13e

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT Competitiveness & Globalization

CO CEPTS & CASES

----

.... ,, ..... ...--.-..

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT Competitiveness & Globalization

Concepts and Cases 13e

Michael A. Hitt Texas A&M University

and

Texas Christian University

R. Duane Ireland Texas A&M University

Robert E. Hoskisson Rice University

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Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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�- � CENGAGE ·-

Strategic Management: Competitiveness

& Globalization: Concepts and Cases,

13th Edition

Michael A. Hitt, R. Duane Ireland,

and Robert E. Hoskisson

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To Frankie:

You are my partner in life. I love you and look forward to our future

together.

-MICHAEL

To Mary Ann:

We have reached that place we want to go and we will now walk in the

sun. I love you.

-DUANE

To Kathy:

You are the best and my love for you is eternal. Thanks for all the sup­

port and love you've given me and our children throughout our life

together.

-ROBERT

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Brief Contents

iv

Preface, xiv

About the Authors, xx

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

1. Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness, 2

2. The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis, 36

3. The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages, 74

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

4. Business-Level Strategy, 104

5. Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics, 142

6. Corporate-Level Strategy, 176

7. Merger and Acquisition Strategies, 208

8. International Strategy, 238

9. Cooperative Strategy, 278

Part 3: Strategic Actions: Strategy Implementation

10. Corporate Governance, 310

11. Organizational Structure and Controls, 344

12. Strategic Leadership, 382

13. Strategic Entrepreneurship, 416

Part 4: Case Studies

Name Index, 1-1

Company Index, 1-21

Subject Index, 1-24

2

104

310

C-1

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Contents ,

Preface xiv

About the Authors xx

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs 2

1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness 2 Opening Case: The Honest Co.: Can It Become an Iconic Global Brand? 3

Strategic Focus Competitive Advantage as a Source of Strategic Competitiveness 5

1-1 The Competitive Landscape 8

1-la The Global Economy 9

1-1 b Technology and Technological Changes 11

1-2 The 1/0 Model of Above-Average Returns 14

1-3 The Resource-Based Model of Above-Average Returns 16

1-4 Vision and Mission 18

1-4a Vision 18

1-4b Mission 18

1-5 Stakeholders 19

1-Sa Classifications of Stakeholders 20

1-6 Strategic Leaders 23

1-6a The Work of Effective Strategic Leaders 23

Strategic Focus Strategic Leaders' Decisions as a Path to Firms' Efforts to Deal

Successfully with Their Challenges 24

1-7 The Strategic Management Process 26

Summary 27 • Key Terms 28 • Review Questions 28 • Mini-Case 28 • Notes 30

2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis 36 Opening Case: Cracks in the Golden Arches and Mcdonald's New Glue 37

2-1 The General, Industry, and Competitor Environments 39

2-2 External Environmental Analysis 41

2-2a Scanning 41

2-2b Monitoring 42

2-2c Forecasting 42

2-2d Assessing 43

2-3 Segments of the General Environment 43

2-3a The Demographic Segment 43

2-3b The Economic Segment 46

2-3c The Political/Legal Segment 47

2-3d The Sociocultural Segment 48

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V

vi

2-3e The Technological Segment 49

2-3f The Global Segment 50

2-3g The Sustainable Physical Environment Segment 51

Strategic Focus Target (Tar-zhey) Is Trying to Navigate in a New and Rapidly Changing

Competitive Landscape 52

2-4 Industry Environment Analysis 53

2-4a Threat of New Entrants 54

2-4b Bargaining Power of Suppliers 57

2-4c Bargaining Power of Buyers 58

2-4d Threat of Substitute Products 58

2-4e Intensity of Rivalry among Competitors 59

2-5 Interpreting Industry Analyses 61

2-6 Strategic Groups 61

Strategic Focus Toys 'R' Us Exemplifies the Apocalypse in the Retail Industries 62

2-7 Competitor Analysis 63

2-8 Ethical Considerations 65

Summary 66 • Key Terms 66 • Review Questions 66 • Mini-Case 67 • Notes 68

3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages 74 Opening Case: Large Pharmaceutical Companies, Big Data Analytics, Artificial

Intelligence and Core Competencies: A Brave New World 75

3-1 Analyzing the Internal Organization 77

3-1 a The Context of Internal Analysis 77

3-1 b Creating Value 78

3-lc The Challenge of Analyzing the Internal Organization 79

3-2 Resources, Capabilities, and Core Competencies 81

3-2a Resources 81

Strategic Focus Tangible and Intangible Resources as the Base for Core Competencies 83

3-2b Capabilities 85

3-2c Core Competencies 86

3-3 Building Core Competencies 87

3-3a The Four Criteria of Sustainable Competitive Advantage 87

3-3b Value Chain Analysis 90

3-4 Outsourcing 93

3-5 Competencies, Strengths, Weaknesses, and Strategic Decisions 94

Contents

Strategic Focus The Extreme Specialization of Outsourcing: Who Is Doing It and Who Is Not? 95

Summary 96 • Key Terms 96 • Review Questions 96 • Mini-Case 97 • Notes 98

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation 104

4: Business-Level Strategy 104 Opening Case: Digital: An Increasingly Important Aspect of Strategy Choice and

Strategy Implementation 105

4-1 Customers: Their Relationship with Business-Level Strategies 107

4-1 a Effectively Managing Relationships with Customers 108

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Contents

4-1 b Reach, Richness, and Affiliation 108

4-1 c Who: Determining the Customers to Serve 109

4-1 d What: Determining Which Customer Needs to Satisfy 110

4-1 e How: Determining Core Competencies Necessary to Satisfy Customer Needs 111

4-2 The Purpose of a Business-Level Strategy 112

4-3 Business Models and Their Relationship with Business­

Level Strategies 113

4-4 Types of Business-Level Strategies 114

4-4a Cost Leadership Strategy 116

4-4b Differentiation Strategy 120

4-4c Focus Strategies 124

Strategic Focus The Differentiation Strategy-Can Macy's Again Find Ways

to Achieve Success by Implementing This Strategy? 7 25

Strategic Focus What Type of Hamburger Would You Like to Buy

and Eat Today? 728

4-4d Integrated Cost Leadership/Differentiation Strategy 130

Summary 133 • Key Terms 134 • Review Questions 134 • Mini-Case 135 • Notes 136

5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 142 Opening Case: The Grocery Industry: Welcome to

a New Competitive Landscape 146

Strategic Focus The Emergence of Competitive Rivalry among Battery Manufacturers:

Who Will Establish the Most Attractive Market Position? 746

5-1 A Model of Competitive Rivalry 148

5-2 Competitor Analysis 149

5-2a Market Commonality 150

5-2b Resource Similarity 151

5-3 Drivers of Competitive Behavior 152

5-4 Competitive Rivalry 154

5-4a Strategic and Tactical Actions 154

5-5 Likelihood of Attack 155

5-6

5-5a First-Mover Benefits 155

5-5b Organizational Size 157

5-5c Quality 158

Likelihood of Response 159

5-6a Type of Competitive Action

5-6b Actor's Reputation 160

5-6c Market Dependence 160

5-7 Competitive Dynamics 161

5-7a Slow-Cycle Markets 161

159

Strategic Focus Swiss Watchmakers: The Eroding of a Long-Lasting Competitive Advantage

While Competing in a Slow-Cycle Market? 762

5-7b Fast-Cycle Markets 164

5-7c Standard-Cycle Markets 166

Summary 167 • Key Terms 168 • Review Questions 168 • Mini-Case 169 • Notes 170

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vii

viii

6: Corporate-Level Strategy 176 Opening Case: Amazon's Successful Growth through

Its Corporate Diversification Strategy 177

6-1 Levels of Diversification 179

6-1 a Low Levels of Diversification 180

6-1 b Moderate and High Levels of Diversification 181

Strategic Focus Caterpillar Uses the Related Constrained Diversification Strategy 182

6-2 Reasons for Diversification 183

6-3 Value-Creating Diversification: Related Constrained and Related Linked

Diversification 185

6-3a Operational Relatedness: Sharing Activities 185

6-3b Corporate Relatedness: Transferring of Core Competencies 186

6-3c Market Power 187

6-3d Simultaneous Operational Relatedness and Corporate Relatedness 189

6-4 Unrelated Diversification 190

6-4a Efficient Internal Capital Market Allocation 190

Strategic Focus Berkshire Hathaway and SoftBank Use Similar Unrelated Strategies 197

6-4b Restructuring of Assets 192

6-5 Value-Neutral Diversification: Incentives and Resources 193

6-5a Incentives to Diversify 193

6-5b Resources and Diversification 196

6-6 Value-Reducing Diversification: Managerial Motives to Diversify 198

Contents

Summary 200 • Key Terms 200 • Review Questions 200 • Mini-Case 201 • Notes 202

7: Merger and Acquisition Strategies 208 Opening Case: Cisco Systems: Strategic Acquisitions to Adapt

to a Changing Market 209

7-1 The Popularity of Merger and Acquisition Strategies 210

7-1 a Mergers, Acquisitions, and Takeovers: What Are the Differences? 211

7-2 Reasons for Acquisitions 212

7-2a Increased Market Power 212

Strategic Focus Broadcom's Failed Hostile Takeover Attempt of Qualcomm 213

7-2b Overcoming Entry Barriers 215

7-2c Cost of New Product Development and Increased Speed to Market 216

Strategic Focus Cross-Border Mega Mergers in the Agricultural Chemical and Technology Sectors 217

7-2d Lower Risk Compared to Developing New Products 218

7-2e Increased Diversification 218

7-2f Reshaping the Firm's Competitive Scope 219

7-29 Learning and Developing New Capabilities 219

7-3 Problems in Achieving Acquisition Success 219

7-3a Integration Difficulties 220

7-3b Inadequate Evaluation ofTarget 221

7-3c Large or Extraordinary Debt 222

7-3d Inability to Achieve Synergy 222

7-3e Too Much Diversification 223

7-3f Managers Overly Focused on Acquisitions 224

7-39 Too Large 224

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Contents

7-4 Effective Acquisitions 225

7-5 Restructuring 227

7-5a Downsizing 227

7-5b Downscoping 227

7-5c Leveraged Buyouts 228

7-5d Restructuring Outcomes 228

Summary 230 • Key Terms 230 • Review Questions 231 • Mini-Case 231 • Notes 232

8: International Strategy 238 Opening Case: Netflix Achieves Substantial Growth through International Expansion,

But Such Growth Also Is Attracting Significant Competition 239

8-1 Identifying International Opportunities 241

8-1 a Incentives to Use International Strategy 241

8-1 b Three Basic Benefits of International Strategy 243

8-2 International Strategies 245

8-2a International Business-Level Strategy 245

8-2b International Corporate-Level Strategy 248

Strategic Focus Ikea's Global Strategy in the Age of Digitalization and Urbanization 250

8-3 Environmental Trends 252

8-3a Liability of Foreignness 252

8-3b Regionalization 253

8-4 Choice of International Entry Mode 254

8-4a Exporting 255

8-4b Licensing 255

8-4c Strategic Alliances 256

8-4d Acquisitions 257

8-4e New Wholly Owned Subsidiary 258

8-4f Dynamics of Mode of Entry 259

8-5 Risks in an International Environment 260

8-5a Political Risks 260

8-5b Economic Risks 261

Strategic Focus The Global Delivery Services Industry: Economic Disruption

of Tariffs and Trade Wars 262

8-6 Strategic Competitiveness Outcomes 263

8-6a International Diversification and Returns 264

8-6b Enhanced Innovation 264

8-7 The Challenge of International Strategies 265

8-7a Complexity of Managing International Strategies 265

8-7b Limits to International Expansion 265

Summary 266 • Key Terms 267 • Review Questions 267 • Mini-Case 268 • Notes 270

9: Cooperative Strategy 278 Opening Case: Google's Diversified Alliance Portfolio: A Response to Competitors

and an Attempt to Be a Dominant Force 279

9-1 Strategic Alliances as a Primary Type of Cooperative Strategy 281

9-1 a Types of Major Strategic Alliances 281

9-1 b Reasons Firms Develop Strategic Alliances 283

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ix

X

9-2 Business-Level Cooperative Strategy 286

9-2a Complementary Strategic Alliances 286

9-2b Competition Response Strategy 288

9-2c Uncertainty-Reducing Strategy 289

Strategic Focus Tesla Losing Critical Strategic Alliances and Experiencing Challenges Creating

Efficient Operations 290

9-2d Competition-Reducing Strategy 291

9-2e Assessing Business-Level Cooperative Strategies 292

9-3 Corporate-Level Cooperative Strategy 292

9-3a Diversifying Strategic Alliance 293

9-3b Synergistic Strategic Alliance 293

9-3c Franchising 293

9-3d Assessing Corporate-Level Cooperative Strategies 294

9-4 International Cooperative Strategy 294

Contents

Strategic Focus The Cross-Border Alliance between Ford and Mahindra: Developing the Automobile

of the Future 296

9-5 Network Cooperative Strategy 297

9-5a Alliance Network Types 297

9-6 Competitive Risks with Cooperative Strategies 298

9-7 Managing Cooperative Strategies 300

Summary 301 • Key Terms 302 • Review Questions 302 • Mini-Case 302 • Notes 304

Part 3: Strategic Actions: Strategy Implementation 310

10: Corporate Governance 310 Opening Case: Shareholder Activists and Corporate Governance 311

10-1 Separation of Ownership and Managerial Control 314

10-1 a Agency Relationships 315

10-1 b Product Diversification as an Example of an Agency Problem 316

Strategic Focus General Electric's Complex Diversification Strategy Makes Evaluation Difficult

for Board Directors 318

10-1 c Agency Costs and Governance Mechanisms 319

10-2 Ownership Concentration 320

10-2a The Increasing Influence of Institutional Owners 321

10-3 Board of Directors 322

10-3a Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Board of Directors 324

10-3b Executive Compensation 325

10-3c The Effectiveness of Executive Compensation 325

10-4 Market for Corporate Control 326

Strategic Focus Has More Governance Scrutiny Made Large CEO Compensation

Packages More Reasonable? 327

10-4a Managerial Defense Tactics 329

10-5 International Corporate Governance 330

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Contents

10-Sa Corporate Governance in Germany and Japan 331

10-Sb Corporate Governance in China 332

10-6 Governance Mechanisms and Ethical Behavior 333

Summary 334 • Key Terms 335 • Review Questions 335 • Mini-Case 335 • Notes 337

11: Organizational Structure and Controls 344 Opening Case: Changing McDonald's Organizational Structure and Controls:

A Path to Improved Performance 345

11-1 Organizational Structure and Controls 347

11-1 a Organizational Structure 347

11-1 b Organizational Controls 348

11-2 Relationships between Strategy and Structure 349

11-3 Evolutionary Patterns of Strategy and Organizational Structure 350

11-3a Simple Structure 350

11-3b Functional Structure 351

11-3c Multidivisional Structure 352

11-3d Matches between Business-Level Strategies and the Functional Structure 353

11-3e Matches between Corporate-Level Strategies and the Multidivisional Structure 356

Strategic Focus General Electric's Decline, New Strategy, and Reorganization 362

11-3f Matches between International Strategies and Worldwide Structure 363

11-39 Matches between Cooperative Strategies and Network Structures 367

11-4 Implementing Business-Level Cooperative Strategies 369

Strategic Focus Global Airline Alliances, Airline Joint Ventures, and Network Difficulties 370

11-5 Implementing Corporate-Level Cooperative Strategies 371

11-6 Implementing International Cooperative Strategies 371

Summary 372 • Key Terms 373 • Review Questions 373 • Mini-Case 374 • Notes 376

12: Strategic Leadership 382 Opening Case: Meg Whitman: A Pioneering Strategic Leader 383

12-1 Strategic Leadership and Style 386

Strategic Focus Cybersecurity Risk: A Significant and Expanding Challenge

for Strategic Leaders and Their Firms 387

12-2 The Role ofTop-Level Managers 388

12-2a Top ManagementTeams 390

12-3 Managerial Succession 393

12-4 Key Strategic Leadership Actions 396

12-4a Determining Strategic Direction 396

12-4b Effectively Managing the Firm's Resource Portfolio 398

12-4c Sustaining an Effective Organizational Culture 400

Strategic Focus Organizational Culture: Is It Really That Important? 401

12-4d Emphasizing Ethical Practices 403

12-4e Establishing Balanced Organizational Controls 404

Summary 407 • KeyTerms 408 • Review Questions 408 • Mini-Case 408 • Notes 410

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xi

xii Contents

13: Strategic Entrepreneurship 416 Opening Case: Today It Is Gas and Diesel: Tomorrow It Is Likely to Be Electric Vehicles,

Plug-in Hybrids, and Driverless Cars and Trucks 417

13-1 Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Opportunities 419

13-2 Innovation 420

13-3 Entrepreneurs 421

13-4 International Entrepreneurship 422

13-5 Internal Innovation 423

13-Sa Incremental and Novel Innovation 424

13-Sb Autonomous Strategic Behavior 426

Strategic Focus Seeking Innovation through Autonomous Strategic Behavior at the Country Level 427

13-Sc Induced Strategic Behavior 428

13-6 Implementing Internal Innovations 428

13-6a Cross-Functional Product Development Teams 429

13-6b Facilitating Integration and Innovation 430

13-6c Creating Value from Internal Innovation 430

13-7 Innovation through Cooperative Strategies 431

13-8 Innovation through Acquisitions 432

Strategic Focus Will These Acquisitions Lead to Innovation Success or to Strategic Failure? 433

13-9 Creating Value through Strategic Entrepreneurship 434

Summary 437 • Key Terms 438 • Review Questions 438 • Mini-Case 438 • Notes 440

Part 4: Case Studies C-1

Preparing an Effective Case Analysis C-4

Case 1: Alphabet Inc.: Reorganizing Google C-13

Case 2: Baidu's Business Model and Its Evolution C-29

Case 3: Future of the Autonomous Automobile: A Strategy for BMW C-44

Case 4: An Examination of the Long-term Healthcare Industry in the USA C-58

Case 5: CrossFit at the Crossroads C-63

Case 6: New Business Models for Heise Medien: Heading for the Digital Transformation C-80

Case 7: Illinois Tool Works: Retooling for Continued Growth and Profitability C-95

Case 8: Ultra Rope: Crafting a Go-to-Market Strategy for Kane's Innovative 'Ultra Rope'

Hoisting Cable C-104

Case 9: MatchMove: Business Model Evolution C-113

Case 10: The Movie Exhibition Industry: 2018 and Beyond C-124

Case 11: Pacific Drilling: The Preferred Offshore Driller C-147

Case 12: Pfizer C-163

Case 13: Publix Supermarkets, Inc. C-175

Case 14: Driving Innovation and Growth at Starbucks: From Howard Schultz

to Kevin Johnson C-190

Case 15: Sturm, Ruger & Co. and the U.S. Firearms Industry C-198

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Contents

Case 16: The trivago Way-Growing Without Growing Up? C-211

Case 17: The Volkswagen Emissions Scandal C-228

Case 18: The Wells Fargo Banking Scandal C-238

Case 19: ZF Friedrichshafen's Acquisition ofTRW Automotive: Making the Deal C-248

Case 20: The Rise and Fall of ZO Rooms C-259

Name Index 1-1

Company Index 1-21

Subject Index 1-24

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xiii

Preface ' •

xiv

,

Our goal in writing each edition of this book is to present a new, up-to-date standard for explaining the strategic management process. To reach this goal with the 13th edition of our market-leading text, we again present you with an intellectually rich yet thoroughly practical analysis of strategic management.

With each new edition, we work hard to achieve the goal of maintaining our stan­ dard of presenting strategic management knowledge in a readable style. To prepare for each new edition, we carefully study the most recent academic research to ensure that the content about strategic management we present to you is up to date and accu­ rate. In addition, we continuously read articles appearing in many different business publications (e.g., Wall Street Journal, Bloomberg Businessweek, Fortune, Financial Times, Fast Company, and Forbes, to name a few). We also study postings through social media (such as biogs) given their increasing use as channels of information distribution. By studying a wide array of sources, we are able to identify valuable examples of how companies across the world are using (or not using) the strategic management process. Though many of the hundreds of companies that we discuss in the book will be quite familiar, some will likely be new to you. One reason for this is that we use examples of companies from around the world to demonstrate the globalized nature of busi­ ness operations. Some of these firms are quite large and known to many while others are small and known primarily to the customers they serve. To maximize your oppor­ tunities to learn as you read and think about how actual companies use strategic management tools, techniques, and concepts (based on the most current research), we emphasize a lively and user-friendly writing style. To facilitate learning, we use an Analysis-Strategy-Performance framework; we explain this framework in Chapter 1 and reference it throughout the book.

Several characteristics of this 13th edition of our book are designed to enhance your learning experience:

■ First, we are pleased to note that this book presents you with the most comprehensive and thorough coverage of strategic management that is available in the market.

■ We draw the research used in this book from the "classics" as well as the most recent contributions to the strategic management literature. The historically significant "classic" research provides the foundation for much of what we know about strate­ gic management, while the most recent contributions reveal insights about how to use strategic management effectively in the complex, global business environment in which firms now compete. Our book also presents you with a large number of up-to-date examples of how firms use the strategic management tools, techniques, and con­ cepts that prominent researchers and business practitioners have developed. Indeed, although the relevant theory and current research are the foundation for this book, it also is strongly application oriented and presents you, our readers, with a large num­ ber of examples and applications of strategic management concepts, techniques, and tools. In this edition, for example, we examine more than 600 companies to describe

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Preface

the use of strategic management. Collectively, no other strategic management book presents you with the combination of useful and insightful research and applications in the variety of organizations as does this text.

Company examples you will find in this edition include large U.S.-based firms such as Apple, Amazon.com, McDonald's, FedEx, Starbucks, Walmart, Walt Disney, General Electric, Intel, American Express, Coca-Cola, Netflix, Google, Tesla, Target, UPS, Kellogg, 3M, DuPont, and Marriott. In addition, we examine firms based in countries other than the United States such as AXA, Airbus, Deutche Bank, LafargeHolcim, Sony, Softbank, Kering, Anbang Insurance, Teva, Chem China, Bayer, Tokyo Electric Power Company, Nestle, Mahindra, Air France-KLM, Toyota, Aldi, Honda, Ahold, Tata Consultancy, Alibaba, IKEA, Lenova, Volkswagen, and Samsung. As these lists suggest, the firms examined in this book compete in a wide range of industries and produce a diverse set of goods and services.

