massive interdisciplinary review of the literature on aggression, crime, and violence, the authors conclude that high (not low) self-esteem underlies violent behavior, particularly "favorable self-appraisals that may be inflated or ill-founded and that are confronted with an external evaluation that disputes them." In short, some people turn aggressive when they receive feedback that contradicts their favorable images of themselves.

Clearly, Baumeister and his colleagues are not saying that everyone with high self-esteem is predisposed to violence. Rather, it is primarily those who refuse to lower their inflated self-appraisals who become violent. Teenagers who do not feel they have received the respect they deserve are more likely to strike out than those who genuinely believe themselves unworthy. Studies of murder, rape, domestic abuse, and even terrorism show that violence occurs when a person with a high, often inflated, opinion of himself or herself is challenged by someone considered inferior. For example, one study of sexual offenders found that rapists sometimes choose a particular victim in order "to disabuse her of her sense of superiority. That is, the woman gave the man the impression that she thought she was better than he was and so he raped her as a way of proving her wrong."

Another interesting example of the relationship between high self-esteem and aggression involves racist violence. Nazism includes an ideology of racial superiority that justifies violence against those deemed weak or inferior. At its peak, the Ku Klux Klan was most violent toward two groups that challenged the idea of white supremacy, namely upwardly mobile blacks, and whites who helped blacks by treating them as equals. One study of whites who belonged to hate groups indicated that those who engaged in violent behavior actually were better educated and had higher career aspirations than the less violent members of such groups.

Baumeister and his colleagues conclude that if, as some have suggested, low self-esteem (or even hidden self-doubts) is the cause of violence, "it would be therapeutically prudent to make every effort to convince rapists, murderers, wife-beaters, professional hit men, tyrants, torturers, and others that they are superior beings." However, there is clear evidence that this is something they already believe. "If any modifications to self-appraisals were to be attempted," suggest the authors, "then perhaps it would be better to try instilling modesty and humility."

While other psychologists are concerned with human perception, intelligence, motivation, or development, personality theorists are in the unique position of studying the entire person. They have the monumental task of synthesizing the best information from the diverse fields of the discipline into a coherent, holistic configuration. In the course of their work, personality theorists address fundamental issues of human nature and individual differences. A theorist's answers to the following basic questions define his or her image of human nature.

1. Free will or determinism? Do we have a conscious awareness and control of ourselves? Are we free to choose, to be masters of our fate, or are we victims of biological factors, unconscious forces, or external stimuli?
2. Nature or nurture? Is our personality determined primarily by the abilities, temperaments, or predispositions we inherit, or are we shaped more strongly by the environments in which we live?
3. Past, present, or future? Is personality development basically complete in early childhood? Or is personality independent of the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present and even by future aspirations and goals?
4. Uniqueness or universality? Is the personality of each individual unique or are there broad personality patterns that fit large numbers of persons?
5. Equilibrium or growth? Are we primarily tension-reducing, pleasure-seeking animals, or are we motivated primarily by the need to grow, to reach our full potential, to reach for ever-higher levels of self-expression and development?
6. Optimism or pessimism? Are human beings basically good or evil? Are we kind and compassionate, or cruel and merciless?

Freudian Slips

The president of the Austrian parliament opens a session by thundering, "I declare this meeting closed!" In answering his phone, a preoccupied business executive picks up the receiver and bellows, "Come in." At a copying machine, a secretary counts copies: "eight, nine, ten, jack, queen, king."

Freud believed that such slips were motivated by unconscious conflicts. A hidden motive could presumably be found for even the most innocuous mistake if it were investigated with psychoanalytic methods. "The Austrian president," wrote Freud, "secretly wished he was already in a position to close the meeting from which little good was to be expected."

While other psychologists are concerned with human perception, intelligence, motivation, or development, personality theorists are in the unique position of studying the entire person. They have the monumental task of synthesizing the best information from the diverse fields of the discipline into a coherent, holistic configuration. In the course of their work, personality theorists address fundamental issues of human nature and individual differences. A theorist's answers to the following basic questions define his or her image of human nature.

1. Free will or determinism? Do we have a conscious awareness and control of ourselves? Are we free to choose, to be masters of our fate, or are we victims of biological factors, unconscious forces, or external stimuli?
2. Nature or nurture? Is our personality determined primarily by the abilities, temperaments, or predispositions we inherit, or are we shaped more strongly by the environments in which we live?
3. Past, present, or future? Is personality development basically complete in early childhood? Or is personality independent of the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present and even by future aspirations and goals?
4. Uniqueness or universality? Is the personality of each individual unique or are there broad personality patterns that fit large numbers of persons?
5. Equilibrium or growth? Are we primarily tension-reducing, pleasure-seeking animals, or are we motivated primarily by the need to grow, to reach our full potential, to reach for ever-higher levels of self-expression and development?
6. Optimism or pessimism? Are human beings basically good or evil? Are we kind and compassionate, or cruel and merciless?