■ We use the ideas of many prominent scholars (e.g., Ron Adner, Rajshree Agarwal, Ruth Aguilera, Gautam Ahuja, Raffi Amit, Africa Arino, Jay Barney, Paul Beamish, Peter Buckley, Alfred Chandler, Ming-Jer Chen, Russ Coff, Brian Connelly, Rich D'Aveni, Kathy Eisenhardt, Nicolas Foss, Gerry George, Javier Gimeno, Luis Gomez­ Mejia, Melissa Graebner, Ranjay Gulati, Don Hambrick, Connie Helfat, Amy Hillman, Tomas Hult, Dave Ketchen, Ryan Krause, Dovev Lavie, Haiyang Li, Yadong Luo, Shige Makino, Costas Markides, Anita McGahan, Danny Miller, Will Mitchell, Margie Peteraf, Michael Porter, Nandini Rajagopalan, Jeff Reuer, Joan Ricart, Richard Rumelt, Wei Shi, David Sirmon, Ken Smith, Steve Tallman, David Teece, Rosalie Tung, Michael Tushman, Eero Vaara, Margarethe Wiersema, Oliver Williamson, Mike Wright, Anthea Zhang, Shaker Zahara, and Ed Zajac among others) to shape the discussion of what strategic management is. We describe the practices of prominent executives and practitioners (e.g., T homas Buberl, Tim Cook, Brian Cornell, James Dyson, Steve Easterbrook, Reed Hastings, Jan Jenisch, Jack Ma, Elon Musk, James Park, Chuck Robbins, Howard Schultz, Hock Tan, Meg Whitman, and many others) to help us describe how strategic management is used in many types of organizations.

The authors of this book are also active scholars. We conduct research on a number of strategic management topics. Our interest in doing so is to contribute to the strate­ gic management literature and to enhance our understanding of how to apply strategic management tools, techniques, and concepts effectively as a means of increasing organi­ zational performance. Thus, we integrate our own research in the appropriate chapters along with the research of numerous other scholars, some of whom we list above.

In addition to our book's characteristics, there are some specific features and revisions that we have made in this 13th edition that we are pleased to highlight for you:

■ New Opening Cases and Strategic Focus Segments We continue our tradition of providing virtually all-new Opening Cases and Strategic Focus segments! Almost all of these features are new to this edition; we updated completely the few remaining from the 12th edition because of their continuing relevance and importance. Many of these application-oriented features deal with companies located outside North America. In addition, all of the company-specific examples included in each chapter are either new or substantially updated. Through all of these venues, we present you with a wealth of examples of how actual organizations, most of which compete inter­ nationally as well as in their home markets, use the strategic management process for the purpose of outperforming rivals and increasing their performance.

■ Twenty Cases are included in this edition. Offering an effective mix of organizations headquartered or based in North America and a number of other countries as well, the cases deal with contemporary and highly important topics. Many of the cases have

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xv

xvi Preface

full financial data (the analyses of which are in the Case Notes that are available to instructors). These timely cases present active learners with opportunities to apply the strategic management process and understand organizational conditions and contexts and to make appropriate recommendations to deal with critical concerns. These cases also appear in MindTap.

■ New Mini-Cases appear at the end of each chapter. In these cases, we describe how companies deal with major issues highlighted in the text. There are 13 of these cases, one for each chapter, although some of them can overlap with other chapter content. Students will like their conciseness, but they likewise provide rich content that can serve as a catalyst for individual or group analysis and class discussion. A set of ques­ tions, which guide analysis and discussion, follows each Mini-Case.

■ More than 1,200 new references from 2017 and 2018 appear in the chapters' end­ notes. We used the materials associated with these references to support new material added or current strategic management concepts that are included in this edition. In addition to demonstrating the classic and recent research from which we draw our material, the large number of references supporting the book's contents allow us to integrate cutting-edge research and thinking into a presentation of strategic manage­ ment tools, techniques, and concepts.

■ New content appears in several chapters. Examples include: (1) the discussion of digitalization and its link with the forming and execution of strategies in Chapter l; (2) a description of the changing competitive landscape due to new technology devel­ opment, changing government policies (political landscape), and global competition in Chapter 2; (3) the importance and use of big data analytics and artificial intelligence in Chapter 3; ( 4) the analysis of digital strategies in Chapter 4's Opening Case; (5) the description of business models and their relationship with business-level strategies in Chapter 4; and (6) our discussion and analysis of the emergence and competitive significance of Amazon's acquisition of Whole Foods in several chapters.

■ Updated information appears in several chapters. Examples include updates about the rapid pace of technology diffusion (Chapter 1), all new and current demo­ graphic data ( e.g., ethnic mix, geographic distribution) that describe the economic environment ( Chapter 2), the general partner strategies of private equity firms (Chapter 7), information from the World Economic Forum Competitiveness Report regarding political risks of international investments (Chapter 8), updates about corporate governance practices being used in different countries (Chapter 10), updated data about the number of internal and external CEO selections occurring in companies today (Chapter 12), a ranking of countries by the amount of their entrepreneurial activities (Chapter 13), and a ranking of companies on their total innovation output (Chapter 13).

■ An Exceptional Balance between current research and up-to-date applications of that research in actual organizations located throughout the world. The content has not only the best research documentation but also the largest number of effective real­ world examples to help active learners understand the different types of strategies organizations use to achieve their vision and mission and to outperform rivals.

Supplements to Accompany This Text

MindTap. MindTap is the digital learning solution that helps instructors engage stu­ dents and helps students become tomorrow's strategic leaders. All activities are designed to teach students to problem-solve and think like leaders. Through these activities and

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Preface

real-time course analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.

Customized to the specific needs of this course, activities are built to facilitate mastery of chapter content. We've addressed case analysis from cornerstone to capstone with a functional area diagnostic of prior knowledge, guided cases, branching activities, multi­ media presentations of real-world companies facing strategic decisions, and a collabora­ tive environment in which students can complete group case analysis projects together synchronously.

Instructor Website. Access important teaching resources on this companion website. For your convenience, you can download electronic versions of the instructor supplements from the password-protected section of the site, including Instructor's Resource Manual, Comprehensive Case Notes, Cognero Testing, and PowerPoint® slides. To access these additional course materials and companion resources, please visit www.cengage.com.

■ Instructor's Resource Manual. The Instructor's Resource Manual, organized around each chapter's knowledge objectives, includes teaching ideas for each chapter and how to reinforce essential principles with extra examples. This support product includes lecture outlines and detailed guides to integrating the MindTap activities into your course with instructions for using each chapter's experiential exercises, branching, and directed cases. Finally, we provide outlines and guidance to help you customize the collaborative work environment and case analysis project to incorporate your approach to case analysis, including creative ideas for using this feature throughout your course for the most powerful learning experience for your class.

■ Case Notes. These notes include directed assignments, financial analyses, and thor­ ough discussion and exposition of issues in the case. Select cases also have assessment rubrics tied to National Standards (AACSB outcomes) that can be used for grading each case. The Case Notes provide consistent and thorough support for instructors, following the method espoused by the author team for preparing an effective case analysis.

■ Cognero Test Bank. This program is easy-to-use test-creation software that is compatible with Microsoft Windows. Instructors can add or edit questions, instructions, and answers, and select questions by previewing them on the screen, selecting them randomly, or selecting them by number. Instructors can also create and administer quizzes online, whether over the Internet, a local area network (LAN), or a wide area network (WAN). Thoroughly revised and enhanced, test bank questions are linked to each chapter's knowledge objectives and are ranked by difficulty and question type. We provide an ample number of application ques­ tions throughout, and we have also retained scenario-based questions as a means of adding in-depth problem-solving questions. The questions are also tagged to National Standards (AACSB outcomes), Bloom's Taxonomy, and the Dierdorff/ Rubin metrics.

■ PowerPoints®. An updated PowerPoint presentation provides support for lectures, emphasizing key concepts, key terms, and instructive graphics.

Acknowledgments We express our appreciation for the excellent support received from our editorial and production team at Cengage Learning. We especially wish to thank Michael Giffen, Senior Product Manager; Bryan Gambrel, Product Director; Audrey Wyrick, Marketing

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xvii

xviii Preface

Manager; and Amanda W hite, our Content Manager. We are grateful for their dedication, commitment, and outstanding contributions to the development and publication of this book and its package of support materials.

We are highly indebted to all of the reviewers of past editions. T heir comments have provided a great deal of insight in the preparation of this current edition:

Jay Azriel York College of Pennsylvania

Lana Belousova Suffolk University

Ruben Boling North Georgia University

Matthias Bollmus Carroll University

Erich Brockmann University of New Orleans

David Cadden Quinnipiac University

Ken Chadwick Nicholls State University

Bruce H. Charnov Hofstra University

Jay Chok Keck Graduate Institute, Claremont Colleges

Peter Clement State University of New York-Delhi

Terry Coalter Northwest Missouri University

James Cordeiro SUNY Brockport

Deborah de Lange Suffolk University

Irem Demirkan Northeastern University

Dev Dutta University of New Hampshire

Scott Elston Iowa State University

Harold Fraser California State University-Fullerton

Robert Goldberg Northeastern University

Monica Gordillo Iowa State University

George Griffin Spring Arbor University

Susan Hansen University of Wisconsin-Platteville

Glenn Hoetker Arizona State University

James Hoyt Troy University

Miriam Huddleston Harford Community College

Carol Jacobson Purdue University

James Katzenstein California State University, Dominguez Hills

Robert Keidel Drexel University

Nancy E. Landrum University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Mina Lee Xavier University

Patrice Luoma Quinnipiac University

Mzamo Mangaliso University of Massachusetts-Amherst

Michele K. Masterfano Drexel University

James McClain California State University-Fullerton

Jean McGuire Louisiana State University

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Preface

John McIntyre Georgia Tech

Rick McPherson University of Washington

Karen Middleton Texas A&M-Corpus Christi

Raza Mir William Paterson University

Martina Musteen San Diego State University

Louise Nemanich Arizona State University

Frank Novakowski Davenport University

Consuelo M. Ramirez University of Texas at San Antonio

Barbara Ribbens Western Illinois University

Jason Ridge Clemson University

William Roering Michigan State University

Manjula S. Salimath University of North Texas

Deepak Sethi Old Dominion University

Manisha Singal Virginia Tech

Warren Stone University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Elisabeth Teal University of N. Georgia

Jill Thomas Jorgensen Lewis and Clark State College

Len J. Trevino Washington State University

Edward Ward Saint Cloud State University

Marta Szabo White Georgia State University

Michael L. Williams Michigan State University

Diana J. Wong-MingJi Eastern Michigan University

Patricia A. Worsham California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

William J. Worthington Baylor University

Wilson Zehr Concordia University

Michael A. Hitt R. Duane Ireland

Robert E. Hoskisson

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xix

About the Authors

xx

Michael A. Hitt

Michael A. Hitt is a University Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Texas A&M University and a Distinguished Research Fellow at Texas Christian University. Dr. Hitt received his Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. He has co-authored or co-edited 27 books and authored or co-authored many journal articles. A recent article listed him as one of the 10 most cited authors in management over a 25-year period. The Times Higher Education 2010 listed him among the top scholars in economics, finance, and manage­ ment based on the number of highly cited articles he has authored. A recent article in the Academy of Management Perspectives lists him as one of the top two management schol­ ars in terms of the combined impact of his work both inside (i.e., citations in scholarly journals) and outside of academia. And, a recent article in the Academy of Management Learning and Education lists him as the highest cited author in strategic management textbooks. He has served on the editorial review boards of multiple journals and is a for­ mer editor of the Academy of Management Journal and a former co-editor of the Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal. He is a fellow in the Academy of Management, the Strategic Management Society, and the Academy of International Business. He has received hon­ orary doctorates (Doctor Honoris Causa) from the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid and from Jonkoping University. He is a former president of both the Academy of Management and the Strategic Management Society. He received awards for the best article published in the Academy of Management Executive (1999), Academy of Management Journal (2000), Journal of Management (2006), and Family Business Review (2012). In 2001, he received the Irwin Outstanding Educator Award and the Career Achievement Award for Distinguished Service from the Academy of Management. In 2004, Dr. Hitt was awarded the Best Paper Prize by the Strategic Management Society. In 2006, he received the Falcone Distinguished Entrepreneurship Scholar Award from Syracuse University. In 2017, he received the Career Achievement Award for Distinguished Educator from the Academy of Management. He received Distinguished Alumnus Awards from Texas Tech University and from the University of Colorado in 2018. In 2014-2018, Dr. Hitt was listed as a T homson Reuters Highly Cited Researcher (a listing of the world's most influential researchers).

R. Duane Ireland

R. Duane Ireland is a University Distinguished Professor, holder of the Benton Cocanougher Chair in Business, and the Executive Associate Dean in Mays Business School, Texas A&M University. Dr. Ireland teaches strategic management courses at all levels. He has more than 200 publications, including approximately 25 books. His research, which focuses on diversification, innovation, corporate entrepreneurship, strategic entrepreneurship, and the informal economy, appears in an array of journals. He has

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About the Authors

served as a member of multiple editorial review boards and is a former editor (and a for­ mer associate editor) of the Academy of Management Journal. He has been a guest editor for 12 special issues of journals. He is a past president of the Academy of Management. Dr. Ireland is a fellow of the Academy of Management, a fellow of the Strategic Management Society, and a research fellow in the Global Consortium of Entrepreneurship Centers. A recent article in the Academy of Management Learning and Education lists him as among the most highly cited authors in strategic management textbooks. He received awards for the best article published in Academy of Management Executive (1999), the Academy of Management Journal (2000), and the Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship (2010). He received an Association of Former Students Distinguished Achievement Award for Research from Texas A&M University (2012). In 2014, 2015, and 2018, Thomson Reuters identified Dr. Ireland as a Thomson Reuters Highly Cited Researcher (a listing of the world's most influential researchers). He received a Distinguished Service award from the Academy of Management in 2017 and a Distinguished Service award from the strategic management division of the Academy of Management in the same year. The Rawls College of Business, Texas Tech University, chose him as a Distinguished Alumnus in 2018. In 2017, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award for Research and Scholarship from Mays Business School.

Robert E. Hoskisson

Robert E. Hoskisson is the George R. Brown Emeritus Chair of Strategic Management at the Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Business, Rice University. Dr. Hoskisson received his Ph.D. from the University of California-Irvine. His research topics focus on corporate governance, acquisitions and divestitures, corporate and international diversification, and cooperative strategy. He teaches courses in corporate and international strategic man­ agement, cooperative strategy, and strategy consulting. He has co-authored 26 books, including recent books on business strategy and competitive advantage. Dr. Hoskisson has served on several editorial boards for such publications as the Strategic Management Journal (Associate Editor), Academy of Management Journal (Consulting Editor), Journal of International Business Studies (Consulting Editor), Journal of Management (Associate Editor), and Organization Science. His research has appeared in over 130 publications, including the Strategic Management Journal, Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Organization Science, Journal of Management, Academy of Management Perspective, Academy of Management Executive, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Business Venturing, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, California Management Review, and Journal of World Business. A recent article in the Academy of Management Learning and Education lists him among the most highly cited authors in strategic management textbooks. He is listed in the Thomson Reuters Highly Cited Researcher list that catalogues the world's most influential research scholars. Dr. Hoskisson is a fellow of the Academy of Management and a charter member of the Academy of Management Journal's Hall of Fame. He is also a fellow of the Strategic Management Society and has received awards from the American Society for Competitiveness and the William G. Dyer Alumni award from the Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University. He completed three years of service as a Representative-at-Large on the Board of Governors of the Academy of Management. He also served as President of the Strategic Management Society, and served on the Executive Committee of its Board of Directors for six years.

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xxi

xxii

Social/ Manu- Consumer Food/ High Transportation/ International Ethical Industry

Case Title facturing Service Goods Retail Technology Internet Communication Perspective Issues Perspective

Alphabet •

(Google) • • • •

Baidu • • • • •

BMW • • • • •

CrossFit • • •

Healthcare

Industry • • •

(Long-Term)

Heise Medien • • • •

Illinois Tool •

Works •

Kone • • • •

Match Move • • • •

Movie

Exhibition • • •

Industry

Pacific Drilling • • • •

Pfizer • • • •

Publix • • • • •

Starbucks • • • •

Sturm, Ruger

and Co. • • •

Trivago • • • •

Volkswagen • • • •

Wells Fargo • •

ZF Fried-

richshafen • • • •

ZO-Rooms • • • • •

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xxiii

Chapters

Case Title 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 O 11 12 13

Alphabet (Google) • • • • •

Baidu • • • • •

BMW • • • • •

CrossFit • • • • • •

Healthcare Industry

(Long-Term) • • • •

Heise Medien • • •

Illinois Tool Works • • • • •

Kone • • •

Match Move • • • • •

Movie Exhibition • • • •

Industry

Pacific Drilling • • •

Pfizer • • • • • • • • •

Publix • • • • •

Starbucks • • • •

Sturm, Ruger and Co. • • • •

Trivago • • • •

Volkswagen • • •

Wells Fargo • • •

ZF Friedrichshafen • • • •

ZO-Rooms • • • • • • --

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1

Studying this chapter should provide

you with the strategic management knowledge needed to:

L 1 1 Define strategic competitiveness,

strategy, competitive advantage, above-average returns, and the strategic management process.

1-2 Describe the competitive landscape and explain how globalization and technological changes shape it.

1-3 Use the industrial organization (1/0) model to explain how firms can earn above-average returns.

1-4 Use the resource-based model to explain how firms can earn above- average returns.

1-5 Describe vision and mission and discuss their value.

1-6 Define stakeholders and describe their ability to influence organizations.

1-7 Describe the work of strategic leaders.

1-8 Explain the strategic management process.

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."ii '

C yright 2020 Ccngagc Learni All Rights Reserved.

Editoria view has deemed thar any s rcssed content does

THE HONEST CO.: CAN IT BECOME AN ICONIC GLOBAL BRAND?

Launched on 2011, The Honest Co. is an eco-friendly consumer goods company co-founded by actress Jessica Alba. According to Alba, a desire as a parent to be able to purchase safe, effective products that perform as promised drove the decision to establish Honest. The firm says that it is a "wellness brand with values rooted in consciousness, community, transparency and design. We're on a mission to empower people to live happy, healthy lives:'

Over the years, Honest has offered consumers products in a number of categories including diapering, vitamins, feeding, personal care, and cleaning among others. Essentially, this firm's strategy calls for it to provide unique products to customers who value that uniqueness and are willing to pay for it in the form of prices that exceed those of "mainstream" products. Im­ plementing this strategy successfully would be the foundation for the firm achieving strategic competitiveness (we define strategy and strategic competitiveness in this chapter).

According to the firm's CEO, for the near future at least, Honest intends to concentrate on its baby and beauty products categories as a means of making progress to reach its objective of becoming an iconic global brand. Expansion into Europe in 2019 was an important strategic action taken to reach this objective. To avoid the highly competitive and low-margin diaper category, part of Honest's European expansion strategy includes its partnership with "German cosmetics and perfume chain Douglas to sell its beauty products in Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Poland, the Netherlands, and Austria:'

The path to achieving strategic competitiveness has not been chal­ lenge- and error-free for The Honest Co. In terms of challenges, the firm has direct competitors such as Zulily (a firm offering always-fresh products for families with new babies includ- ing home decor items, clothing, gifts, ·�

-ffi etc.) and Giggle, a one-stop source .:;, -.••------•---••---•:for new parents seeking unique baby products. Additionally, large consum- Co-founder of The Honest Company Jessica Alba

er-goods companies such as Unilever at a special ribbon cutting ceremony in Beverly Hills, and Procter & Gamble offer products to California. consumers with some of the features associated with Honest's items, sometimes at a lower price. A series of lawsuits filed against The Honest Co. suggest mistakes made by the firm. In 2016, for example, a lawsuit alleged false labelling of some of the ingredients of the firm's cleaning products. Other allegations include one that the firm's sunscreen product does not work effectively. Honest also had to recall its organic baby powder for potential contamination and its baby wipes because of contamina­ tion with mold.

Recently, Honest received a $200 million dollar minority investment from L. Catterton, a private equity firm. The Honest Co. believes this investment provides the capital required to expand its supply chains and global reach. Honest thinks of L. Catterton as a perfect invest­ ment partner because of its expertise with global supply chains. The Honest Co. is the type of firm in which L. Catterton typically invests, as shown by its involvement with well-known American beauty product businesses such as Bliss, Elemis, and Tula.

4

Firms achieve strategic

competitiveness by

formulating and

implementing a value

creating strategy.

A strategy is an integrated and coordinated set of

commitments and actions

designed to exploit core

competencies and gain a

competitive advantage.

A firm has a competitive

advantage when by

implementing a chosen

strategy, it creates superior

value for customers and

when competitors are not

able to imitate the value the

firm's products create or find

it too expensive to attempt

imitation.

Going forward, will The Honest Co. be able to use its resources to outcompete rivals as

a means of reaching its objective to become an iconic global brand by offering consumers eco-friendly and effective products? While committed to regaining consumers' trust and

confidence by producing products they want to buy, reaching this objective is challenging,

especially in light of the competition the firm faces. On the other hand, some analysts believe

Honest will succeed because the firm has three valuable capabilities (we define capabilities in

this chapter): "tremendous brand equity, innovative and quality products, and a loyal customer

following:'Time will tell ifThe Honest Co. will be able to execute with these capabilities in a

way that yields competitive success in the form of strategic competitiveness.

Sources: 2018, The Honest Co., About us, www.honest.com, August, 8; 2018, Jessica Alba's Honest Co. gets $200 million investment from L. Catterton, Fortune, www.fortune.com, June 6; A. Black, 2018, The right way for food companies to buy their way to growth, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, June 6; W. Colville, 2018, Jessica Alba's Honest Co. gets $200 million investment, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, June 6; A. Gasparro & J. Bunge, 2018, Food companies churn through CEOs, desperate for fresh ideas, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, May 29; A. Stych, 2018, Jessica Alba's Honest Company gets $200M investment, bizwomen, www.bizwomen.com, June 7; J. Valinsky, 2018, Jessica Alba's Honest Co. just got a $200 million lifeline, CNNMoney, www.cnnmoney.com, June 6; A. C. Wisch hover, 2018, Jessica Alba's Honest Company is relaunching products and trying to put bad PR drama behind it, Racked, www.racked.com, June 7.

A s we see from the Opening Case, achieving strategic competitiveness by implement­ ing a firm's chosen strategy successfully is challenging. Founded as a wellness brand

with a grounding in the values of consciousness, community, transparency, and design, Honest is struggling to reach its mission and the founders' desired level of competitive success. An eco-friendly consumer goods company, Honest seeks to provide customers with unique products for which they are willing to pay a higher price, compared to the prices for consumer goods products with relatively standard features and capabilities. Honest's top management team, including Jessica Alba, is using the strategic management process (see Figure 1.1) as the foundation for the commitments, decisions, and actions the team is taking to pursue strategic competitiveness and above-average returns. Given the firm's challenges, some of its decisions and actions going forward will likely differ from some made previously. In this book, we explain the strategic management process The Honest Co. and multiple other firms use to implement a chosen strategy successfully and to achieve strategic competitiveness by doing so. We introduce you to this process in the next few paragraphs.

Firms achieve strategic competitiveness by formulating and implementing a value­ creating strategy. A strategy is an integrated and coordinated set of commitments and actions designed to exploit core competencies and gain a competitive advantage. When choosing a strategy, firms make choices among competing alternatives as the pathway for deciding how they will pursue strategic competitiveness. In this sense, the chosen strategy indicates what the firm will do as well as what the firm will not do.

A firm has a competitive advantage when by implementing a chosen strategy, it cre­ ates superior value for customers and when competitors are not able to imitate the value the firm's products create or find it too expensive to attempt imitation.1 An organization can be confident that its strategy yields a competitive advantage after competitors' efforts to duplicate it have ceased or failed. In addition, firms must understand that no compet­ itive advantage is permanent.2 The speed with which competitors are able to acquire the skills needed to duplicate the benefits of a firm's value-creating strategy determines how long the competitive advantage will last.3 The Honest Co. seeks to create a competitive advantage, as do all organizations. We discuss competitive advantages and provide a few firm-specific examples of them in the Strategic Focus.

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness 5

Competitive Advantage as a Source of Strategic Competitiveness

Possessing a competitive advantage, and understanding how to

use it effectively in marketplace competitions, is foundational to

all firms' efforts to achieve strategic competitiveness and outper­

form rivals in the process of doing so. Strategic leaders influence

choices firms make to develop a competitive advantage. (We

define strategic leaders later in this chapter and discuss strategic

leadership in detail in Chapter 12.) In essence, a firm creates a

competitive advantage by being as different as possible from

competitors in ways that are important to customers and in ways

that competitors cannot duplicate. Important differences are

ones for which customers are willing to pay. Having and exploit­

ing a competitive advantage successfully finds a firm creating

superior value for its customers and superior profits for itself.

The competitive advantages firms possess differ among

companies across and within industries. Drawing from Michael

Porter's work, we explain in Chapter 4 that firms have a

competitive advantage when they deliver the same value to

customers as competitors deliver but at a lower cost, or when

they deliver benefits for which customers are willing to pay

that exceed the benefits competitors offer. Facilitating a firm's

efforts to develop a competitive advantage is its ability to

make the value its products offers customers as clear, concise,

and easily recognizable as possible. In slightly different words,

firms must convey effectively the value of their products, rela­

tive to competitors' offerings, to their customers. The larger is

the "gap" between the va lue a firm's products creates for cus­

tomers and the value competitors' products bring to customers,

the more significant is a firm's competitive advantage.

The competitive dimensions on which firms are able to

establish a competitive advantage are virtually endless. In a

general sense, technological developments, which continue at a

rapid pace, may be a source of competitive advantage for firms

in multiple industries. Salesforce.com, the customer relationship

management (CRM) firm that uses cloud computing extensively,

recently"debuted a CRM solution that uses machine learning

to build comprehensive data-based customer profiles, identify

crucial touch points and uncover additional sales opportunities'.'

Adaptability and flexibility are additional potential sources of

competitive advantage for firms learning how to exploit newly

developing technologies quickly and successfully. Netflix is build­

ing competitive advantages in terms of its original program­

ming and its customer interface platform that creates unique

experiences for individual users. Some analysts feel that trust

is an important source of competitive advantage. In a recent

survey, a group reported that "Unlike other on line retailers, 67%

of Amazon customers trust the company to protect their privacy

and personal data'.'Home Depot officials cite the firm's culture

as a competitive advantage. The culture emphasizes "excellent

customer service, an entrepreneurial spirit, building strong rela­

tionships, taking care of its people, and doing the right thing" In

today's globalized competitive environment, firms that learn how

to develop an effective balance among economic growth, eco­

logical balance, and social growth may have a viable competitive

advantage. Finally, some argue that in the final analysis, a firm's

people are the most important source of competitive advantage.

The reason for this is that a firm's people think of ways to create

differences between their firm and competitors; a firm's people

then execute in ways that bring those differences to life.

We note in Chapter 4 that no competitive advantage is

sustainable permanently. In some instances, a firm's advantage

no longer creates value for which customers are willing to pay.

In other cases, competitors will learn how to create more value

for customers with respect to a valued competitive dimension

for which they are willing to pay. Thus, to achieve strategic

competitiveness across time, a firm must concentrate simulta­

neously on exploiting the competitive advantage it possesses

today while contemplating decisions to make today to ensure

that it will possess a competitive advantage in the future.

Sources: A. Bylund. 2018, What is Netflix, lnc'.s competitive advantage? The Motley

Fool, www.fool.com, July 21; I. Hunkeler, 2018, How to turn digital disruption into a

competitive advantage, Small Business Daily, www.smallbizdaily.com, January 26;

L. Lent, 2018, Strategic sustainability focus delivers competitive advantages,

PHYS.ORG, www.phys.org, February 8; I. Linton, 2018, Strategic moves to build a

competitive advantage, Houston Chronicle, www.smallbusiness.chron.com, June 29;

G. Pickard-Whitehead, 2018, What is competitive advantage? Small Business Trends,

www.smallbiztrends.com, April 1 0; A. Rogers, 2018, Innovation case studies:

How companies use technology to solidify a competitive advantage, Forbes,

www.forbes.com, April 13; J. Silver, 2018, Culture as a competitive advantage, Hispanic

Executive, www.hispanicexecutive.com, May 1; G. Sterling, 2018, Survey: Consumer

trust rnay be Amazon's true competitive advantage, Search Engine Land, www

.searchengineland.com, June 7; R. Wartzman & L Crosby, 2018, A company's perfor­

mance depends first of all on its people, Woll Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 12.

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6

Above-average returns

are returns in excess of what

an investor expects to earn

from other investments with

a similar amount of risk.

Risk is an investor's

uncertainty about the

economic gains or losses that

will result from a particular

investment.

Average returns are returns

equal to those an investor

expects to earn from other

investments possessing a

similar amount of risk.

The strategic management

process is the full set of

commitments, decisions, and

actions firms take to achieve

strategic competitiveness and

earn above-average returns.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Above-average returns are returns in excess of what an investor expects to earn from other investments with a similar amount of risk. Risk is an investor's uncertainty about the economic gains or losses that will result from a particular investment. The most successful companies learn how to manage risk effectively;4 doing so reduces investors' uncertainty about the outcomes of their investment.5 Firms often use accounting-based metrics, such as return on assets, return on equity, and return on sales to assess their performance. Alternatively, firms can assess their performance in terms of stock market returns, even monthly returns. (Monthly returns are the end-of-the-period stock price minus the beginning stock price divided by the beginning stock price, yielding a p e r ­ centage return.) In smaller, new venture firms, returns are sometimes measured in terms of the amount and speed of growth (e.g., in annual sales) rather than more traditional profitability measures6 because new ventures require time to earn acceptable returns (in the form of return on assets and so forth) for investors.7

Understanding how to exploit a competitive advantage is important for firms seeking to earn above-average returns.8 Firms without a competitive advantage or those that do not compete in an attractive industry earn, at best, average returns. Average returns are returns equal to those an investor expects to earn from other investments possessing a similar amount of risk. Over time, an inability to earn at least average returns results first in decline and, eventually, failure.9 Failure occurs because investors withdraw their invest­ ments from those firms earning less-than-average returns.

As previously noted, there are no guarantees of permanent success. Companies suc­ ceeding at a point in time must not become overconfident. Research suggests that over­ confidence can lead to excessive risk taking.10 Used as an example several times in this book, Amazon.com today continues growing and increasing its sales revenue. This firm too though must avoid assuming that success today is a guarantee of success tomorrow. Using the strategic management process effectively facilitates firms' efforts to achieve success across time.

The strategic management process is the full set of commitments, decisions, and actions firms take to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns (see Figure 1.1).11 The process involves analysis, strategy, and performance (the A-S-P model-see Figure 1.1). The firm's first step in the process is to analyze its external envi­ ronment and internal organization to identify external opportunities and threats and to recognize its internal resources, capabilities, and core competencies. The results of these analyses influence the selection of the firm's strategy or strategies. The strategy portion of the model entails strategy formulation and strategy implementation.

With the information gained from external and internal analyses, the firm develops its vision and mission and formulates one or more strategies. To implement its strategies, the firm takes actions to enact each one with the intent of achieving strategic competi­ tiveness and above-average returns (performance). Effective actions that take place in the context of integrated strategy formulation and implementation efforts result in positive performance. Firms seek to maintain the quality of what is a dynamic strategic manage­ ment process as a means of dealing successfully with ever-changing markets and evolving internal conditions.12

In the remaining chapters of this book, we use the strategic management process to explain what firms do to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns. We demonstrate why some firms achieve competitive success consistently while others do not. Today, global competition is a critical part of the strategic management process and influences firms' performances.13 Indeed, learning how to compete in the globalized world is one of the most significant challenges firms face.14

We discuss several topics in this chapter. First, we describe the current competitive landscape. Several realities, including the emergence of a global economy, globalization

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

Figure 1.1 The Strategic Management Process

Chapter 2 The External Environment

·.;; Vision 2:- ro Mission C

Chapter 3 The Internal Organization

Strategy Formulation Strategy Implementation

>,

Ol (1)

+'

+'

(1) u C ro

§ _g (1) a...

Chapter4 Business-Level

Strategy

Chapter 7 Merger and Acquisition Strategies

Chapter 5 Competitive Rivalry and

Competitive Dynamics

Chapter 8 International

Strategy

Chapter6 Corporate-

Level Strategy

Chapter 9 Cooperative

Strategy

Strategic Competitiveness Above-Average

Returns

Chapter 10 Corporate

Governance

Chapter 12 Strategic

Leadership

resulting from that economy, and rapid technological changes, influence this landscape. Next, we examine two models firms use to gather the information and knowledge required to choose and then effectively implement their strategies. The insights gained from these models also serve as the foundation for forming the firm's vision and mission. The fust model (industrial organization or 1/0) suggests that the external environment is the primary determinant of a firm's strategic actions. According to this model, identi­ fying and then operating effectively in an attractive (i.e., profitable) industry or segment of an industry are the keys to competitive success.15 The second model (resource-based) suggests that a firm's unique resources and capabilities are the critical link to strategic competitiveness.16 Thus, the first model is concerned primarily with the firm's external environment while the second model is concerned primarily with the firm's internal orga­ nization. After discussing vision and mission, direction-setting statements that influence the choice and use of strategies, we describe the stakeholders that organizations serve.

Chapter 11 Organizational Structure and

Controls

Chapter 13 Strategic

Entrepreneurship

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7

8

Hypercompetition is a

condition where competitors

engage in intense rivalry,

markets change quickly and

often, and entry barriers are

low.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

The degree to which stakeholders' needs can be met increases when firms achieve stra­ tegic competitiveness and earn above-average returns. Closing the chapter are introduc­ tions to strategic leaders and the elements of the strategic management process.

1-1 The Competitive Landscape The fundamental nature of competition in many of the world's industries is changing. Digitalization, for example, which is the process of converting something to digital form, is a new competitive dimension that is affecting competition in multiple industries throughout the world. The Apple watch demonstrates "digitalization at its best where technology has taken an ordinary watch and introduced technology into it with phone capabilities, messaging, and even Internet capabilities:' 17

The full array of possibilities flowing from digitalization as a means of competition among companies remains unspecified. Recent evidence, though, suggests that firms understanding digitalization and its capabilities may be able to outperform their rivals. Headquartered in London, PricewaterhouseCoopers (doing business as PwC) is a multi­ national professional services firm. Based on a survey of 1,155 manufacturing executives located in 26 countries, PwC concluded that "Distinct from Industry 3.0, which involved the automation of single machines and processes, Industry 4.0 encompasses end-to-end digitization and data integration of the value chain: offering digital products and ser­ vices, operating connected physical and virtual assets, transforming and integrating all operations and internal activities, building partnerships, and optimizing customer-facing activities:' 18 An analysis of its survey results found PwC concluding that firms committed to becoming digital leaders are able to distinguish themselves from competitors by pro­ ducing innovative products that unique groups of customers value. Indeed, a significant benefit of digitalization is that it allows firms to identify specific customer groups and then serve their personalized and unique needs.19

The number of customers interested in digitalization as a source for product develop­ ment and subsequent use is huge and increasing. "There are two-and-a-half billion digital customers globally who are under 25 years of age. What characterizes this group is the fact that they are 'always on' and that they show a different usage behavior compared to that of the traditional 'analog' consumer:' 20 Thus, in today's competitive landscape, a chal­ lenge is for firms to understand the strategic implications associated with digitalization and to integrate digitalization effectively into their strategies.

Other characteristics of the current competitive landscape are notewor thy. Conventional sources of competitive advantage such as economies of scale and large advertising budgets are not as effective as they once were (e.g., because of social media advertising) in terms of helping firms earn above-average returns. Moreover, the tra­ ditional managerial mind-set is unlikely to lead a firm to strategic competitiveness. Managers must adopt a new mind-set that values flexibility, speed, innovation, integra­ tion, and the challenges flowing from constantly changing conditions.21 The conditions of the competitive landscape result in a perilous business world-a world in which the investments necessary to compete on a global scale are enormous and the consequences of failure are severe.22 Effective use of the strategic management process reduces the like­ lihood of failure for firms while competing against their rivals.

Hypercompetition is a condition where competitors engage in intense rivalry, markets change quickly and often, and entry barriers are low. In these environments, firms find it difficult to maintain a competitive advantage.23 Rivalry in hypercompetitive environments tends to occur among global competitors who innovate regularly and successfully.24 It is a condition of rapidly escalating competition based on price-quality positioning, compe­ tition to create new know-how and establish first-mover advantage, and competition to

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

protect or invade established product and/or geographic markets. In a hypercompetitive market, firms often challenge their competitors aggressively to strengthen their market position and ultimately, their performance.25 Specifically how firms challenge each other in hypercompetitive markets varies across time. Recently, for example, Internet giant Tencent Holdings Ltd. of China has become one of the world's largest technology inves­ tors. Between 2013 and mid-2018, the firm took stakes in 277 startups. Analysts believe this is a calculated strategy to crowd out rivals and to increase profits. 26

Several factors create hypercompetitive environments and influence the nature of the current competitive landscape. The emergence of a global economy and technology, specifically rapid technological change, are two primary drivers of hypercompetitive envi­ ronments and the nature of today's competitive landscape.

1-1a The Global Economy A global economy is one in which goods, services, people, skills, and ideas move freely across geographic borders. Relatively unfettered by artificial constraints, such as tariffs, the global economy significantly expands and complicates a firm's competitive environment. 27

The global economy, which changes rapidly and constantly,28 increases the scope of the competitive environment in which companies compete. Because of this, firms must study the global economy carefully as a foundation for learning how to position them­ selves successfully for competitive purposes.

The size of parts of the global economy is an important aspect of studying this com­ petitive arena. In 2018 for example, the United States was the world's largest economy at a value of $20.4 trillion. At that time, China was the world's second largest economy with a value of $14 trillion while Japan was the third largest at $5.1 trillion. Following Japan were three European countries (Germany at $4.2 trillion, United Kingdom at $2.94 trillion, and France at $2.93 trillion). In observing economies' values in 2018, the World Economic Forum noted that the size of the United States economy was "larger than the combined economies of numbers four to 10 on the list. Overall, the global economy (was) worth an estimated $79.98 trillion, meaning the United States accounts for more than one-quarter of the world total."29 Thus, companies scanning the global economy for opportunities in 2018 might conclude that markets in the United States, China, and Japan yield potentially significant opportunities for them. Of course, such an analysis also must consider entry barriers to various economies in the form of tar­ iffs. This type of analysis must also be forward looking in that in 2018, for example, the World Economic Forum estimated that China and India's economies would exceed the size of the U.S. economy by 2050 and that the economies of Germany, United Kingdom, and France would decline in size by this time as well. Companies should study carefully predictions such as these when determining the parts of the world in which growth opportunities as well as threats to their competitive global positions may exist in future years.

U.S.-based Netflix continues studying the global economy to identify opportunities in countries and regions in which it can grow. In mid-2018, the firm continued adding subscribers, reaching 125 million globally. At that time, analysts predicted the firm would have 360 million subscribers by 2030. International markets were to be the source of much of the growth in subscribers.30 Informing this prediction was the expectation that Netflix would achieve reasonable levels of market penetration internationally, including reaching penetration in 35 percent of all broadband households worldwide, excluding China.31 To fuel its international plans, Netflix offers some of its original movies in lan­ guages other than English. In 2018 alone, the firm allocated $8 billion to develop original programming, with some of those programs targeted to international customers.32

9

A global economy is one

in which goods, services,

people, skills, and ideas move

freely across geographic

borders.

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10 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

During the global recession of roughly 2007 and 2008, General Motors (GM) identified what it thought was a significant international opportunity in China. The fact that GM and its Chinese joint venture partners are now the leading manufactur­ ers in the world's largest automobile market seems to validate GM's assessment and the actions it took in light of it. GM and its partners' decision to launch the Baojun brand is foundational to the firm's success in China. With expectations of continuing growth, "Baojun is an entry-level brand targeted at consumers who live in (China's) smaller cities and rural areas:' 33 In recent times, the competitive actions GM is taking in China result in the firm outperforming its rival Ford Motor Co. in this key global market.34

The March of Globalization

Globalization is the increasing economic interdependence among countries and their organizations as reflected in the flow of products, financial capital, and knowledge across country borders.35 Globalization is a product of a large number of firms competing against one another in an increasing number of global economies.

In globalized markets and industries, firms might obtain financial capital in one national market and use it to buy raw materials in another. Firms might then use manu­ facturing equipment purchased in a third national market to produce and deliver prod­ ucts that it sells in a fourth market. Thus, globalization increases the range of opportuni­ ties for companies competing in the current competitive landscape.36

Firms operating globally must make culturally sensitive decisions when using the strategic management process, as is the case in Starbucks' operations in European countries (we discuss additional aspects of this firm's recent decisions and actions in this Chapter's Mini-Case). Additionally, highly globalized firms must anticipate ever-increasing complexity in their operations as goods, services, people, and so forth move freely across geographic borders and throughout different economies.

Overall, globalization has led to higher performance standards with respect to mul­ tiple competitive dimensions, including quality, cost, productivity, product introduc­ tion time, and operational efficiency. In addition to firms competing in the global economy, these standards affect firms competing on a domestic-only basis. Customers will choose to buy a global competitor's product when it creates superior value for them relative to the value created by the domestic firm's product. Workers now flow rather freely among global economies. This is important in that employees are a key source of competitive advantage.37 Firms must learn how to deal with the reality that in today's competitive landscape, only companies capable of meeting, if not exceeding, global standards typically earn above-average returns.

Although globalization offers potential benefits to firms, it is not without risks. "Liability of foreignness" is the term describing the risks of competing outside a firm's domestic markets. 38 The amount of time firms usually require to learn to compete in markets that are new to them is one risk of entering a global market. A firm's perfor­ mance can suffer until it gains the knowledge needed to compete successfully in a new global market.39 In addition, a firm's performance may suffer by entering too many global markets either simultaneously or too quickly. When this happens, the overall organization may lack the skills required to manage effectively all of its diversified global operations.40

The increasing opportunities available in emerging economies is a major driver of growth in the size of the global economy. Important emerging economies include the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China),41 the VISTA countries (Vietnam, Indonesia, South Africa, Turkey, and Argentina),42 as well as Mexico and Thailand.

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

Demonstrating the growth in size of some of these economies is the 2018 prediction that by 2050, Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico will be the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh largest economies in the world by size. If this were to happen, by 2050, the size of these emerging economies would exceed those of Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, and France.43 Emerging economy firms now compete in global markets, some with increasing success.44 Indeed, the emergence of emerging-market multi­ national corporations (MNCs) in international markets forces large MNCs based in developed markets to enrich their own capabilities to compete effectively in global markets.45

Thus, entry into international markets, even for firms with substantial experience in the global economy, requires effective use of the strategic management process. Moreover, while global markets are an attractive strategic option for some companies, they are not the only source of strategic competitiveness. In fact, most companies, even those capable of competing successfully in global markets, should commit to remain­ ing competitive in their home market and in the international markets in which they choose to compete. Firms do this by remaining in tune with technological opportuni­ ties and potential disruptions innovations might create. As indicated in this chapter's Mini-Case, Starbucks is emphasizing both product innovation and international expan­ sion as means of growing profitably.

1-1 b Technology and Technological Changes

Increasingly, technology affects all aspects of how companies operate and as such, the strategies they choose to implement. Boston Consulting Group analy sts describe tech­ nology's impact as follows: "No company can afford to ignore the impact of technology on everything from supply chains to customer engagement, and the advent of even more advanced technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things, portends more far-reaching change:'46

There are three categories of technology-related trends and conditions affecting today's firms: technology diffusion and disruptive technologies, the information age, and increasing knowledge intensity. As noted in the paragraph above, these categories have a significant effect on the nature of competition in many industries.