Freudian Slips

The president of the Austrian parliament opens a session by thundering, "I declare this meeting closed!" In answering his phone, a preoccupied business executive picks up the receiver and bellows, "Come in." At a copying machine, a secretary counts copies: "eight, nine, ten, jack, queen, king."

Freud believed that such slips were motivated by unconscious conflicts. A hidden motive could presumably be found for even the most innocuous mistake if it were investigated with psychoanalytic methods. "The Austrian president," wrote Freud, "secretly wished he was already in a position to close the meeting from which little good was to be expected."

The Importance of Cross-Validation

An inventory is empirically derived by testing a large pool of items and then selecting those that are found to differentiate particular groups. For example, Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test by selecting items that successfully discriminated children who were and were not progressing in Paris schools.

When the original pool contains a large number of items, there is the real possibility that some will distinguish between the criterion groups by chance alone. To deal with this problem, the researcher must administer the test again with a new sample of subjects. This cross-validation is a crucial step, because an item is not likely to distinguish between both groups just by chance. Any item that does discriminate twice is likely to be a valid item.

Obstacles to Self-Actualization

Maslow would say that so few adults are self-actualized for four basic reasons:

1. Self-actualization is at the top of the motivational hierarchy. This makes it the least urgent of all the needs, and the most easily impeded. He wrote, "This inner nature is not strong and overpowering and unmistakable like the instincts of animals. It is weak and delicate and subtle and easily overcome by habit, cultural pressure, and wrong attitudes toward it."
2. Maslow identified the Jonah Complex as another obstacle to self-actualization. Our fears and doubts about ourselves prevent us from using our abilities to reach our full potential. To become self-actualized, one must have enough courage to sacrifice safety for personal growth. Too often, fear takes precedence over the challenge of self-actualization.
3. The cultural environment may also stifle self-actualization by imposing certain norms on major segments of the population. Definitions of "manliness" may prevent the male child from developing traits such as sympathy, kindness, and tenderness, all of which characterize the self-actualized person.
4. Childhood experiences may inhibit personal growth. Maslow observed that children from warm, secure, friendly homes are more likely to choose experiences that lead to personal development. Excessive control and coddling is obviously harmful, but so is excessive permissiveness. Too much freedom in childhood can lead to anxiety and insecurity, which can prevent further growth. Maslow called for "freedom within limits" in which there is the right mixture of permissiveness and regulation.

Four kinds of social patterns have been identified across cultures.

It has been suggested that every culture emphasizes a particular combination of these four behavior patterns. Cultures in traditional societies, especially those in East Asia, emphasize the first two patterns, and cultures in northwestern Europe and North America (the United States and Canada) emphasize the latter two. These different emphases represent the contrast between collectivistic and individualistic cultures, as well as the contrast between cultures that are simple and homogeneous and those that are complex and heterogeneous.

People in simple, homogeneous cultures have few choices in terms of the groups they can join–either extended family or friends. The group is extremely important to the individual, and he or she does what the group expects; that is, what the in-group norms specify. Success is attributed to the help of others, and failure to the individual's own lack of ability. This cultural pattern is known as collectivism.

People in complex, heterogeneous cultures can belong to any number of groups; joining one is a matter of individual choice. The individual joins if it pays to do so and leaves when the costs become excessive. Behavior reflects personal attitude rather than in-group norms. People attribute success to their own intelligence, skill, and effort, whereas failure is seen as the result of the difficulty of the task or bad luck. This cultural pattern is known as individualism.

Attribution and Models of Helping

The text suggests that finding dispositional versus situational causes for poverty and unemployment can greatly affect our attitudes and actions. Philip Brickman and his colleagues have indicated that whether we help people in need and how we help them depends largely on our answers to two important questions: Who is responsible for the problem? Who is responsible for the solution?

In Brickman's moral model, people are held responsible for both their problems and finding the solutions. They are most in need of proper motivation. Helpers are likely to say, "You got yourself into this mess, now get yourself out." Helpers simply exhort people to assume responsibility for their problems and find their own way out.

In the compensatory model, people are not seen as responsible for problems, but they are responsible for getting solutions. Jesse Jackson once stated, "You are not responsible for being down, but you are responsible for getting up." People need the resources or the opportunities that the helper may provide. Nonetheless, the responsibility for using this assistance rests with the recipient.