Technology Diffusion and Disruptive Technologies The rate of technology diffusion, which is the speed at which new technologies become available to firms and when firms choose to adopt them, is far greater than was the case a decade or two ago. Consider the following rates of technology diffusion:

It took the telephone 35 years to get into 25 percent of all homes in the United States. It took TV 26 years. It took radio 22 years. It took PCs 16 years. It took the Internet 7 years. 47

The impact of technological changes on individual firms and industries is broad and significant. For example, in the not-too-distant past, people rented movies on vid­ eotapes from retail stores such as Blockbuster. (Dish Network acquired Blockbuster in 2011.) Today, customers on a global basis use electronic means almost exclusively to rent movies and games. The publishing industry (books, journals, magazines, newspapers) is moving rapidly from hard copy to electronic format. Many firms in these industries, operating with a more traditional business model, are suffering. These changes are also affecting other industries, from trucking to mail services.

Perpetual innovation is a term used to describe how rapidly and consistently new, information-intensive technologies replace older ones. The shorter product life cycles

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11

12 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

resulting from these rapid diffusions of new technologies place a competitive premium on being able to introduce quickly new, innovative products into the marketplace.48

In fact, when products become hard to distinguish because of the widespread and rapid diffusion of technologies, speed to market with innovative products may be the primary source of competitive advantage (see Chapter 5).49 Indeed, some argue that continuous innovations occurring in the global economy drive much of today's rapid and substantial change. Not surprisingly, an understanding of global standards and of the expectations customers have regarding a product's functionality inform the nature of these innovations. Although some argue that large established firms may have trouble innovating, evidence suggests that today these firms are developing radically new technologies that transform old industries or create new ones.50 In 2018, for example, Boston Consulting Group identified the 50 most innovative companies in the world. The first five firms on this list are large companies-Apple, Google, Microsoft, Amazon, and Samsung.51 Wireless AirPods, ARKit (the firm's augment­ ed-reality framework), and HomePod (an intelligent speaker) are some of the innova­ tive products Apple introduced recently and for which some recognize it as the most innovative company in the world.52

Another indicator of rapid technology diffusion is that commonly, firms gather infor­ mation quickly about their competitors' research and development (R&D) and product decisions, sometimes even within days.53 In this sense, the rate of technological diffusion has reduced the competitive benefits of patents.54 Today, patents may be an effective way of protecting proprietary technology in a small number of industries such as pharma­ ceuticals. Indeed, many firms competing in the electronics industry often do not apply for patents to prevent competitors from gaining access to the technological knowledge included in the patent application.

Disruptive technologies-technologies that destroy the value of an existing technol­ ogy and create new markets55-surface frequently in today's competitive markets. Think of the new markets created by the technologies underlying the development of prod­ ucts such as Wi-Fi, iPads, and the web browser and the markets advances in artificial intelligence will create. Some believe that these types of products represent radical or breakthrough innovations (we discuss radical innovations in Chapter 13).56 A disruptive or radical technology can create what is essentially a new industry or can harm indus­ try incumbents. However, some industry incumbents adapt to radical innovations from competitors based on their superior resources, experience, and ability to gain access to the new technology through multiple sources (e.g., alliances, acquisitions, and ongoing internal research).57

The Information Age Dramatic changes in information technology (IT) continue occurring in the global econ­ omy. Personal computers, cellular phones, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, massive databases ("big data"), data analytics, and multiple social networking sites are a few exam­ ples of how technological developments permit different uses of information. Data and information are vital to firms' efforts today to understand customers and their needs and to implement strategies in ways that satisfy those needs as well as the interests of all other stakeholders. For today's firms in virtually all industries, IT is an important capability that contributes positively to product innovation efforts58 and may be a source of competitive advantage as well. Firms failing to harness the power of data and information are disad­ vantaged compared to their competitors.59

Both the pace of change in IT and its diffusion continue increasing on a global scale. Consider that in 2018, 36 percent of the world's population owned a smartphone. With respect to personal computers, expectations are that the number of personal

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

computers sold annually will decline from 258.8 million in 2017 to 215.8 million in 2023. On the other hand, indications are that during the same time, technology inno­ vations such as touch-enabled PCs, ultra-slim and convertible laptops, and hybrid machines will stimulate revenue growth among technology companies.60 Technology­ based innovations also stimulate additional markets. For example, predictions are that the global video streaming market will reach $70 billion by 2021. Contributing to this market's growth is the fact that in 2018, the percentage of Internet and mobile audiences watching live video continued to expand.61 Trends such as these inform the work firms complete to select and implement their strategies in the global economy. The most successful firms envision information technology-derived innovations as opportunities to identify and serve new markets rather than as threats to the markets they serve currently.62

Increasing Knowledge Intensity Knowledge (information, intelligence, and expertise) is the basis of technology and its application. Today, knowledge is a critical organizational resource and an increasingly valuable source of competitive advantage.63 The shifting of the basis of competition being on tangible assets to intangible ones such as knowledge began in the early 1980s. For example, "Walmart transformed retailing through its proprietary approach to supply chain management and its information-rich relationships with customers and suppli­ ers:'64 Relationships with customers and suppliers, such as those characterizing Walmart, are an example of an intangible resource requiring managerial attention.65

Individuals acquire knowledge through experience, observation, and inference. Knowledge is an intangible resource (we describe tangible and intangible resources fully in Chapter 3). The value of firms' intangible resources, including knowledge, continues increasing as a proportion of total shareholder value.66 Some believe that "intangibles have grown from filling 20% of corporate balance sheets to 80%, due in large part to the expanding nature, and rising importance, of intangibles as represented by intel­ lectual capital vs. bricks-and-mortar, research and development vs. capital spending, services vs. manufacturing, and the list goes on:'67 Overall, U.S. firms may hold over $8 trillion in intangible assets on their balance sheets. This amount is roughly one-half of the market capitalization of companies comprising the S&P 500 index.68 Knowledge is a key intangible asset that when diffused quickly throughout a firm contributes to efforts to outperform rivals.69 Therefore, firms must develop (e.g., through training programs) and acquire (e.g., by hiring educated and experienced employees) knowledge, integrate it into the organization to create capabilities, and then apply it to gain a competitive advantage.70

A strong knowledge base is necessary to create innovations. In fact, firms lacking appropriate internal knowledge resources are less likely to allocate sufficient financial resources to R&D.71 Firms must continue to use learning to build their knowledge base because of the common occurrence of knowledge spillovers to competitors. Rival compa­ nies hiring personnel from a firm results in the knowledge from one firm spilling over to another company.72 Because of the potential for spillovers, firms must move quickly to use their knowledge productively. In addition, firms must find ways for knowledge to diffuse inside the organization such that it becomes available in all places where its use creates value.73 Strategic flexibility helps firms reach these objectives.

Strategic flexibility is a set of capabilities firms use to respond to various demands and opportunities existing in today's dynamic and uncertain competitive environment. Strategic flexibility involves coping with uncertainty and its accompanying risks.74

Firms should try to develop strategic flexibility in all areas of their operations. However, building strategic flexibility is not an easy task, largely because of inertia that can build

13

Strategic flexibility is

a set of capabilities firms

use to respond to various

demands and opportunities

existing in today's dynamic

and uncertain competitive

environment.

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14 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

over time. A firm's focus and past core competencies may actually slow change and strategic flexibility. 75

To be strategically flexible on a continuing basis and to gain the competitive benefits of such flexibility, a firm must develop the capacity to learn. Continuous learning pro­ vides the firm with new and up-to-date skill sets, which allow it to adapt to its environ­ ment as it encounters changes.76 Firms capable of applying quickly what they have learned exhibit the strategic flexibility and the capacity to change in ways that will increase the probability of dealing successfully with uncertain, hypercompetitive environments.

1-2 The 1/0 Model of Above-Average Returns

From the 1960s through the 1980s, those leading organizations believed that the external environment rather than the internal organization was the strongest influence on the choice of strategy.77 The industrial organization (I/0) model of above-average returns explains the external environment's dominant influence on the choice of strategy and the actions associated with it. The logic of the I/0 model is that a set of industry charac­ teristics, including economies of scale, barriers to market entry, diversification, product differentiation, the degree of concentration of firms in the industry, and market frictions, determine the profitability potential of an industry or a segment of it as well as the actions firms should take to operate profitably.78 We examine these industry characteristics and explain their influence in Chapter 2.

Grounded in economics, four underlying assumptions explain the I/0 model. First, the model assumes that the external environment imposes pressures and constraints that determine the strategies that would result in above-average returns. Second, most firms competing within an industry or within a segment of that industry are assumed to control similar strategically relevant resources and to pursue similar strategies in light of those resources. Third, firms assume that their resources are highly mobile, meaning that any resource differences that might develop between firms will be short-lived. Fourth, the model assumes that organizational decision makers are rational individuals who are committed to acting in the firm's best interests, as shown by their profit-maximizing behaviors.79

The I/0 model challenges firms to find the most attractive industry in which to com­ pete. An assumption supporting the need to find the most attractive industry is that firms possess the same types of resources with value and that these resources are mobile across companies. This means that a firm is able to increase its performance only when it competes in the industry with the highest profit potential and learns how to use its resources to implement the strategy required by the industry's structural characteristics. The competitive realities associated with the I/0 model find firms imitating each other's strategies and actions taken to implement them.80

The five forces model of competition is an analytical tool firms use to find the indus­ try that is the most attractive for them. The model (explained in Chapter 2) encompasses several variables and tries to capture the complexity of competition. The five forces model suggests that an industry's profitability (i.e., its rate of return on invested capital relative to its cost of capital) is a function of interactions among five forces: suppliers, buyers, com­ petitive rivalry among firms currently in the industry, product substitutes, and potential entrants to the industry.81

Firms use the five forces model to identify the attractiveness of an industry (as mea­ sured by its profitability potential) as well as the most advantageous position for the firm to take in that industry, given the industry's structural characteristics.82 The model

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

suggests that firms can earn above-average returns by producing either standardized products at costs below those of competitors (a cost leadership strategy) or by producing differentiated products for which customers are willing to pay a price premium (a differ­ entiation strategy). We discuss the cost leadership and product differentiation strategies fully in Chapter 4.

As shown in Figure 1.2, the I/O model suggests that firms earn above-average returns by studying the external environment effectively as the foundation for identifying an attractive industry and implementing an appropriate strategy in it. For example, in some industries, firms can reduce competitive rivalry and erect barriers to entry by form­ ing joint ventures. In turn, reduced rivalry increases the profitability potential of firms that are collaborating.83 Companies that develop or acquire the internal skills needed to implement strategies required by the external environment are likely to succeed, while those that do not are likely to fail.84 Hence, this model suggests that the characteristics

Figure 1.2 The 1/0 Model of Above-Average Returns

1. Study the external environment, especially the industry environment.

2. Locate an industry with high potential for above­ average returns.

3. Identify the strategy called for by the attractive industry to earn above­ average returns.

4. Develop or acquire assets and skills needed to implement the strategy.

5. Use the firm's strengths (its developed or acquired assets and skills) to implement the strategy.

The External Environment

• The general environment • The industry environment • The competitor environment

An Attractive Industry

• An industry whose structural characteristics suggest above- average returns

i Strategy Formulation

• Selection of a strategy linked with above-average returns in a particular industry

Assets and Skills • Assets and skills required to

implement a chosen strategy

t Strategy Implementation

• Selection of strategic actions linked with effective implementation of the chosen strategy

i Superior Returns • Earning of above-average

returns

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15

16

Resources are inputs into a firm's production process,

such as capital equipment,

the skills of individual

employees, patents, finances,

and talented managers.

A capability is the capacity

for a set of resources to

perform a task or an activity in

an integrative manner.

Core competencies are

capabilities that serve as

a source of competitive

advantage for a firm over its

rivals.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

of the external environment influence returns more so than do a firm's unique internal resources and capabilities.

Research findings support the I/O model because the industry in which a firm com­ petes explains approximately 20 percent of its profitability. However, research also shows that the firm's resources and capabilities and the actions taken by using them accounts for 36 percent of the variance in firm profitability.85 Thus, managers' strategic actions affect the firm's performance as do the characteristics of the environment in which the firm competes.86 These findings suggest that the external environment and a firm's resources, capabilities, core competencies, and competitive advantages (see Chapter 3) influence the company's ability to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns.

As shown in Figure 1.2, the I/O model assumes that a firm's strategy is a set of com­ mitments and actions flowing from the characteristics of the industry in which the firm chose to compete. The resource-based model, discussed next, takes a different view of the major influences on a firm's choice of strategy.

1-3 The Resource-Based Model of Above-Average Returns

The resource-based model of above-average returns assumes that each organization is a collection of unique resources and capabilities. The uniqueness of resources and capabili­ ties is the basis of a firm's strategy and its ability to earn above-average returns.87

Resources are inputs into a firm's production process, such as capital equipment, the skills of individual employees, patents, finances, and talented managers. Firms use three categories to classify their resources: physical, human, and organizational capital. Described fully in Chapter 3, resources are either tangible or intangible in nature.

Individual resources alone may not yield a competitive advantage; resources have a greater likelihood of being a source of competitive advantage when integrated to form a capability. A capability is the capacity for a set of resources to perform a task or an activ­ ity in an integrative manner.88 Core competencies are capabilities that serve as a source of competitive advantage for a firm over its rivals.89 Core competencies are often visible in the form of organizational functions. For example, Apple's R&D function is one of its core competencies, as is its ability to produce innovative new products that create value for customers. Amazon's distribution function is a core competence while information technology is a core competence for Walmart.

According to the resource-based model, differences in firms' performances across time are due primarily to their unique resources and capabilities rather than the industry's structural characteristics. This model also assumes that firms acquire different resources and develop unique capabilities based on how they combine and use the resources; that resources and certainly capabilities are not highly mobile across firms; and that the dif­ ferences in resources and capabilities are the basis of competitive advantage.90 Through continued use, capabilities become stronger and more difficult for competitors to under­ stand and imitate. As a source of competitive advantage, a capability must not be easily imitated but also not too complex to understand and manage.91

We show the resource-based model of superior returns in Figure 1.3. This model sug­ gests that the strategy the firm chooses should allow it to use its competitive advantages in an attractive industry (firms use the I/O model to identify an attractive industry).

Not all of a firm's resources and capabilities have the potential to be the foundation for a competitive advantage. This potential is realized when resources and capabilities are valuable, rare, costly to imitate, and non-substitutable. 92 Resources are valuable when they allow a firm to take advantage of opportunities or neutralize threats in

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

Figure 1.3 The Resource-Based Model of Above-Average Returns

1. Identify the firm's resources. Study its strengths and weaknesses compared with those of competitors.

2. Determine the firm's capabilities. What do the capabilities allow the firm to do better than its competitors?

3. Determine the potential of the firm's resources and capabilities in terms of a competitive advantage.

4. Locate an attractive industry.

5. Select a strategy that best allows the firm to utilize its resources and capabilities relative to opportunities in the external environment.

Resources • Inputs into a firm's production

process

! Capability • Capacity of an integrated set of

resources to integratively perform a task or activity

! �

Competitive Advantage • Ability of a firm to create superior value

for its customers

! An Attractive Industry • An industry with opportunities

that can be exploited by the firm's resources and capabilities

! Strategy Formulation and Implementation • Strategic actions taken to earn above-

average returns

! Superior Returns • Earning of above-average returns

its external environment. They are rare when possessed by few, if any, current and potential competitors. Resources are costly to imitate when other firms either cannot obtain them or are at a cost disadvantage in obtaining them compared with the firm that already possesses them. They are non-substitutable when they have no structural equivalents. Over time, competitors find ways to imitate value-creating resources or to create new resources that yield a different type of value that creates value for cus­ tomers. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage based on resources alone. Firms integrate individual resources to develop configurations of resources with the potential to build capabilities. Capabilities developed in this manner have a stronger likelihood of becoming a core competence and of leading to a source of competitive advantage.93

Previously, we noted that research shows that both the industry environment and a firm's internal assets affect its performance over time.94 Thus, to form a vision and mission, and subsequently to select one or more strategies and determine how to implement them,

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17

18

Vision is a picture of what

the firm wants to be and, in

broad terms, what it wants to

achieve.

A mission specifies the

businesses in which the firm

intends to compete and the

customers it intends to serve.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

firms use both the 1/0 and resource-based models. In fact, these models complement each other in that one (1/0) focuses outside the firm while the other (resource-based) focuses inside the firm. Next, we discuss the formation of a firm's vision and mission-actions taken after the firm understands the realities of its external environment (Chapter 2) and internal organization (Chapter 3).

1-4 Vision and Mission

After analyzing the external environment and the internal organization, the firm has the information required to form its vision and a mission (see Figure 1.1). Stakeholders (those who affect or are affected by a firm's performance, as explained later in the chapter) learn a great deal about a firm by studying its vision and mission. Indeed, a key purpose of vision and mission statements is to inform stakeholders of what the firm is, what it seeks to accomplish, and who it seeks to serve.

1-4a Vision

Vision is a picture of what the firm wants to be and, in broad terms, what it wants to achieve.95 Thus, a vision statement articulates the ideal description of an organization and gives shape to its intended future. In other words, a vision statement points the firm in the direction of where it would like to be in the years to come. An effective vision stretches and challenges people as well. In her book about Steve Jobs, Apple's former CEO, Carmine Gallo argues that Jobs's vision for the firm was a key reason for Apple's innovativeness during his tenure. She suggests that he thought bigger and differently than do most people. To be innovative, she explains that one has to think differently about the firm's products and customers-"sell dreams not products" -and differently about the story to "create great expectations:' 96

As a reflection of values and aspiration, firms hope that their vision statement will capture the heart and mind of each employee and, hopefully, other stakeholders as well. A firm's vision tends to be enduring while its mission can change with new environmental conditions. A vision statement tends to be relatively short and concise, making it easily remembered. Examples of vision statements include the following:

Our vision is to be the world's best quick service restaurant. (McDonald's)

To make the automobile accessible to every American. (Ford Motor Company's vision when established by Henry Ford)

Delivering happiness to customers, employees, and vendors. (Zappos.com)

As a firm's most important and prominent strategic leader, the CEO is responsible for working with others to form the firm's vision. Experience shows that the most effective vision statement results when the CEO involves a host of stakeholders (e.g., other top­ level managers, employees working in different parts of the organization, suppliers, and customers) to develop it.97 Conditions in the firm's external environment and internal organization influence the forming of a vision statement. Moreover, the decisions and actions of those involved with developing the vision, especially the CEO and the other top-level managers, must be consistent with it.

1-4b Mission

The vision is the foundation for the firm's mission. A mission specifies the busi­ nesses in which the firm intends to compete and the customers it intends to serve.98

The firm's mission is more concrete than its vision. However, similar to the vision,

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

a mission should establish a firm's individuality and should be inspiring and relevant to all stakeholders. Together, the vision and mission provide the foundation the firm needs to choose and implement one or more strategies. The probability of forming an effective mission increases when employees have a strong sense of the ethical standards that guide their behaviors as they work to help the firm reach its vision.99 Thus, busi­ ness ethics are a vital part of the firm's discussions to decide what it wants to become (its vision) as well as who it intends to serve and how it desires to serve those individ­ uals and groups (its mission).100

Even though the final responsibility for forming the firm's mission rests with the CEO, the CEO and other top-level managers often involve other people to develop the mission statement. The main reason for this is that the mission deals more directly with product markets and customers. Compared to a firm's senior-level leaders, middle- and first-level managers and other employees interact frequently with customers and the markets the firm serves. Examples of mission statements include the following:

Be the best employer for our people in each community around the world and deliver oper­ ational excellence to our customers in each of our restaurants. (McDonald's)

Provide the best customer service possible. Deliver WOW through service. (Zappos.com)

McDonald's mission statement flows from its vision of being the world's best quick service restaurant. Zappos.com's mission statement indicates that the firm will reach its vision of delivering happiness to different stakeholder groups by providing service that WOWs them.

Clearly, ineffectively developed vision and mission statements fail to provide the direction a firm needs to take appropriate strategic actions. This is undesirable in that as shown in Figure 1.1, a firm's vision and mission are critical aspects of the analysis and the base required to engage in strategic actions that help the firm achieve strategic compet­ itiveness and earn above-average returns. Therefore, firms must accept the challenge of forming effective vision and mission statements.

1-5 Stakeholders

Every organization involves a system of primary stakeholder groups with whom it estab­ lishes and manages relationships.101 Stakeholders are individuals, groups, and organi­ zations that can affect the firm's vision and mission, are affected by the strategic out­ comes achieved, and have enforceable claims on the firm's performance. 102 Their ability to withhold participation that is essential to the firm's survival, competitiveness, and profitability is the source of stakeholders' ability to enforce their claims against an orga­ nization. Stakeholders continue to support an organization when its performance meets or exceeds their expectations. Research suggests that firms managing relationships with their stakeholders effectively outperform those that do not.103 Stakeholder relationships and the firm's overall reputation among stakeholders can therefore be a source of com­ petitive advantage. 104

Although organizations have dependency relationships with their stakeholders, firms are not equally dependent on all stakeholders at all times. Unequal dependencies means that stakeholders possess different degrees of ability to influence an organization.105 The more critical and valued is a stakeholder's participation, the greater is a firm's dependency on that stakeholder. Greater dependence, in turn, gives the stakeholder more potential influence over a firm's commitments, decisions, and actions. Managers must find ways to either accommodate or insulate the organization from the demands of stakeholders controlling critical resources.106

19

Stakeholders are

individuals, groups, and

organizations that can affect

the firm's vision and mission,

are affected by the strategic

outcomes achieved, and have

enforceable claims on the

firm's performance.

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20 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

1-Sa Classifications of Stakeholders

Firms can separate the parties involved with their operations into at least three groups.107

As shown in Figure 1.4, these groups are the capital market stakeholders (sharehold­ ers and the major suppliers of a firm's capital), the product market stakeholders (the firm's primary customers, suppliers, host communities, and unions representing the workforce), and the organizational stakeholders (all of a firm's employees, including both non-managerial and managerial personnel).

Each stakeholder group expects those making strategic decisions in a firm to provide the leadership that will result in the reaching of its valued objectives.108 The objectives of stakeholder groups often differ from one another, sometimes placing those involved with a firm's strategic management process in situations where trade-offs have to be made. The most obvious stakeholders, at least in U.S. organizations, are shareholders-individuals and groups who have invested capital in a firm in the expectation of earning a positive return on their investments. Laws governing private property and private enterprise are the source of shareholders' rights.

In contrast to shareholders, another group of stakeholders-the firm's customers­ prefers that investors receive a minimum return on their investments. Customers could have their interests maximized when the quality and reliability of a firm's products are improved, but without high prices. High returns to customers, therefore, might come at the expense of lower returns for capital market stakeholders.

Because of potential conflicts, firms seek to manage stakeholders' expectations. First, a firm must identify and then seek to understand fully each stakeholder group's inter­ ests. Second, it must prioritize those interests in case it cannot satisfy all of them. Power

Figure 1.4 The Three Stakeholder Groups

Stakeholders

People who are affected by a firm's performance and who have claims on its performance

Capital Market Stakeholders • Shareholders • Major suppliers of capital

(e.g., banks)

Product Market Stakeholders • Primary customers • S uppliers • Host communities • Unions

Organizational Stakeholders • Employees • Managers • Nonmanagers

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

is the most critical criterion in prioritizing stakeholders; that is to say, the stakeholder group with whom the firm has the great­ est dependence for its commitment has the greatest amount of power to influence the firm's actions.109

When earning above-average returns, the firm is in a better position to manage stakeholder relationships effectively. With the capability and flexibility provided by above-average returns, a firm can satisfy multiple stakeholders more easily. When the firm earns only average returns, it is unable to maximize the interests of all stakeholders. The objective then becomes that of satisfying each stakeholder group's minimal expectations.

Stakeholders receive different levels of attention in light of how dependent the firm is on their support at a point in time. For example, environmental groups may be very important to firms in the energy

As a firm formulates its strategy, it must consider all of its primary

stakeholders in the product and capital markets as well as

organizational shareholders.

industry but less important to professional service firms. A firm earning below-average returns lacks the capacity to satisfy the minimal expectations of all stakeholder groups. The managerial challenge in this case is to make trade-offs that minimize the amount of support lost from stakeholders. Societal values also influence the general weightings allocated among the three stakeholder groups shown in Figure 1.4; that is to say that cultural norms and institutional rules, regulations, and laws influence how firms inter­ act with stakeholders in different countries and regions of the world. Next, we present additional details about each of the three major stakeholder groups.

Capital Market Stakeholders Shareholders and lenders both expect a firm to preserve and enhance the wealth they have entrusted to it. The returns they expect are commensurate with the degree of risk they accept with those investments (i.e., lower returns are expected with low-risk invest­ ments while higher returns are expected with high-risk investments). Dissatisfied lenders may impose stricter covenants on subsequent borrowing of capital. Dissatisfied share­ holders may reflect their concerns through several means, including selling their stock. Institutional investors too (e.g., pension funds, mutual funds) may choose to sell their stock if the returns fail to meet their expectations.

Alternatively, as stakeholders, these investors might take actions to improve the firm's performance. Communicating clearly their expectations regarding performance to the firm's board of directors and top-level managers is an example of such actionsY0 Some institutions owning major shares of a firm's stock may have conflicting views of the actions needed, which can be challenging for the firm's managers. This is because some may want an increase in returns in the short-term while the others desire a focus on building long­ term competitiveness.111 In these instances, managers may need to balance their desires with those of other shareholders or prioritize the importance of the institutional owners with different goals. Clearly, shareholders who hold a large share of stock (sometimes referred to as blockholders, see Chapter 10) are influential, especially in determining the firm's capital structure (i.e., the amount of equity versus the amount of debt used). Large

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21

22 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

shareholders often prefer that the firm minimize its use of debt because of its risk, its cost, and the possibility that debt holders have first call on the firm's assets relative to share­ holders in case of default.112 Because of their importance in terms of supporting needs for capital, firms typically seek to find ways to better satisfy the expectations of capital market stakeholders.

Product Market Stakeholders Some might think that product market stakeholders (customers, suppliers, host com­ munities, and unions) share few common interests. However, these four groups can benefit as firms engage in competitive battles. For example, depending on product and industry characteristics, marketplace competition may result in lower product prices for a firm's customers and higher prices for its suppliers (the firm might be willing to pay higher supplier prices to ensure delivery of the products linked to its competitive success) .113

Customers, as stakeholders, seek reliable products at the lowest possible prices. Suppliers seek loyal customers who are willing to pay the highest sustainable prices for the products they receive. Although all product market stakeholders are important, without customers, the other product market stakeholders are of little value. Therefore, the firm must try to learn about and understand current and potential customers.

Host communities include the national (home and abroad), state/province, and local government entities with which the firm interacts. Governments want companies will­ ing to be long-term employers and providers of tax revenue without placing excessive demands on public support services. These stakeholders also influence the firm through laws and regulations. In fact, firms must deal with laws and regulations developed and enforced at the national, state, and local levels (the influence is polycentric-multiple levels of power and influence). This means that firms encounter influence attempts from multiple regulatory sources with power.114 The interests of unions include secure jobs and desirable working conditions for members.

In an overall sense, product market stakeholders are generally satisfied when a firm's profit margin reflects at least a balance between the returns to capital market stakeholders (i.e., the returns lenders and shareholders will accept and retain their interests in the firm) and the returns in which they share.

Organizational Stakeholders Employees-the firm's organizational stakeholders-expect the firm to provide a dynamic, stimulating, and rewarding work environment. Employees generally prefer to work for a company that is growing and in which they can develop their skills, especially those required to be effective team members and to meet or exceed global work standards. Workers who learn how to use new knowledge productively are critical to organizational success. In a collective sense, the education and skills of a firm's workforce are competitive weapons affecting strategy implementation and firm performance. 115

Those leading a firm bear responsibility for serving stakeholders' needs on a day-to-day basis. Using the firm's human capital successfully supports leaders' efforts to do this.116 International assignments facilitate efforts to help a firm's employees understand competition in the global competitive landscape. "Expats" is the title given to individuals engaged in an international assignment for their company. The process of managing expatriate employees so they develop knowledge while work­ ing internationally and understand how to bring that knowledge with them upon return has the potential to enhance the firm's performance at the domestic and inter­ national levels. m

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

1-6 Strategic Leaders Strategic leaders are people located in different areas and levels of the firm using the strategic management process to select actions that help the firm achieve its vision and fulfill its mission. Regardless of their location in the firm, successful strategic leaders are decisive, committed to nurturing those around them, and committed to help- ing the firm create value for all stakeholder groups.1'8 In this vein, research evidence sug-

:g,

gests that employees who perceive that their I f CEO is a visionary leader also believe that �

the CEO leads the firm to operate in ways ii §0that are consistent with the values of all a5

stakeholder groups rather than emphasiz- ing only maximizing profits for sharehold-

Gary Kelly, CEO of Southwest Airlines, is a recipient of the Tony Jannus

ers. In turn, visionary leadership motivates employees to expend extra effort, thereby helping to increase firm performance.

Award, which recognizes outstanding contributors to the growth and

improvement of the airline industry.

When identifying strategic leaders, most of us tend to think of CEOs and other top­ level managers. Clearly, these people are strategic leaders. In the final analysis, CEOs are responsible for making certain their firm uses the strategic management process success­ fully. The pressure on CEOs today to manage strategically is stronger than ever.119 However, many others help choose a firm's strategy and the actions to implement it.120 The reason for this is that the realities of twenty-first century competition mentioned earlier in this chap­ ter ( e.g., the global economy, globalization, rapid technological change, and the increasing importance of knowledge and people as sources of competitive advantage) create a need for those "closest to the action'' to play a role in choosing and implementing the firm's strategy. In fact, all managers (as strategic leaders) must think globally and act locally.121

Thus, the most effective CEOs and top-level managers understand how to delegate strate­ gic responsibilities to people throughout the firm who influence the use of organizational resources. Delegation also helps to avoid managerial hubris at the top and the problems it causes, especially in situations allowing significant managerial discretion.122

Organizational culture also affects strategic leaders and their work. In turn, strategic leaders' decisions and actions shape a firm's culture. Organizational culture refers to the complex set of ideologies, symbols, and core values that individuals throughout the firm share and that influence how the firm conducts business. Organizational culture is the social energy that drives-or fails to drive-the organization.123 For example, many believe that the culture at Southwest Airlines is unique and valuable. Its culture encour­ ages employees to work hard but also to have fun while doing so. Moreover, its culture entails respect for others-employees and customers alike. The firm also places a pre­ mium on service, as suggested by its commitment to provide POS (Positively Outrageous Service) to each customer.

1-6a The Work of Effective Strategic Leaders Perhaps not surprisingly, hard work, thorough analyses, a willingness to be brutally honest, a penchant for wanting the firm and its people to achieve success, and tenac­ ity are prerequisites to an individual's success as a strategic leader. Individuals become top-level leaders because of their capabilities (their accumulation of human capital and

Strategic leaders are

people located in different

areas and levels of the

firm using the strategic

management process to

select actions that help the

firm achieve its vision and

fulfill its mission.

Organizational culture

refers to the complex set

of ideologies, symbols, and

core value that individuals

throughout the firm share

and that influence how the

firm conducts business.

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23

24 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Strategic Leaders' Decisions as a Path to Firms' Efforts to Deal

Successfully with Their Challenges

The rapid pace of change facing companies and those leading

them in today's globalized business environment is a recurring

theme in our analysis of the strategic management process.

Stated simply, the pace of change organizations throughout

the world encounter today is rapid, while the nature of such

change induces complexity for firms as they seek strategic

competitiveness. Often, change comes to firms in the form of

different customer expectations. In the hotel industry for exam­

ple, Hilton Worldwide Holdings, with 14 brands and more than

5,300 properties, believes that "one of its biggest challenges is

keeping up with changing tastes, especially among millennials,

who want high-tech amenities, bigger, hipper lobbies and a

cleaner, more minimal look:' For Hilton's strategic leaders, the

"biggest challenge continues to be the pace of change and the

rate at which, in the digital space, new capabilities get put in

front of consumers:'

To deal with changes such as these, top-level strategic

leaders typically help their firms form strategic actions and

strategic responses. For many of these strategic leaders, a

global mind-set and a passion for meeting people's needs

inform their decisions.

Defined and discussed in Chapter 5, strategic actions and

strategic responses find firms trying to outcompete rivals in

marketplace competitions. Strategic actions and responses

require significant commitments of organizational resources

and are decisions that are difficult for firms to reverse once

executed. The strategic actions Hilton is taking to respond to

changes include those of refreshing old brands and establish­

ing new ones such as Tru, which emphasizes communal space

over room size.

Consumer-goods giant Procter & Gamble (P&G) is facing

fundamental challenges in its home U.S. market, including

shifts in consumer preferences, retailers pushing for lower

prices, and the availability of private label alternatives for

consumers. In response, P&G's top-level strategic leaders

decided recently to acquire the consumer health business

of Germany's Merck KGaA for $4.2 billion. This unit's product

portfolio includes an array of specialty dietary supplements as

well as a nasal decongestant. One reason for this acquisition is

declines in P&G's organic sales growth and in its all-important

Gillette razors. Encountering stalling revenue growth, Pfizer's

strategic leaders are considering several strategic actions

including those of spinning off its consumer-health busi-

ness, which sells products such as Advil pain pills, ChapStick

lip balm, and Centrum vitamins, to splitting the company.

Following successful stints with Volkswagen AG and Nissan

lnfiniti brand, Johan de Nysschen accepted the role of

president of Cadillac, a General Motors unit. An indication

that he intends to "mold Cadillac in the image of BMW and

other luxury brands" suggests the emergence of a string of

strategic actions. Global declines in beer consumption finds

Dutch brewer Heineken NV engaging in a number of strategic

actions. Acquiring a 20.67% stake in China's largest brewer,

China Resources Beer Holdings Co., and acquiring several craft

brewers are examples of decisions made to expand the firm's

customer base.

- -

-- -

-- -

-- -- --

Recently, the Drucker Institute, founded in 2007 to

advance managerial ideals as espoused by Peter Drucker,

identified the 250 most effectively managed U.S. compa­

nies. Amazon held the top spot with Apple, Google parent

Alphabet, IBM, Microsoft, and Cisco rounding out the top

five. These firms' positive per formance relative to other com­

panies in terms of five areas Drucker said are critical to cor­

porate success-customer satisfaction, employee engage­

ment and development, innovation, social responsibility, and

financial strength-earned them the top spots on the list.

One might argue that these firms' strategic leaders,

including the top-level leaders, rendered decisions regarding

strategic actions and responses that contributed to their

firms' excellence. In addition to the characteristics of strategic

leaders mentioned in this chapter's text, such as hard work, a

commitment to analyze situations thoroughly, and so forth,

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

those leading the top five firms as well as the others on the list

of 250 companies chosen by the Drucker Institute may have

additional qualities. For example, some believe that the success

of Sergio Marchionne, the leader credited with turning around

Fiat and Chrysler (who recently passed away), is a function of

an "unusual blend of vision, technical expertise, analytical rigor,

open-mindedness, and candor:' As with Steve Jobs, Apple's

former CEO, Marchionne's actions earned him a recognition as

being a bit of an eccentric, too. Regardless of their character­

istics though, the decisions made by strategic leaders inform

how their firm will use the strategic management process.

Sources: A Back, 2018, P&G needs a workout, not vitamins, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, April 19; M. Colias, 2018, The 10-year plan to make Cadillac

cool again, Wall Street Journal, wwwwsj.com, October 25; K. Paul, 2018, What millennials want in hotel rooms, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 12;

25

J. D. Rockoff & W. Colville, 2018, Johnson & Johnson remakes top leadership, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, June 22; J. D . Rockoff & C. Lombardo, 2018, Pfizer revenue growth stalls as company mulls OTC unit's future, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, May 1; J. D. Rockoff & I. Moise, 2018, Johnson & Johnson raises

sales outlook, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, April 17; S. Terlap & A. Hufford, 2018, P&G slogs through 'difficult' markets for sales growth, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, April 19; S. Terlap & J. D. Rockoff, 2018, P&G to acquire Merck KGaA's consumer-health unit, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, April 19;

N. Trentmann, 2018, Heineken's strategy in a stagnate beer market, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 9; S. Walker, 2018, Why the future belongs to 'challenge-driven leaders; Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 11; S. Walker, 2018, The leader of the future: Why Sergio Marchionne fit the profile,

Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 11; V. Fuhrmans & Y. Koh, 2017, The 250 most effectively managed U.S. companies-and how they got that way, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, December 6.

skills over time). Effective top management teams (those with better human capital, management skills, and cognitive abilities) make better strategic decisions. 124 In addi­ tion, strategic leaders must have a strong strategic orientation while embracing change in today's dynamic competitive landscape.125 To deal with change effectively, strategic leaders must be innovative thinkers and promote innovation in their organization. 126

A top management team representing different types of expertise and leveraging rela­ tionships with external parties promotes firm innovation.127 Strategic leaders can best leverage partnerships with external parties and organizations when their organizations are ambidextrous; that is, when they are both innovative and skilled at execution. 128 In addition, strategic leaders need to have a global mind-set; some consider this mind-set as an ambicultural approach to management.129

Strategic leaders, regardless of their location in the organization, often work long hours, and ambiguous decision situations dominate the nature of their work. However, the opportunities afforded by this work are appealing and offer exciting chances to dream and to act. The following words, given as advice to the late Time Warner chair and co-CEO Steven J. Ross by his father, describe the opportunities in a strategic leader's work:

There are three categories of people-the person who goes into the office, puts his feet up on his desk, and dreams for 12 hours; the person who arrives at 5 a. m. and works for 16 hours, never once stopping to dream; and the person who puts his feet up, dreams for one hour, then does something about those dreams. 130

As a term, vision describes a dream that challenges and energizes a company. The most effective strategic leaders provide a vision as the foundation for the firm's mission and subsequent choice and use of one or more strategies.131

We describe the work of some strategic leaders in the Strategic Focus. While read­ ing this material, notice the relationship between the points mentioned in this part of the chapter about strategic leaders and the actions highlighted in the Strategic Focus. Strategic leaders work in all parts of an organization; however, in this Strategic Focus, top-level leaders are the focus of the discussion.

As you will see, the work of upper-level strategic leaders is indeed challenging, com­ plex, and ambiguous in nature. On the other hand, these individuals play a major role in the making of a firm's competitive decisions-the types of decisions that are a part of their use of the strategic management process.

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26 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

1-7 The Strategic Management Process As suggested by Figure 1.1, the strategic management process is a rational approach firms use to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns. Figure 1.1 also features the topics we examine in this book to present the strategic management process.

We divide this book into three parts-parts that align with the A-S-P process explained in the beginning of the chapter. In Part 1, we describe the analyses (A) firms use to develop strategies. Specifically, we explain how firms analyze their external environment (Chapter 2) and internal organization (Chapter 3). Firms complete these analyses to identify market­ place opportunities and threats in the external environment (Chapter 2) and to decide how to use the resources, capabilities, core competencies, and competitive advantages in their internal organization to pursue opportunities and overcome threats (Chapter 3). The analyses explained in Chapters 2 and 3 are the well-known SWOT analyses (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats).132 Firms use knowledge about their external environ­ ment and internal organization to formulate strategies in light of their vision and mission.

The firm's analyses (see Figure 1.1) provide the foundation for choosing one or more strat­ egies (S) and deciding which one( s) to implement. As suggested in Figure 1.1 by the horizontal arrow linking the two types of strategic actions, firms simultaneously integrate formulation and implementation as a basis for a successful strategic management process. Integration occurs as decision makers review implementation issues when choosing strategies and when considering potential adaptations to a strategy during the implementation process itself.

In Part 2, we discuss the different strategies firms may choose to use. First, we exam­ ine business-level strategies ( Chapter 4). A business-level strategy describes actions a firm takes to exploit its competitive advantage(s). A company competing in a single product market (e.g., a locally owned grocery store operating in only one location) has but one business-level strategy, while a diversified firm competing in multiple product markets (e.g., Siemens AG) forms a business-level strategy for each of its businesses. In Chapter 5, we describe the actions and reactions that occur among firms as they engage each other in competition. Competitors typically respond to and try to anticipate each other's actions. The dynamics of competition affect the strategies firms choose as well as how they intend to implement those strategies.133 For example, one year after Amazon acquired Whole Foods, some analysts felt that this strategic action was "prompting the food industry to retool how it sells fresh food to consumers:' 134 You will learn more about Amazon and Whole Foods in Chapter S's Opening Case.

Determining the businesses in which the company intends to compete as well as how it will manage those businesses is the focus of corporate-level strategy (Chapter 6). Companies competing in more than one business experience diversification in the form of products (Chapter 7) and/or geographic markets (Chapter 8). Other topics vital to strategy formulation, particularly in the diversified company, include acquiring other businesses and, as appropriate, restructuring the firm's portfolio of businesses ( Chapter 7) and selecting an international strategy (Chapter 8). With cooperative strategies (Chapter 9), firms form a partnership to share their resources and capabilities to develop a competitive advantage.

To examine actions firms take to implement strategies, we consider several topics in Part 3. First, we examine the different mechanisms companies use to govern them­ selves (Chapter 10). With different stakeholders (e.g., financial investors and board of directors' members) demanding improved corporate governance today, organizations seek to identify paths to follow to satisfy these demands. 135 In the last three chapters, we address the organizational structure and actions needed to control a firm's opera­ tions (Chapter 11), the patterns of strategic leadership appropriate for today's firms and competitive environments (Chapter 12), and strategic entrepreneurship (Chapter 13) as a path to continuous innovation.

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness 27

Because they deal with how a firm interacts with its stakeholders, strategic manage­ ment process decisions have ethical dimensions.136 Organizational culture reveals the firm's ethics; that is to say, a firm's core values, the ones most or all employees share, influence strongly their decisions. Especially in the global economy's turbulent and often ambiguous competitive landscape, those making decisions as a part of the strategic man­ agement process must understand how their decisions affect capital market, product market, and organizational stakeholders differently and regularly evaluate the ethical implications of their decisions.137 Decision makers failing to recognize these realities accept the risk of placing their firm at a competitive disadvantage.138

As you will discover, the strategic management process we present to you in this book calls for disciplined approaches to serve as the foundation for developing a competitive advantage. Therefore, the process has a major effect on the performance (P) of the firm.139

The firm's ability to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns reflects the quality of its performance. Mastery of this strategic management process contributes positively to a firm's efforts to outperform competitors and to create value for its stakeholders.

SUMMARY

Firms use the strategic management process to achieve strategic

competitiveness and earn above-average returns. Firms analyze

the external environment and their internal organization, then

formulate and implement a strategy to achieve a desired level of

performance (A-S-P). The firm's level of strategic competitiveness

and the extent to which it earns above-average returns reflects

its performance. Firms achieve strategic competitiveness by

developing and implementing a value-creating strategy. Above­

average returns (in excess of what investors expect to earn from

other investments with similar levels of risk) provide the founda­

tion for satisfying all of a firm's stakeholders simultaneously.

The fundamental nature of competition is different in the cur­

rent competitive landscape. As a result, those making strategic

decisions must adopt a different mind-set, one that allows

them to learn how to compete in highly turbulent and chaotic

environments that produce a great deal of uncertainty. The glo­

balization of industries and their markets along with rapid and

significant technological changes are the two primary factors

contributing to the turbulence of the competitive landscape.

Firms use two major models to help develop their vision and

mission when choosing one or more strategies to pursue

strategic competitiveness and above-average returns. The

core assumption of the 1/0 model is that the firm's external

environment has a larger influence on the choice of strategies

than does its internal resources, capabilities, and core com­

petencies. Thus, firms use the 1/0 model to understand the

effects an industry's characteristics can have on them when

selecting a strategy or strategies to use to compete against

rivals. The logic supporting the 1/0 model suggests that firms

earn above-average returns by locating an attractive industry

or part of an attractive industry and then implementing the

strategy dictated by that industry's characteristics successfully.