In the medical model, people are seen as responsible for neither the problem nor the solution. Helpers say, "You are ill, and I will try to make you better."

In the enlightenment model, people are seen as responsible for problems, but as unable or unwilling to provide solutions. They are seen as needing discipline. Helping means earning their trust and giving them guidance.

The Theory of Reasoned Action

The theory of reasoned action states that major predictors of behavior include attitudes toward the behavior, subjective social norms, and perceived behavioral control. A person's attitude toward a behavior is a function of the desirability of the possible outcomes with the likelihood of those outcomes. Subjective social norms reflect one's perception of whether significant others approve of the behavior and the motivation to conform to those expectations. Perceived behavioral control indicates the degree to which one feels that they have control over their behavioral outcomes in a specific situation.

The Justification of Effort

Cognitive dissonance theorists have predicted that working hard to attain a goal makes it more attractive than the same goal obtained with no effort. Let's think about this concept with regard to fraternity hazing rituals.

During the traditional "Hell Week," pledges are run through a variety of activities designed to test their limits of physical exertion, psychological strain, and social embarrassment. Too often, of course, the results are tragic. From the outside, these hazing rituals seem cruel and the people who participate in them seem to lack personal control. However, when we analyze the behavior in terms of justification of effort, the participant thinks that if the process was really difficult, then the outcome must be really worthwhile.

Many people have complained that Milgram's obedience studies were artificial, and have little relevance to everyday life. More recent realistic studies may convince you that Milgram's results were very accurate.

In one study, nurses in 22 different hospital wards received a phone call from a new physician they knew was on the staff, but had not yet met. The caller said, "This is Dr. Smith from Psychiatry calling. I was asked to see Mr. Jones this morning, and I'm going to have to see him again tonight. I'd like him to have had some medication by the time I get to the ward. Will you please check your medicine cabinet to see if you have some Astroten?" The nurses found the medication; the label stated that the maximum daily dose was 10 mg. In each case, when she reported back to the doctor, he said: "Please give Mr. Jones a dose of 20 milligrams. I'll be up in ten minutes to sign the order, but I'd like the drug to have started taking effect." The requested dosage was clearly excessive, the drug was not on the ward stock list clearing it for use, and there were hospital rules against giving medication orders by phone. Nonetheless, 95% of the nurses started to give the medication.

Deindividuation

Social facilitation is the tendency to be aroused by the presence of others; in social loafing, the presence of others diminishes feelings of responsibility. Both effects may occur in group situations that foster anonymity and draw attention away from oneself. The result is deindividuation, a situation in which people abandon their normal restraints. The outcome may be vandalism, orgies, or riots.

The text provides lots of evidence that physical attractiveness and liking go together. There are some additional research findings that show that the importance of physical attractiveness is not limited to dating relationships. For example, college students judged an essay written by an attractive author to be of higher quality than one by an unattractive author. Similarly, simulated juries conferred less guilt and punishment on physically attractive defendants than on unattractive defendants.

Vigilantism

Sometimes bystanders act as vigilantes, meting out their own punishment to others who have committed crimes. For example, this story is from The Washington Post:

. . . in the fashion of a Mack Sennett comedy, 29 cab drivers from the L & M Private Car Service and the No-Wait Car Service chased three men who had robbed and stolen one of No-Wait's taxis. Alerted over radio by their dispatcher, the cab drivers chased the suspects from 162nd Street and Amsterdam Avenue through two boroughs, finally cornering their prey in the Bronx. There they collared two of the suspects, beat them, and held them until the police arrived. Both were admitted to Fordham Hospital. One of the drivers, . . . a Vietnam veteran, said after the incident, "We've got to stick together."

This week brought together many of the concepts of the course as we discussed the various elements of personality. The benefits of a high self-esteem as well as the dangers of an inflated self-esteem were pointed out. The needs to attain self-actualization and the obstacles to it have been examined. The effects of social patterns, attitudes, and obedience on behavior were also explored. Studies that showed that individuals are judged on the basis of their physical appearance were discussed.

Course Summary

Throughout this course we were introduced to many of the new concepts in Psychology. The scientific processes used in the study of Psychology were examined. The elements of the physical body, the brain and the nervous system were also explored. The role of senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and kinesthetic or the sense of motion and position used by the brain were illustrated. The various levels of consciousness were identified. Our study of Psychology included the study of memory, language development, and intelligence. We examined what motivates people, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and the role of emotions. Finally, we discussed the psychology of personality, the effects of social attitudes on behavior, self-esteem, self-actualization, and how physical appearance can effect how one is judged.