The core assumption of the resource-based model is that the

firm's unique resources, capabilities, and core competencies

have more of an influence on selecting and using strategies

than does the firm's external environment. When firms use

their valuable, rare, costly-to-imitate, and non-substitutable

resources and capabilities effectively when competing against

rivals in one or more industries, they earn above-average

returns. Evidence indicates that both models' insights help

firms as they select and implement strategies. Thus, firms want

to use their unique resources, capabilities, and core competen­

cies as the foundation to engage in one or more strategies that

allow them to compete effectively against rivals.

The firm's vision and mission guide its selection of strategies

based on the information from analyses of its external environ­

ment and internal organization. Vision is a picture of what the

firm wants to be and, in broad terms, what it wants to achieve

ultimately. Flowing from the vision, the mission specifies the

business or businesses in which the firm intends to compete

and the customers it intends to serve. Vision and mission

provide direction to the firm and signal important descriptive

information to stakeholders.

Stakeholders are those who can affect, and are affected by,

a firm's performance. Because a firm is dependent on the

continuing support of stakeholders (shareholders, custom-

ers, suppliers, employees, host communities, etc.), they have

enforceable claims on the company's performance. When earn­

ing above-average returns, a firm generally has the resources

it needs to satisfy the interests of all stakeholders. However,

when earning only average returns, the firm must manage its

stakeholders carefully to retain their support. A firm earning

below-average returns must minimize the amount of support

it loses from unsatisfied stakeholders.

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28

Strategic leaders are people located in different areas and

levels of the firm using the strategic management process

to help the firm achieve its vision and fulfill its mission. In

general, CEOs are responsible for making certain that their

firms use the strategic management process properly. The

effectiveness of the strategic management process increases

when grounded in ethical intentions and behaviors. The

KEY TERMS

above-average returns 6

average returns 6

capability 16

competitive advantage 4

core competencies 16

global economy 9

hypercompetition 8

mission 18

organizational culture 23

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are strategic competitiveness, strategy, competitive

advantage, above-average returns, and the strategic manage­

ment process?

2. What are the characteristics of the current competitive land­

scape? What two factors are the primary drivers of this landscape?

3. According to the 1/0 model, what should a firm do to earn

above-average returns?

4. What does the resource-based model suggest a firm should do

to earn above-average returns?

Mini-Case

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

strategic leader's work demands decision trade-offs, often

among attractive alternatives. It is important for all stra­

tegic leaders, especially the CEO and other members of

the top management team, to conduct thorough analyses

of conditions facing the firm, be brutally and consistently

honest, and work collaboratively with others to select and

implement strategies.

resources 16

risk 6

stakeholders 19

strategic competitiveness 4

strategic flexibility 13

strategic leaders 23

strategic management process 6

strategy 4

vision 18

5. What are vision and mission? What is their value for the strate­

gic management process?

6. What are stakeholders? How do the three primary stakeholder

groups influence organizations?

7. How would you describe the work of strategic leaders?

8. What are the elements of the strategic management process?

How are they interrelated?

Starbucks Is "Juicing" Its Earnings per Store through Technological Innovations

The choice of a CEO signals potential actions to stakeholders about a firm's potential actions. Howard Schultz served as Starbucks CEO for many years; the firm achieved multiple successes during his service. As of April 2017, Schulz became executive chairman of Starbucks's board while Kevin Johnson, a former CEO

of Juniper Networks and a 16 year veteran of Microsoft, assumed the CEO position for the coffee giant. Johnson's background may find him concentrating on the firm's digital operations, information technology practices and supply chain operations as a means of increasing Starbucks's effectiveness and efficiency.

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

Many brick and mortar stores have experienced decreasing sales in the United States as online traffic has increased. Interestingly, 2014 Starbucks sales store operations increased 5 percent in the fourth quarter; this 5 percent uptick in revenue came from increased traf­ fic (2 percent from growth in sales and 3 percent in increased ticket size).

Additional and more sophisticated technology appli­ cations may be the driver of this increase in revenues. To stimulate sales, Starbucks is ramping up its digital tools such as mobile payment platforms. Customers now can place online orders and pick them up in about 150 Starbucks outlets in the Portland, OR area. Besides leadership and a focus on technology, Starbucks receives suggestions, ideas, and experimentation from its employees. Starbucks views its employees, called baristas, as partners who blend, steam, and brew the brand's specialty coffee in over 21,000 stores worldwide. Schultz credits the employees as a dominant force in helping it to build its revenue gains.

To incentivize employees further, Starbucks is among the first companies to provide comprehensive health ben­ efits and stock option ownership opportunities to part­ time employees. Currently, employees have received more than $1 billion worth of financial gain through the stock option program. An additional benefit for U.S. employ­ ees is the firm's program that pays 100 percent of work­ ers' tuition to finish their degrees through Arizona State University. To date, one thousand workers have enrolled in this program. In mid-2018, Walmart offered subsidized college tuition to its employees as a means of attracting and retaining talent in a tight labor market. Walmart's actions may demonstrate the value of Starbucks's approach to sup­ porting employees' efforts to earn a college degree.

When developing new storefront concepts, Starbucks innovates. For instance, it is testing smaller express stores in New York City that reduce client wait times. Today, Starbucks emphasizes online payments as a means of increasing the speed of customer transactions. It now gives Starbucks rewards for mobile payment applications to its

Case Discussion Questions

1. What competitive advantage or competitive advantages do

you believe Starbucks seeks to establish? What are the main

challenges the firm faces as it tries to maintain the advantage

or advantages you identified?

2 Identify three or four capabilities you believe Starbucks possesses.

Of these, are any a core competence? If so, explain your reasoning.

29

12 million active users. Interestingly, this puts it ahead of iTunes and American Express Serve with its Starbucks mobile payment app in terms of the number of users.

To put its innovation on display, Starbucks opened its first "Reserve Roastery and Tasting Room:' T his is a 15,000 square foot coffee roasting facility and a consumer retail outlet. According to Schultz, it is a retail theater where "you can watch beans being roasted, talk to master grinders, have your drink brewed in front of you in multiple ways, lounge in a coffee library, order a selection of gourmet brews and locally prepared foods:' Schultz calls this store in New York the "Willie Wonka Factory of coffee:' Based on this concept, Starbucks opened small "reserve" stores inspired by this flagship roastery concept across New York in 2015. To attract customers in the afternoon, the firm is "rolling out new cold coffee and tea drinks and is intro­ ducing happy hour promotions featuring cold beverages:'

T hese technological advances and different store offerings are also taking place internationally. For exam­ ple, Starbucks is expanding a new store concept in India in smaller towns and suburbs. T hese new outlets are about half the size of existing Starbucks cafes in India. In China, Starbucks is opening roughly one store daily and is rolling out its Roastery and Reserve brands to pene­ trate the country further.

Sources: D. B Klein, 2018, Here's how Starbucks plans to conquer China, The Motley Fool, www.fool.com, March 25; J. Jargon, 2018, Starbucks trying to woo afternoon customers, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, May 8; S. Nassauer, 2018, Walmart to pay certain college costs for U.S. store workers, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, May 30; I. Brat & T. Stynes, 2015, Earnings: Starbucks picks a president from technology industry, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, January 23; A . Adamczyk, 2014, The next big caffeine craze? Starbucks testing cold-brewed coffee, Forbes, www.forbes .com, August 18; R. Foroohr, 2014, Go inside Starbucks' wild new "Willie Wonka Factory of coffee·; Time, www.time.com, December 8; FRPT -Retail Snapshot, 2014, Starbucks' strategy of expansion with profitability: To debut in towns and suburbs with half the size of the new stores, FRPT­ Retail Snapshot, September 28, 9-10; L. Lorenzetti, 2014, Fortune's world most admired companies: Starbucks where innovation is always brewing, Fortune, www.fortune.com, October 30; P. Wahba, 2014, Starbucks to offer delivery in 2015 in some key markets, Fortune, www.fortune.com, November 4; V. Wong, 2014, Your boss will love the new Starbucks delivery service, Bloomberg Businessweek, www.businessweek.com, November 3.

3. Starbucks's mission is "To inspire and nurture the human

spirit-one person, one cup and one neighborhood at a time:'

What actions do you recommend the firm take to reach this

mission?

4. As Starbucks's new chief executive officer and strategic leader,

what key challenges does Kevin Johnson and his firm face?

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1he right to remove additional con1en1 at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

30 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

NOTES

1. T. M. Jones, J. S. Harrison, & W. Felps, 2018, Early employment expansion and long-run 14. P. Thakur-Wernz & S. Samant, 2018,

How applying instrumental stakeholder survival examining employee turnover as a Relationship between international

theory can provide sustainable competitive context factor, Journal of Business Venturing, experience and innovation performance:

advantage, Academy of Management in press. The importance of organizational learning

Review, 43: 371-391; N. Bhawe, V. K. Gupta, 8. 0. Alexy, J. West, H. Klapper, & for EMNEs, Global Strategy Journal, in

& J. M. P ollack, 2017, Founder exits and firm M. Reitzig, 2018, Surrending control press; A. Juznetsova & 0. Kuznetsova,

performance: An exploratory study, Journal to gain advantage: Reconciling opennesss 2014, Building professional discourse in

of Business Venturing Insights, 8: 114-122. and the resource-based view of the emerging markets: Language, context and

2. H. Saranga, R. George, J. Beine, & U. Arnold, firm, Strategic Management Journal, the challenge of sensemaking, Journal of

2018, Resource configurations, product 39: 1704-1727; R. Mudambi & T. Swift, 2014, International Business Studies, 43: 107-122.

development capability, and competitive Knowing when to leap: Transitioning 15. S. Gerguri-Rashiti, V. Ramadani, H.

advantage: An empirical analysis of their between exploitative and explorative Abazi-Alili, L. P. Dana, & V. Ratten, 2017,

evolution, Journal of Business Research, R&D, Strategic Management Journal, ICT, innovation and firm performance:

85: 32-50; T. L. Madsen & G. Walker, 2017, 35: 126-145. The transition economies perspective,

Competitive heterogeneity, cohorts, 9. A. Jenkins & A. Mc Ke Ivie, 2017, Is this the Thunderbird International Review, 59:

and persistent advantage, Strategic end? Investigating firm and individual level 93-102; R. Makadok & D.G. Ross, 2013,

Management Journal, 38: 184-202. outcomes post-failure, Journal of Business Taking industry structuring seriously:

3. C. Giachetti, J. Lampel, & S. L. Pira, 2017, Venturing Insights, 8: 138-143; D. Ucbasaran, A strategic perspective on product

Red Queen competitive imitation in the D. A. Shepherd, A. Lockett, & S. J. Lyon, differentiation, Strategic Management

U.K. mobile phone industry, Academy 2013, Life after business failure: The process Journal, 34: 509-532.

of Management Journal, 60: 1882-1914; and consequences of business failure for 16. R. S. Nason & J. Wiklund, 2018, An

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness 31

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34 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

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shareholder reactions to critical events in 118. P. Gabaldon, S. B. Kanadli, & M. Bankewitz, advice-seeking, Organization Studies, 34:

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111. W. Shi, B. L. Connelly, & K. Cirik, 2018, effects of CEO family-to-work conflict on Studies, 38: 365-401; S. J. Miles & M. Van

Short seller influence on firm growth: firm performance, Organization Science, Clieaf, 2017, Strategic fit: Key to growing

A threat-rigidity perspective, Academy of 28: 211-227. enterprise value through organizational

Management Journal, in press; I. Filatotchev 119. S. J. Miles & M. Van Clieaf, 2017, Strategic fit: capital, Business Horizons, 60: 55-65.

& 0. Dotsenko, 2015, Shareholder activism Key to growing enterprise value through 127. G. H. Seijts & J. Gandz, 2018,

in the UK: Types of activists, forms of organizational capital, Business Horizons, Transformational change and leader

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& Governance, 19: 5-24; B. L. Connelly, CEO succession, strategic change, and post- management tea means: Testing an

L. Tihanyi, S. T. Certo, & M. A. Hitt, succession performance: A meta-analysis, integrated model, Journal of Management

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drummers: The influence of institutional L. Thorne, 2015, Introduction to the special 128. C. Heavey & Z. Simsek, 2017, Distributed

owners on competitive actions, Academy issue on tone at the top, Journal of Business cognition in top management teams and

of Management Journal, 53: 723-742. Ethics, 126: 1-2. organizational ambidexterity, Journal of

112. V. Z. Chen, B. Hobdari, & Y. Zhang, 2018, 120. C. A. de Oliveira, J. Carneiro, & F. Esteves, Management, 43: 919-945.

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cross-border acquisitions, 2018, Journal of "strategy execution" construct, Journal A must for international innovation

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C. M. Zhang, 2017, Institutional logics and P. Jarzabkowski, 2017, Agreeing on what? Entrepreneurship and Management Journal,

power sources: Merger and acquisition Creating joint accounts of strategic change, 16: 309-327; N. Gaffney, D. Cooper, B.

decisions, Academy of Management Journal, Organization Science, 28: 152-176. Kedia, & J. Ciampi!, 2014, Institutional

60: 671-694. 121. D. A. Levinthal & M. Workiewicz, 2018, When transitions, global mindset, and EMNE

113. M.A. Merz, L. Zarantonello, & S. Grappi, two bosses are better than one: Nearly internationalization, European Management

2018, How valuable are your customers in decomposable systems and organizational Journal, 24: 17-37.

the brand value co-creation process?The adaptation, Organization Science, in press. 130. M. Loeb, 1993, Steven J. Ross, 1927-1992,

development of a customer co-creation 122. M.A. Hitt & K. T. Haynes, 2018, CEO Fortune, January 25, 4.

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Research, 82: 79-89; S. Wilkins & J. Huisman, Executives, governance and institutions, Luque, K. E. M. De Stobbeleir, & M. Wollan,

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of Business Research, 67: 2224-2230. D.-H. Lee, & Y.-D. Sung, 2018, CEO hubris Organizational Behavior, 39: 82-95; F. Jing,

114. K. Xu, L. Tihanyi, & M.A. Hitt, 2017, Firm and firm performance: Exploring the G. Avery, & H. Bergsteiner, 2014, Enhancing

resources, governmental power, and moderating roles of CEO power and performance in small professional

privatization, Journal of Management, board vigilance, Journal of Business Ethics, firms through vision communication

43: 998-1024; B. Batjargal, M.A. Hitt, A. S. 147: 919-933. and sharing, Asia Pacific Journal of

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1024-1049. 2017, What leaders need to know about S. W. Reid, J. C. Short, & D. J. Ketchen, Jr.,

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Chapter 1: Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness

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business books to enhance organizational

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35

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2

Studying this chapter should provide L you with the strategic management

knowledge needed to:

2-1 Explain the importance of analyzing and understanding the firm's external environment.

2-2 Define and describe the general environment and the industry environment.

23 Discuss the four parts of the external environmental analysis process.

2-4 Name and describe the general environment's seven segments.

25 Identify the five competitive forces .

and explain how they determine an industry's profitability potential.

2-6 Define strategic groups and describe their influence on firms.

2-7 Describe what firms need to know about their competitors and different methods (including ethical standards) used to collect intelligence about them.

,

( J Copyright 2020 Ccngagc Learning. All Righ1s Reserved. May not be copied. scanned. or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to elec1 c rights, some third party co Editorial review has deemed thai any suppressed contelll docs not materially affcc1 the overall learning experience. Cengage Leaming ·c s 1he right to remove addif

C yright 2020 Ccngagc

Editoria view has deemed thar

CRACKS IN THE GOLDEN ARCHES AND MCDONALD'S NEW GLUE

McDonald's is the largest restaurant chain in the world. It has 14,155 restaurants in the United States, and 36,899 restaurants worldwide-in more than 100 countries. It employs 1.5 million people and serves approximately 69 million customers daily. It sells 9 million pounds of french fries daily and sells 550 million Big Macs annually. Over the years, McDonald's was a leader, not only in market share, but also with the introduction of new menu items to the fast food mar­ ket. For example, it first introduced breakfast items to this market, and its breakfast menu now accounts for about 25 percent of its sales. It successfully introduced Chicken McNuggets to this market, and also successfully introduced gourmet coffee products and began to compete against Starbucks. With all this success, what is the problem?

The problems revolve around competition and changing consumer tastes. Consumers have become more health-conscious, and competitors have been more attuned to customer desires. As a result, McDonald's suffered a decline in its total sales revenue of 18.9 percent from its high point in 2013 of $28. 1 billion to $22.8 billion in 2017. It seems that McDonald's did a poor job of analyz­ ing its environment and especially its customers and competitors. During this same time, some of McDonald's competitors flourished. For example, Sonic and Chipotle recorded significant increases in their annual �

J'. sales. Other specialty � burger restaurants, � such as Smashburger, � have stolen business � from McDonald's even though their burgers are priced higher. The quality of these competitors' products is perceived

ro

� cc

Healthier choice options now available at McDonald's to satisfy the

more health-conscious consumer.

to be higher, and many are "made to order" and thus customized to the customer's desires. And, partly because the volume and complexity of the McDonald's menu items have grown, the time required to provide service has also increased.

Failing to understand the changing market and competitive landscape, McDonald's was unable to be proactive and thus tried to be reactive but without much success. Because of these problems, McDonald's hired a new CEO in 2015, hoping to overcome its woes. With a thorough analysis of its customers and competition and its products and services, McDonald's developed a strategy to achieve a multi-year turnaround. It is adding new products to its menu and has enhanced the healthiness of those products along with enhancing their quality. For example, McDonald's announced that it will now use only chickens raised without antibiotics to be sensitive to human health concerns. Changing vegetables in Happy Meals (e.g., adding baby carrots) and implementing new wraps that require additional (new) vegetables (such as cucumbers) are meant to enhance the healthiness of the McDonald's menu. It has also introduced signature sandwiches, Quarter Pounders cooked with fresh meat only (not frozen), new espresso-based drinks, and other quality items.

Other parts of its multi-year strategy include renovated restaurants, digital ordering, and new delivery services. McDonald's was once a leader, and now it is fighting regain its position, trying to stem the downturn. It is now responding to its external environment, especially its

38

customers and competitors. Sales began to pick up in the last part of 2017. Within the next few

years, we will know whether these changes succeed.

Sources: C. Smith, 2018, 40 Interesting McDonald's facts and statistics, DMR Business Statistics, https://expanded ramblings .com/index.php/mcdonalds-statistics/, February 19; J. Wohl, 2018, McDonald's makes happy meals (slightly) healthier, AdAge, http://adage.com, February 15; J. Wohl, 2018, McDonald's CMO bullish on tiered value menu amid competition, AdAge, http://adage.com, January 5; K. Taylor, 2017, McDonald's makes 6 major changes that totally turned business around, Business Insider, www.businessinsider.com, October 24; 5. Whitten, 2017, 4 ways McDonald's is about to change, CNBC, www.cnbc.com; A. Gasparro, 2015, McDonald's new chief plots counter attack, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 1; D. Shanker, 2015, Dear McDonald's new CEO: Happy first day. Here's some (unsolicited) advice, Fortune, www.Fortune.com, March 2; S. Strom, 2015, McDonald's seeks its fast-food soul, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, March 7; 5. Strom, 2015, McDonald's tests custom burgers and other new concepts as sales drop, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, January 23; 8. Kowitt, 2014, Fallen Arches, Fortune, December, 106-116.

A s suggested in the Opening Case and by research, the external environment (which includes the industry in which a firm competes as well as those against whom

it competes) affects the competitive actions and responses firms take to outperform competitors and earn above-average returns.' For example, McDonald's has been expe­ riencing a reduction in returns in recent times because of changing consumer tastes and enhanced competition. McDonald's is attempting to respond to the threats from its environment by changing its menu, revising the types of supplies it purchases, remod­ eling its restaurants, and implementing digital sales and home delivery of food orders. The sociocultural segment of the general environment (discussed in this chapter) is the driver of some of the changing values in society that are now placing greater emphasis on healthy food choices. As the Opening Case describes, McDonald's is responding to these changing values by, for example, using only antibiotic-free chicken and making its Happy Meals healthier.

As noted in Chapter 1, the characteristics of today's external environment dif­ fer from historical conditions. For example, technological changes and the continu­ ing growth of information gathering and processing capabilities increase the need for firms to develop effective competitive actions and responses on a timely basis.2

(We fully discuss competitive actions and responses in Chapter 5.) Additionally, the rapid sociological changes occurring in many countries affect labor practices and the nature of products that increasingly diverse consumers demand. Governmental policies and laws also affect where and how firms choose to compete.3 And, changes to several nations' financial regulatory systems were enacted after the financial crisis in 2008-2009 that increased the complexity of organizations' financial transactions.4

(However, in 2018 the Trump administration weakened or eliminated some of those regulations in the United States.)

Firms understand the external environment by acquiring information about com­ petitors, customers, and other stakeholders to build their own base of knowledge and capabilities.5 On the basis of the new information, firms take actions, such as building new capabilities and core competencies, in hopes of buffering themselves from any nega­ tive environmental effects and to pursue opportunities to better serve their stakeholders' needs.6

In summary, a firm's competitive actions and responses are influenced by the condi­ tions in the three parts (the general, industry, and competitor) of its external environment (see Figure 2.1) and its understanding of those conditions. Next, we fully describe each part of the firm's external environment.

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

Figure 2.1 The External Environment

Demographic

(Economic)

Industry Environment

---�• Threat of New Entrants Power of Suppliers

Power of Buyers Product Substitutes Intensity of Rival ry

Competitor Environment

Technological

Sustainable Physical

Sociocultural

Global

2-1 The General, Industry, and Competitor Environments

The general environment is composed of dimensions in the broader society that influ­ ence an industry and the firms within it.7 We group these dimensions into seven envi­ ronmental segments: demographic, economic, political/legal, sociocultural, technological, global, and sustainable physical. Examples of elements analyzed in each of these segments are shown in Table 2.1.

Firms cannot directly control the general environment's segments. Accordingly, what a company seeks to do is recognize trends in each segment of the general envi­ ronment and then predict each trend's effect on it. For example, it has been predicted that over the next 10 to 20 years, millions of people living in emerging market countries will join the middle class. In fact, by 2030, it is predicted that two-thirds of the global middle class, about 525 million people, will live in the Asia-Pacific region of the world. 8

Of course, this is not surprising given that almost 60 percent of the world's population is located in Asia.9 No firm, including large multinationals, is able to control where growth in potential customers may take place in the next decade or two. Nonetheless, firms must study this anticipated trend as a foundation for predicting its effects on their ability to identify strategies to use that will allow them to remain successful as market conditions change.

The industry environment is the set of factors that directly influences a firm and its competitive actions and responses: the threat of new entrants, the power of suppli­ ers, the power of buyers, the threat of product substitutes, and the intensity of rivalry

39

The general environment is composed of dimensions

in the broader society that

influence an industry and the

firms within it.

The industry environment is the set of factors that

directly influences a firm

and its competitive actions

and responses: the threat

of new entrants, the power

of suppliers, the power of

buyers, the threat of product substitutes, and the intensity

of rivalry among competing

firms.

Copyright 2020 Cengagc Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied. scanned, or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to clcc1ronic rights. some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1ric1ions require ii.

40 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Table 2.1 The General Environment: Segments and Elements

Demographic segment

Economic segment

Political/Legal segment

Sociocultural segment

Technological segment

Global segment

Sustainable physical

environment segment

How companies gather and

interpret information about

their competitors is called

competitor analysis.

Population size

Age structure

Geographic distribution

Inflation rates

Interest rates

Trade deficits or surpluses

Budget deficits or surpluses

Antitrust laws

Taxation laws

Deregulation philosophies

Women in the workforce

Workforce diversity

Attitudes about the quality of work life

Product innovations

Applications of knowledge

Important political events

Critical global markets

Energy consumption

Practices used to develop energy sources

Renewable energy efforts

Minimizing a firm's environmental footprint

Ethnic mix

Income distribution

Personal savings rate

Business savings rates

Gross domestic product

Labor training laws

Educational philosophies and policies

Shifts in work and career preferences

Shifts in preferences regarding product and

service characteristics

Focus of private and government-supported

R&D expenditures

New communication technologies

Newly industrialized countries

Different cultural and institutional attributes

Availability of water as a resource

Producing environmentally friendly products

Reacting to natural or man-made disasters

among competing firms.10 In total, the interactions among these five factors determine an industry's profitability potential; in turn, the industry's profitability potential influences the choices each firm makes about its competitive actions and responses. The challenge for a firm is to locate a position within an industry where it can favorably influence the five factors or where it can successfully defend itself against their influence. The greater a firm's capacity to favorably influence its industry environment, the greater the likelihood it will earn above-average returns.

How companies gather and interpret information about their competitors is called competitor analysis. Understanding the firm's competitor environment complements the insights provided by studying the general and industry environments.11 This means, for example, that McDonald's needs to do a better job of analyzing and understanding its general and industry environments.

An analysis of the general environment focuses on environmental trends and their implications, an analysis of the industry environment focuses on the factors and condi­ tions influencing an industry's profitability potential, and an analysis of competitors is focused on predicting competitors' actions, responses, and intentions. In combination, the results of these three analyses influence the firm's vision, mission, choice of strat­ egies, and the competitive actions and responses it will take to implement those strat­ egies. Although we discuss each analysis separately, the firm can develop and imple­ ment a more effective strategy when it successfully integrates the insights provided by analyses of the general environment, the industry environment, and the competitor environment.

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Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

2-2 External Environmental Analysis Most firms face external environments that are turbulent, complex, and global­ conditions that make interpreting those environments difficult.12 To cope with often ambiguous and incomplete environmental data and to increase understanding of the general environment, firms complete an external environmental analysis. This analysis has four parts: scanning, monitoring, forecasting, and assessing (see Table 2.2).

Identifying opportunities and threats is an important objective of studying the general environment. An opportunity is a condition in the general environment that, if exploited effectively, helps a company reach strategic competitiveness. Most companies-and cer­ tainly large ones-continuously encounter multiple opportunities as well as threats.

In terms of possible opportunities, a combination of cultural, political, and economic factors is resulting in rapid retail growth in parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Accordingly, Walmart, the world's largest retailer, and the next three largest global giants (France's Carrefour, UK-based Tesco, and Germany's Metro) are expanding in these regions. Walmart is expanding its number of retail units in Chile ( 404 units), India (20 units), and South Africa (360 units). Interestingly, Carrefour exited India after four years and in the same year that Tesco opened stores in India. While Metro closed its operations in Egypt, it has stores in China, Russia, Japan, Vietnam, and India in addition to many eastern European countries.13

A threat is a condition in the general environment that may hinder a company's efforts to achieve strategic competitiveness.14 Intellectual property protection has become a significant issue not only within a country but also across country borders. For example, in 2018 President Trump placed tariffs on goods exported from China into the United States. The primary reason given for the tariffs was the theft of U.S. firms' intellectual property by Chinese firms. As is common in these cases, China responded by placing tariffs on a large number of U.S. products exported to China, sparking fears of a potential trade war between the two countries with the largest economies in the world. This type of threat obviously deals with the political/legal segment.

Firms use multiple sources to analyze the general environment through scanning, moni­ toring, forecasting, and assessing. Examples of these sources include a wide variety of printed materials (such as trade publications, newspapers, business publications, and the results of academic research and public polls), trade shows, and suppliers, customers, and employees of public-sector organizations. Of course, the information available from Internet sources is of increasing importance to a firm's efforts to study the general environment.

2-2a Scanning

Scanning entails the study of all segments in the general environment. Although chal­ lenging, scanning is critically important to the firms' efforts to understand trends in the

Table 2.2 Parts of the External Environment Analysis

Scanning

Monitoring

Forecasting

Assessing

Identifying early signals of environmental changes and trends

Detecting meaning through ongoing observations of environmental changes

and trends

Developing projections of anticipated outcomes based on monitored changes

and trends

Determining the timing and importance of environmental changes and trends

for firms' strategies and their management

An opportunity is a

condition in the general

environment that, if

exploited effectively, helps

a company reach strategic

competitiveness.

41

A threat is a condition in

the general environment

that may hinder a company's

efforts to achieve strategic

competitiveness.

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42 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

general environment and to predict their implications. This is particularly the case for companies competing in highly volatile environments.Is

Through scanning, firms identify early signals of potential changes in the general environment and detect changes that are already under way.I6 Scanning activities must be aligned with the organizational context; a scanning system designed for a volatile environment is inappropriate for a firm in a stable environment. I7 Scanning often reveals ambiguous, incomplete, or unconnected data and inf ormation that require careful analysis.

Many firms use special software to help them identify events that are taking place in the environment and that are announced in public sources. For example, news event detection uses information-based systems to categorize text and reduce the trade-off between an important missed event and false alarm rates. Increasingly, these systems are used to study social media outlets as sources of information.Is

Broadly speaking, the Internet provides a wealth of opportunities for scanning. Amazon.com, for example, records information about individuals visiting its website, particularly if a purchase is made. Amazon then welcomes these customers by name when they visit the website again. The firm sends messages to customers about spe­ cials and new products similar to those they purchased in previous visits. A number of other companies, such as Netflix, also collect demographic data about their customers in an attempt to identify their unique preferences (demographics is one of the segments in the general environment). Approximately 4 billion people use the Internet in some way, including more than 738 million in China and 287 million in the United States. So, the Internet represents a healthy opportunity to gather information on users.I9

2-2b Monitoring

When monitoring, analysts observe environmental changes to see if an important trend is emerging from among those spotted through scanning.2° Critical to successful mon­ itoring is the firm's ability to detect meaning in environmental events and trends. For example, those monitoring retirement trends in the United States learned that the median retirement savings of U.S. workers was only $5000. And for those who are aged 56-61, the median savings for retirement was only $17,000. For a reasonable retirement, Fidelity estimates that people should have saved 10 times their annual salary.2I Firms seeking to serve retirees' financial needs will continue monitoring workers' savings and investment patterns to see if a trend is developing. If, say, they identify that saving less for retirement (or other needs) is indeed a trend, these firms will seek to understand its competitive implications.

Effective monitoring requires the firm to identify important stakeholders and under­ stand its reputation among these stakeholders as the foundation for serving their unique needs.22 (Stakeholders' unique needs are described in Chapter 1.) One means of moni­ toring major stakeholders is by using directors that serve on other boards of directors (referred to as interlocking directorates). They facilitate information and knowledge transfer from external sources. 23 Scanning and monitoring are particularly important when a firm competes in an industry with high technological uncertainty. 24 Scanning and monitoring can provide the firm with information. These activities also serve as a means of importing knowledge about markets and about how to successfully commercialize the new technologies the firm has developed.25

2-2c Forecasting

Scanning and monitoring are concerned with events and trends in the general environ­ ment at a point in time. When forecasting, analysts develop feasible projections of what

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

might happen, and how quickly, as a result of the events and trends detected through scanning and monitoring.26 For example, analysts might forecast the time that will be required for a new technology to reach the marketplace, the length of time before different corporate training procedures are required to deal with anticipated changes in the composition of the workforce, or how much time will elapse before changes in governmental taxation policies affect consumers' purchasing patterns.

Forecasting events and outcomes accurately is challenging. Forecasting demand for new technological products is difficult because technology trends are contin­ ually shortening product life cycles. This is particularly difficult for a firm such as Intel, whose products go into many customers' technological products, which are frequently updated. Thus, having access to tools that allow better forecasting of electronic product demand is of value to Intel as the firm studies conditions in its external environment.27

2-2d Assessing

When assessing, the objective is to determine the timing and significance of the effects of environmental changes and trends that have been identified.28 Through scanning, monitoring, and forecasting, analysts are able to understand the general environment. Additionally, the intent of assessment is to specify the implications of that understanding. Without assessment, the firm has data that may be interesting but of unknown competi­ tive relevance. Even if formal assessment is inadequate, the appropriate interpretation of that information is important.

Accurately assessing the trends expected to take place in the segments of a firm's general environment is important. However, accurately interpreting the meaning of those trends is even more important. In slightly different words, although gathering and organizing information is important, appropriately interpreting that information to determine if an identified trend in the general environment is an opportunity or threat is critical.29

2-3 Segments of the General Environment The general environment is composed of segments that are external to the firm (see Table 2.1). Although the degree of impact varies, these environmental segments affect all industries and the firms competing in them. The challenge to each firm is to scan, monitor, forecast, and assess the elements in each segment to predict their effects on it. Effective scanning, monitoring, forecasting, and assessing are vital to the firm's efforts to recognize and evaluate opportunities and threats.

2-3a The Demographic Segment

The demographic segment is concerned with a population's size, age structure, geo­ graphic distribution, ethnic mix, and income distribution.30 Demographic segments are commonly analyzed on a global basis because of their potential effects across countries' borders and because many firms compete in global markets.

Population Size The world's population doubled (from 3 billion to 6 billion) between 1959 and 1999. Current projections suggest that population growth will continue in the twenty-first century, but at a slower pace. In 2018, the world's population was 7.6 billion, and it is projected to be 9.2 billion by 2040 and roughly 10 billion by 2055.31 In 2018, China was the world's largest country by population with slightly more than 1.4 billion people. By

The demographic

segment is concerned

with a population's size,

43

age structure, geographic

distribution, ethnic mix, and

income distribution.

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44 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

2050, however, India is expected to be the most populous nation in the world followed by China, the United States, Indonesia, and Pakistan.32 Firms seeking to find growing markets in which to sell their goods and services want to recognize the market potential that may exist for them in these five nations.

Firms also want to study changes occurring within the populations of different nations and regions of the world to assess their strategic implications. For example, 28 percent of Japan's citizens are 65 or older, while the figures for the United States and China are 15 percent and 11 percent, respectively. However, the population in both countries is aging rapidly and could match that in Japan by 2040.33 Aging populations are a significant problem for countries because of the need for workers and the burden of supporting retirement programs. In Japan and some other countries, employees are urged to work longer to overcome these problems.

Age Structure The most noteworthy aspect of this element of the demographic segment is that the world's population is rapidly aging, as noted above. For example, predictions are that the number of centenarians worldwide will double by 2023 and double again by 2035. Projections suggest life expectancy will surpass 100 in some industrialized countries by the second half of this century-roughly triple the lifespan of the population in earlier years.34 In the 1950s, Japan's population was one of the youngest in the world. However, 45 is now the median age in Japan, with the projection that it will be 55 by 2040. With a fertility rate that is below replacement value, another prediction is that by 2040 there will be almost as many Japanese people 100 years old or older as there are newborns.35 By 2050, almost 25 percent of the world's population will be aged 65 or older. These changes in the age of the population have significant implications for availability of qualified labor, health care, retirement policies, and business opportunities among others.36

This aging of the population threatens the ability of firms to hire and retain a workforce that meets their needs. Thus, firms are challenged to increase the productivity of their work­ ers and/or to establish additional operations in other nations in order to access the potential working age population. A potential opportunity is represented by delayed retirements; older workers with extended life expectancies may need to work longer in order to even­ tually afford retirement. Delayed retirements may help companies to retain experienced and knowledgeable workers. In this sense, "organizations now have a fresh opportunity to address the talent gap created by a shortage of critical skills in the marketplace as well as the experience gap created by multiple waves of downsizing over the past decade:' 37 Firms can also use their older, more experienced workers to transfer their knowledge to younger employees, helping them to quickly gain valuable skills. There is also an opportunity for firms to more effectively use the talent available in the workforce. For example, moving women into higher level professional and managerial jobs could offset the challenges created by decline in overall talent availability. And, based on research, it may even enhance overall outcomes.38

Geographic Distribution How a population is distributed within countries and regions is subject to change over time. For example, over the last few decades, the U.S. population has shifted from states in the Northeast and Great Lakes region to states in the West (California), South (Florida), and Southwest (Texas). Based on data in 2018, California's population has grown by approximately 2.3 million since 2010, while Texas's population has grown by 3.2 million in the same time period.39 These changes are characterized as moving from the "Frost

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

Belt" to the "Sun Belt:' Outcomes from these shifts include the fact that the gross domestic product (GDP) of California in 2017 was slightly more than $2.75 trillion, an amount that makes California the sixth-largest economy in the world. In this same year, at a value of $1.6 trillion, Texas' GDP was second to that of California.40

The least popular states are Illinois, Vermont, and West Virginia, which experienced population declines between 2010 and 2018. During the same time period, the population of Connecticut, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island grew less than one percent. In the coming years, California, Florida and Texas are forecasted to have the largest gains in population.41

Firms want to carefully study the patterns of population distributions in countries and regions to identify opportunities and threats. Thus, in the United States, current patterns suggest the possibility of opportunities in states on the West Coast and some in the South and Southwest. In contrast, firms competing in the Northeast and Great Lakes areas may concentrate on identifying threats to their ability to operate profitably in those areas.

Of course, geographic distribution patterns differ throughout the world. For example, in past years, the majority of the population in China lived in rural areas; however, growth patterns have been shifting to urban communities such as Shanghai and Beijing. In fact, in 2006, there were 148.7 million more people living in rural areas than in urban areas in China. However, by 2016, 203.2 million more people lived in urban than in rural areas within China, a substantial shift in a only ten-year period.42 Recent shifts in Europe show small population gains for countries such as France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, while Greece experienced a small population decline. Overall, the geographic distribution patterns in Europe have been reasonably stable.43

Ethnic Mix

The ethnic mix of countries' populations continues to change, creating opportunities and threats for many companies as a result. For example, Hispanics have become the largest ethnic minority in the United States.44 In fact, the U.S. Hispanic market is the third largest "Latin American" economy behind Brazil and Mexico. Spanish is now the dominant language in parts of the United States such as Texas, California, Florida, and New Mexico. Given these facts, some firms might want to assess how their goods or services could be adapted to serve the unique needs of Hispanic con­ sumers. Interestingly, by 2020, more than 50 percent of children in the United States will be a member of a minority ethnic group, and the population in the United States is projected to have a majority of minority ethnic members by 2044. And, by 2060, whites are projected to compose approximately 44 percent of the U.S. population.45

The ethnic diversity of the population is important not only because of consumer needs but also because of the labor force composition. Interestingly, research has shown that firms with greater ethnic diversity in their managerial team are likely to enjoy higher performance. 46

Additional evidence is of interest to firms when examining this segment. For example, African countries are the most ethnically diverse in the world, with Uganda having the highest ethnic diversity rating and Liberia having the second highest. In contrast, Japan and the Koreas are the least ethnically diversified in their populations. European countries are largely ethnically homogeneous while the Americas are more diverse. "From the United States through Central America down to Brazil, the 'new world' countries, maybe in part because of their histories of relatively open immigra­ tion (and, in some cases, intermingling between natives and new arrivals) tend to be pretty diverse."47

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45

46

The economic

environment refers to the

nature and direction of the

economy in which a firm

competes or may compete.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Income Distribution

Understanding how income is distributed within and across populations informs firms of different groups' purchasing power and discretionary income. Of particular interest to firms are the average incomes of households and individuals. For instance, the increase in dual-career couples has had a notable effect on average incomes. Although real income has been declining in general in some nations, the household income of dual-career couples has increased, especially in the United States. These figures yield strategically relevant information for firms. For instance, research indicates that whether an employee is part of a dual-career couple can strongly influence the willingness of the employee to accept an international assignment. Worldwide it is estimated that there were almost 57 million expatriates in 2017, with Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and the United States as the top three destinations.48

The growth of the economy in China has drawn many firms, not only for the low­ cost production, but also because of the large potential demand for products, given its large population base. However, in recent times, the amount of China's gross domestic product that makes up domestic consumption is the lowest of any major economy at less than one-third. In comparison, India's domestic consumption of consumer goods accounts for two-thirds of its economy, or twice China's level. For this reason, many western multinationals are interested in India as a consumption market as its middle class grows extensively; although India has poor infrastructure, its consumers are in a better position to spend. Because of situations such as this, paying attention to the differences between markets based on income distribution can be very important.49

These differences across nations suggest it is important for most firms to identify the economic systems that are most likely to produce the most income growth and market opportunities.50 Thus, the economic segment is a critically important focus of firms' environmental analysis.

2-3b The Economic Segment

The economic environment refers to the nature and direction of the economy in which a firm competes or may compete.5' In general, firms seek to compete in relatively stable economies with strong growth potential. Because nations are interconnected as a result of the global economy, firms must scan, monitor, forecast, and assess the health of their host nation as well as the health of the economies outside it.

It is challenging for firms studying the economic environment to predict economic trends that may occur and their effects on them. There are at least two reasons for this. First, the global recession of 2008 and 2009 created numerous problems for companies throughout the world, including problems of reduced consumer demand, increases in firms' inventory levels, development of additional governmental regulations, and a tight­ ening of access to financial resources. Second, the global recovery from the economic shock in 2008 and 2009 was persistently slow compared to previous recoveries. Firms must adjust to the economic shock and try to recover from it. And although the world economic prospects appear to be good in 2018, the recovery has been uneven across countries. For example, the economies in several European countries continue to strug­ gle (e.g., Greece, Spain). And, perhaps partly due to political uncertainties (e.g., in the United States), there continue to be concerns about economic uncertainty. And again, according to some research, "it is clear that (economic) uncertainty has increased in recent times:' 52 This current degree of economic uncertainty makes it challenging to develop effective strategies.

When facing economic uncertainty, firms especially want to study closely the eco­ nomic environment in multiple regions and countries throughout the world. Although

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis 47

economic growth remains relatively weak and economic uncertainty has been strong in Europe, economic growth has been bet­ ter in the United States in recent times. For example, the projected average annual economic growth in Europe for 2018-2020 is 1.75 percent, while in the United States it is 2.25 percent. Alternatively, the pro­ jected average annual economic growth for 2018-2020 is 6.3 percent in China, 7.45 percent in India, 2.25 percent in Brazil, and 2.45 percent in Mexico. These estimates highlight the anticipation of the continuing development of emerging economies.53 Ideally, firms will be able to pursue higher growth opportunities in regions and nations where they exist while avoiding the threats of slow growth periods in other settings.

A marijuana Budtender sorts strands of marijuana for sale at a retail

and medical cannabis dispensary in Boulder, Colorado.

2-3c The Political/Legal Segment

The political/legal segment is the arena in which organizations and interest groups compete for attention, resources, and a voice in overseeing the body of laws and regu­ lations guiding interactions among nations as well as between firms and various local governmental agencies.54 Essentially, this segment is concerned with how organizations try to influence governments and how they try to understand the influences ( cur­ rent and projected) of those governments on their competitive actions and responses. Commonly, firms develop a political strategy to specify how they will analyze and the political/legal to develop approaches they can take (such as lobbying efforts) to suc­ cessfully deal with opportunities and threats that surface within this segment of the environment. 55

Regulations formed in response to new national, regional, state, and/or local laws that are legislated often influence a firm's competitive actions and responses. 56 For example, the state of California in the United States recently legalized the retail selling of cannabis (also known as marijuana). This action follows similar laws legalizing the sale of cannabis in other states such as Colorado and Washington. The immediate con - cern is the risk that firms take to invest capital in this business, given that it is unknown whether the U.S. Department of Justice will allow the states to proceed without enforc­ ing federal law against the sale of this product. Thus, the relationship between national, regional, and local laws and regulations creates a highly complex environment within which businesses must navigate.57

For interactive, technology-based firms such as Facebook, Google, and Amazon, among others, the effort in Europe to adopt the world's strongest data protection law has significant challenges. Highly restrictive laws about consumer privacy could threaten how these firms conduct business in the European Union. Alternatively, firms must deal with quite different challenges when they operate in countries with weak formal institutions (e.g., weak legal protection of intellectual property). Laws and regulations provide struc­ ture to guide strategic and competitive actions; without such structure, it is difficult to identify the best strategic actions.58

The political/legal

segment is the arena in

which organizations and

interest groups compete

for attention, resources, and

a voice in overseeing the

body of laws and regulations

guiding interactions among

nations as well as between

firms and various local

governmental agencies.

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48 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

The sociocultural segment

is concerned with a society's

attitudes and cultural values.

2-3d The Sociocultural Segment

The sociocultural segment is concerned with a society's attitudes and cultural values. Because attitudes and values form the cornerstone of a society, they often drive demo­ graphic, economic, political/legal, and technological conditions and changes.

Individual societies' attitudes and cultural orientations are relatively stable, but they can and often do change over time. Thus, firms must carefully scan, monitor, forecast, and assess them to recognize and study associated opportunities and threats. Successful firms must also be aware of changes taking place in the societies and their associated cul­ tural values in which they are competing. Indeed, firms must identify changes in cultural values, norms, and attitudes in order to "adapt to stay ahead of their competitors and stay relevant in the minds of their consumers:'59 Research has shown that sociocultural factors influence the entry into new markets and the development of new firms in a country.60

Attitudes about and approaches to health care are being evaluated in nations and regions throughout the world. For Europe, the European Commission has developed a health care strategy for all of Europe that is oriented to preventing diseases while tackling lifestyle factors influencing health such as nutrition, working conditions, and physical activity. This Commission argues that promoting attitudes to take care of one's health is especially important in the context of an aging Europe, as shown by the projection that the proportion of people over 65 living in Europe and in most of the developed nations throughout the world will continue to grow.61 At issue for business firms is that attitudes and values about health care can affect them; accordingly, they must carefully examine trends regarding health care in order to anticipate the effects on their operations.

The U.S. labor force has evolved to become more diverse, with significantly more women and minorities from a variety of cultures entering the workplace. For example, women were 46.8 percent of the workforce in 2014, a number projected to grow to 47.2 percent by 2024. Hispanics are expected to be about 20 percent of the workforce by 2024. In 2005, the total U.S. workforce was slightly greater than 148 million, and it is predicted to grow to approximately 164 million by 2024.62

However, the rate of growth in the U.S.

Healthcare is becoming increasingly important as the proportion of

people older than 65 is growing larger in many nations throughout

the world.

labor force has declined over the past two decades largely because of slower growth of the nation's population and because of a downward trend in the labor force partici­ pation rate. More specifically, data show that the overall participation rate ( the proportion of the civilian non-institutional population in the labor force) peaked at an annual aver­ age of 67.1 percent in 2000. But the rate has declined since that time and is expected to fall to 58.5 percent by 2050. Other changes in the U.S. labor force between 2010 and 2050 are expected. During this time, Asian membership in the labor force is projected to more than double in size, while the growth in Caucasian members of the labor force is predicted to be much slower compared to other racial groups. In contrast, people of Hispanic origin are expected to account for roughly 80 percent of the total growth in the labor force.63

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

Greater diversity in the workforce creates challenges and opportunities, including combining the best of both men's and women's traditional leadership styles. Although diversity in the workforce has the potential to improve performance, research indi­ cates that diversity initiatives must be successfully managed to reap these organiza­ tional benefits.

Although the lifestyle and workforce changes referenced previously reflect the atti­ tudes and values of the U.S. population, each country is unique with respect to these sociocultural indicators. National cultural values affect behavior in organizations and thus also influence organizational outcomes such as differences in managerial styles. Likewise, the national culture influences a large portion of the internationalization strat­ egy that firms pursue relative to one's home country.64 Knowledge sharing is important for dispersing new knowledge in organizations and increasing the speed in implement­ ing innovations. Personal relationships are especially important in China; the concept of guanxi (personal relationships or good connections) is important in doing business within the country and for individuals to advance their careers in what is becoming a more open market society. Understanding the importance of guanxi is critical for foreign firms doing business in China.65

2-3e The Technological Segment

Pervasive and diversified in scope, technological changes affect many parts of societ­ ies. These effects occur primarily through new products, processes, and materials. The technological segment includes the institutions and activities involved in creating new knowledge and translating that knowledge into new outputs, products, processes, and materials.

Given the rapid pace of technological change and risk of disruption, it is vital for firms to thoroughly study the technological segment. 66 The importance of these efforts is shown by the fact that early adopters of new technology often achieve higher market shares and earn higher returns. Thus, both large and small firms should continuously scan the gen­ eral environment to identify potential substitutes for technologies that are in current use, as well as to identify newly emerging technologies from which their firm could derive competitive advantage.67

New technology and innovations are changing many industries.68 These changes are exemplified by the change to digital publishing (e.g., electronic books) and retail industries moving from brick and mortar stores to Internet sales. As such, firms in all industries must become more innovative in order to survive, and must develop new or at least comparable technology-and continuously improve it.69 In so doing, most firms must have a sophisticated information system to support their new product develop­ ment efforts.70 In fact, because the adoption and efficient use of new technology has become critical to global competitiveness in many or most industries, countries have begun to offer special forms of support, such as the development of technology business incubators, which provide several types of assistance to increase the success rate of new technology ventures.71

As a significant technological development, the Internet offers firms a remarkable capability in terms of their efforts to scan, monitor, forecast, and assess conditions in their general environment. Companies continue to study the Internet's capabilities to anticipate how it may allow them to create more value for customers and to anticipate future trends. Additionally, the Internet generates a significant number of opportunities and threats for firms across the world. As noted earlier, there are approximately 4 billion Internet users globally.

Despite the Internet's far-reaching effects and the opportunities and threats asso­ ciated with its potential, wireless communication technology has become a significant

49

The technological

segment includes the

institutions and activities

involved in creating new

knowledge and tr anslating

that knowledge into new

outputs, products, processes,

and materials.

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50

The global segment

includes relevant new global

markets and their critical

cultural and institutional

characteristics, existing

markets that are changing,

and important international

political events.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

technological opportunity for companies. Handheld devices and other wireless commu­ nications equipment are used to access a variety of network-based services. The use of handheld computers (of many types) with wireless network connectivity has become the dominant form of communication and commerce, and additional functionalities and software applications are generating multiple opportunities-and potential threats-for companies of all types.

2-3f The Global Segment

The global segment includes relevant new global markets and their critical cultural and institutional characteristics, existing markets that are changing, and important international political events. 72 For example, firms competing in the automobile industry must study the global segment. The fact that consumers in multiple nations are willing to buy cars and trucks "from whatever area of the world"73 supports this position.

When studying the global segment, firms should recognize that globalization of busi­ ness markets may create opportunities to enter new markets, as well as threats that new competitors from other economies may also enter their market.74 In terms of an oppor­ tunity for automobile manufacturers, the possibility for these firms to sell their prod­ ucts outside of their home market would seem attractive. But what markets might firms choose to enter? Currently, automobile and truck sales are expected to increase in Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Eastern Europe. In contrast, sales are expected to decline, at least in the near term, in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. These markets, then, are the most and least attractive ones for automobile manufacturers desiring to sell outside their domestic market. At the same time, from the perspective of a threat, Japan, Germany, Korea, Spain, France, and the United States appear to have excess production capacity in the automobile manufacturing industry. In turn, overcapacity signals the pos­ sibility that companies based in markets where this is the case will simultaneously attempt to increase their exports as well as sales in their domestic market.75 Thus, global automo­ bile manufacturers should carefully examine the global segment to precisely identify all opportunities and threats.

In light of threats associated with participating in international markets, some firms choose to take a more cautious approach to globalization. For example, family business firms, even the larger ones, often take a conservative approach to entering international markets in a manner very similar to how they approach the develop­ ment and introduction of new technology. They try to manage their risk.76 These firms participate in what some refer to as globalfocusing. Globalfocusing often is used by firms with moderate levels of international operations who increase their inter­ nationalization by focusing on global niche markets.77 This approach allows firms to build onto and use their core competencies while limiting their risks within the niche market. Another way in which firms limit their risks in international markets is to focus their operations and sales in one region of the world.78 Success with these efforts finds a firm building relationships in and knowledge of its markets. As the firm builds these strengths, rivals find it more difficult to enter its markets and com­ pete successfully.

Firms competing in global markets should recognize each market's sociocultural and institutional attributes.79 For example, Korean ideology emphasizes communitar­ ianism, a characteristic of many Asian countries. Alternatively, the ideology in China calls for an emphasis on guanxi-personal connections-while in Japan, the focus is on wa-group harmony and social cohesion.80 The institutional context of China suggests a major emphasis on centralized planning by the government. The Chinese government

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

provides incentives to firms to develop alliances with foreign firms having sophisticated technology, in hopes of building knowledge and introducing new technologies to the Chinese markets over time.81 As such, it is important to analyze the strategic intent of foreign firms when pursuing alliances and joint ventures abroad, especially where the local partners are receiving technology that may in the long run reduce the foreign firms' advantages.82

Increasingly, the informal economy as it exists throughout the world is another aspect of the global segment requiring analysis. Growing in size, this economy has implications for firms' competitive actions and responses in that increasingly, firms competing in the formal economy will find that they are competing against informal economy companies as well.

2-3g The Sustainable Physical Environment Segment The sustainable physical environment segment refers to potential and actual changes in the physical environment and business practices that are intended to positively respond to those changes in order to create a sustainable environment.83

Concerned with trends oriented to sustaining the world's physical environment, firms recognize that ecological, social, and economic systems interactively influence what happens in this particular segment and that they are part of an interconnected global society. 84

Companies across the globe are concerned about the physical environment, and many record the actions they are taking in reports with names such as "Sustainability" and "Corporate Social Responsibility:' Moreover, and in a comprehensive sense, an increasing number of companies are investing in sustainable development.

There are many parts or attributes of the physical environment that firms con­ sider as they try to identify trends in the physical environment. 85 Because of the importance to firms of becoming sustainable, certification programs have been developed to help them understand how to be sustainable organizations. 86 As the world's largest retailer, Walmart's environmental footprint is huge, meaning that trends in the physical environment can significantly affect this firm and how it chooses to operate. Because of this, Walmart's goal is to produce zero waste and to use 100 percent renewable energy to power its operations.87 Environmental sustain­ ability is important to all societal citizens and because of its importance, customers react more positively to firms taking actions such as those by Walmart.88 To build and maintain sustainable operations in companies that directly service retail cus­ tomers requires sustainable supply chain management practices.89 Thus, top manag­ ers must focus on managing any of the firm's practices that have effects on the phys­ ical environment. In doing so, they not only contribute to a cleaner environment but also reap financial rewards from being an effective competitor due to positive customer responses. 90

As our discussion of the general environment shows, identifying anticipated changes and trends among segments and their elements is a key objective of analyzing this envi­ ronment. With a focus on the future, the analysis of the general environment allows firms to identify opportunities and threats. It is necessary to have a top management team with the experience, knowledge, and sensitivity required to effectively analyze the conditions in a firm's general environment-as well as other facets such as the industry environment and competitors.91 In fact, as you noted in the Strategic Focus on Target, the lack of a commitment to analyzing the environment in depth can have serious, company-wide ramifications.

51

The sustainable physical

environment segment

refers to potential and actual

changes in the physical environment and business

practices that are intended to

positively respond to those

changes in order to create a

sustainable environment.

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52 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Target (Tar-zhey) Is Trying to Navigate in a New and Rapidly Changing

Competitive Landscape

Target became known by consumers as Tar-zhey, the retailer of

cheaper but 'chic' products. The firm offered a step up in quality

goods at a slightly higher price than discount retailers such as

Walmart, but was targeted below major, first line retailers such

Macy's and Nordstrom. Additionally, it promoted its stores to

offer one-stop shopping with clothing, toys, health products, and

food goods, among other products. For many years, Tar-zhey"hit

the bullseye" and performed well serving this large niche in the

market. But the company took its eye off the target and began

losing market share (along with other poor strategic actions).

The first major crack in the ship appeared with the

announcement of a massive cyberattack on Target's computer

system that netted customers' personal information. Not only

was this a public relations disaster, it drew a focus on Target that

identified other problems. For example, careful analysis showed

that Target was losing customers to established competitors

and new rivals, especially Internet retailers (e.g., Amazon.com).

Target's marketing chief stated that "it's not that we became

insular. We were insula('This suggests that the firm was not

analyzing its environment. By allowing rivals, and especially

Internet competitors, to woo the company's customers, it lost

sales, market share, and profits. It obviously did not predict and

prepare for the significant competition from Internet rivals that

is now reshaping most all retail industries. Competitors were

offering better value to customers (perhaps more variety and

convenience through online sales). Thus, Target's reputation

and market share were simultaneously harmed.

Because of all the problems experienced, Target hired a

new CEO, Brian Cornell, in 2014. Cornell has made a number

of changes, but the continued revolution in the industry,

largely driven by Amazon, continued to gnaw away Target's

annual sales. Target's annual sales declined by approximately

5 percent in 2017 and its stock price suffered as a result. Target

was forced to develop a new strategy, which involves a major

rebranding. It launched four new brands late in 2017, includ­

ing A New Day, a fashionable line of women's clothes, and

Goodfellow & Co, a modern line of menswear, with the intent

to make an emotional connection with customers. It also

plans to remodel 100 of its stores and change in-store displays

to improve customer experiences. It will add 30 small stores

that offer innovative designs and, to compete with Amazon, is

emphasizing its digital sales and delivery of products. Up to

now its digital strategy has not been highly successful, so it is

narrowing its focus to increase its effectiveness.

l1,1t1CI I .,.

Target plans to discontinue several major brands by 2019

and will continue to introduce new brands (12 in total are

planned). The intent is to increase the appeal ofTarget and its

products to millennials. These actions alone suggest the impor­

tance of gathering and analyzing data on the market and

competitors' actions. The next few years will show the fruits of

all ofTarget's changes. If they are successful, Target will still face

substantial competition from Amazon and Wal mart; if they are

not successful, Target suffer the same fate of of many other

large and formerly successful retailers that no exist.

Sources: A. Pasquarelli, 2017, Our strategy is working: Target plows into the holidays,

AdAge, hnp//adage.com, October 19; 5. Heller, 2017, Target's biggest brands are about

to disappear from stores, The Insider, www.theinsider.com, July 6; 2017, Rebranding its

wheel: Target's new strategy, Seeking Alpha, hnp//seeking alpha.com, July 4;K. Safdar,

2017, Target's new online strategy: Less is more, Wall Streer Journal, www.wsj.com,

May 15; 2015, What your new CEO is reading: Smell ya later; Target's new CEO, C/0

Journal/Wall Srreet Journal, www.wsj.com/cio, March 6; J. Reingold, 2014, Can Target's

new CEO get the struggling retailer back on target? Fortune, www.fortune.com,

July 31; G. Smith, 2014, Target turns to PepsiCds Brian Cornell to restore its fortunes,

Fortune, www.fortune.com, July 31; f> Ziobro, M. Langley, & J. S. Lublin, 2014, Target's

problem: Tar-zhey isn't working. Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, May 5.

As described in the Strategic Focus, Target failed to maintain a good understanding of its industry and hence, lost market share to Internet company rivals and other more established competitors. We conclude that critical to a firm's choices of strategies and their associated competitive actions and responses is an understanding of its industry

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

environment, its competitors, and the general environment of the countries in which it operates.92 Next, we discuss the analyses firms complete to gain such an understanding.

2-4 Industry Environment Analysis An industry is a group of firms producing products that are close substitutes. In the course of competition, these firms influence one another. Typically, companies use a rich mix of different competitive strategies to pursue above-average returns when competing in a particular industry. An industry's structural characteristics influence a firm's choice of strategies. 93

Compared with the general environment, the industry environment (measured primarily in the form of its characteristics) has a more direct effect on the competitive actions and responses a firm takes to succeed.94 To study an industry, the firm examines five forces that affect the ability of all firms to operate profitably within a given industry. Shown in Figure 2.2, the five forces are: the threats posed by new entrants, the power of suppliers, the power of buyers, product substitutes, and the intensity of rivalry among competitors.

The five forces of competition model depicted in Figure 2.2 expands the scope of a firm's competitive analysis. Historically, when studying the competitive environment, firms concentrated on companies with which they directly competed. However, firms must search more broadly to recognize current and potential competitors by identifying potential customers as well as the firms serving them. For example, the communications industry is now broadly defined as encompassing media companies, telecoms, enter­ tainment companies, and companies producing devices such as smartphones. In such an environment, firms must study many other industries to identify companies with capabilities (especially technology-based capabilities) that might be the foundation for producing a good or a service that can compete against what they are producing.

Figure 2.2 The Five Forces of Competition Model

53

An industry is a group of

firms producing products that

a re close substitutes.

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54 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

When studying the industry environment, firms must also recognize that suppliers can become a firm's competitors (by integrating forward) as can buyers (by integrating backward). For example, several firms have integrated forward in the pharmaceutical industry by acquiring distributors or wholesalers. In addition, firms choosing to enter a new market and those producing products that are adequate substitutes for existing products can become a company's competitors.

Next, we examine the five forces the firm needs to analyze in order to understand the profitability potential within an industry (or a segment of an industry) in which it competes or may choose to compete.

2-4a Threat of New Entrants

Identifying new entrants is important because they can threaten the market share of existing competitors.95 One reason new entrants pose such a threat is that they bring additional production capacity. Unless the demand for a good or service is increasing, additional capacity holds consumers' costs down, resulting in less revenue and lower returns for competing firms. Often, new entrants have a keen interest in gaining a large market share. As a result, new competitors may force existing firms to be more efficient and to learn how to compete in new dimensions (e.g., using an Internet-based distribu­ tion channel).

The likelihood that firms will enter an industry is a function of two factors: bar­ riers to entry and the retaliation expected from current industry participants. Entry barriers make it difficult for new firms to enter an industry and often place them at a competitive disadvantage even when they can enter. As such, high entry barriers tend to increase the returns for existing firms in the industry and may allow some firms to dominate the industry.96 Thus, firms competing successfully in an industry want to maintain high entry barriers to discourage potential competitors from deciding to enter the industry.

Barriers to Entry Firms competing in an industry (and especially those earning above-average returns) try to develop entry barriers to thwart potential competitors. In general, more is known about entry barriers ( with respect to how they are developed as well as paths firms can pursue to overcome them) in industrialized countries such as those in North America and Western Europe. In contrast, relatively little is known about barriers to entry in the rapidly emerging markets such as those in China.

There are different kinds of barriers to entering a market to consider when examin­ ing an industry environment. Companies competing within a particular industry study these barriers to determine the degree to which their competitive position reduces the likelihood of new competitors being able to enter the industry to compete against them. Firms considering entering an industry study entry barriers to determine the likelihood of being able to identify an attractive competitive position within the industry. Next, we discuss several significant entry barriers that may discourage competitors from entering a market and that may facilitate a firm's ability to remain competitive in a market in which it currently competes.

Economies of Scale Economies of scale are derived from incremental efficiency improvements through experience as a firm grows larger. Therefore, the cost of pro­ ducing each unit declines as the quantity of a product produced during a given period increases. A new entrant is unlikely to quickly generate the level of demand for its product that in turn would allow it to develop economies of scale.

Economies of scale can be developed in most business functions, such as marketing, manufacturing, research and development, and purchasing.97 Firms sometimes form

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

strategic alliances or joint ventures to gain scale economies. And, other firms acquire rivals in order to build economies of scale in the operations and to increase their mar­ ket share as well.

Becoming more flexible in terms of being able to meet shifts in customer demand is another benefit for an industry incumbent and a possible entry barrier for the firms considering entering the industry. For example, a firm may choose to reduce its price with the intention of capturing a larger share of the market. Alternatively, it may keep its price constant to increase profits. In so doing, it likely will increase its free cash flow, which is very helpful during financially challenging times.

Some competitive conditions reduce the ability of economies of scale to create an entry barrier such as the use of scale free resources.98 Also, many companies now custom­ ize their products for large numbers of small customer groups. In these cases, customized products are not manufactured in the volumes necessary to achieve economies of scale. Customization is made possible by several factors, including flexible manufacturing sys­ tems. In fact, the new manufacturing technology facilitated by advanced information systems has allowed the development of mass customization in an increasing number of industries. Online ordering has enhanced customers' ability to buy customized products. Companies manufacturing customized products can respond quickly to customers' needs in lieu of developing scale economies.

Product Differentiation Over time, customers may come to believe that a firm's product is unique. This belief can result from the firm's service to the customer, effec­ tive advertising campaigns, or being the first to market a good or service.99 Greater levels of perceived product uniqueness create customers who consistently purchase a firm's products. To combat the perception of uniqueness, new entrants frequently offer products at lower prices. This decision, however, may result in lower profits or even losses.

The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo have established strong brands in the mar­ kets in which they compete, and these companies compete against each other in countries throughout the world. Because each of these competitors has allocated a significant amount of resources over many decades to build its brands, customer loyalty is strong for each firm. When considering entry into the soft drink market, a potential entrant would be well advised to pause and determine actions it would take to try to overcome the brand image and consumer loyalty each of these giants possesses.

Capital Requirements Competing in a new industry requires a firm to have resources to invest. In addition to physical facilities, capital is needed for inventories, marketing activities, and other critical business functions. Even when a new industry is attractive, the capital required for successful market entry may not be available to pursue the market opportunity. 10° For example, defense industries are difficult to enter because of the substantial resource investments required to be competitive. In addition, because of the high knowledge requirements of the defense industry, a firm might acquire an exist­ ing company as a means of entering this industry, but it must have access to the capital necessary to do this.

Switching Costs Switching costs are the one-time costs customers incur when they buy from a different supplier. The costs of buying new ancillary equipment and of retrain­ ing employees, and even the psychological costs of ending a relationship, may be incurred in switching to a new supplier. In some cases, switching costs are low, such as when the consumer switches to a different brand of soft drink. Switching costs can vary as a func­ tion of time, as shown by the fact that in terms of credit hours toward graduation, the cost to a student to transfer from one university to another as a freshman is much lower than it is when the student is entering the senior year.

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55

56 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Occasionally, a decision made by manufacturers to produce a new, innovative product creates high switching costs for customers. Customer loyalty programs, such as airlines' frequent flyer miles, are intended to increase the customer's switching costs. If switching costs are high, a new entrant must offer either a substantially lower price or a much better product to attract buyers. Usually, the more established the relationships between parties, the greater the switching costs.

Access to Distribution Channels Over time, industry participants commonly learn how to effectively distribute their products. After building a relationship with its distributors, a firm will nurture it, thus creating switching costs for the distribu­ tors. Access to distribution channels can be a strong entry barrier for new entrants, particularly in consumer nondurable goods industries ( e.g., in grocery stores where shelf space is limited) and in international markets.101 New entrants have to persuade distributors to carry their products, either in addition to or in place of those cur­ rently distributed. Price breaks and cooperative advertising allowances may be used for this purpose; however, those practices reduce the new entrant's profit potential. Interestingly, access to distribution is less of a barrier for products that can be sold on the Internet.

Cost Disadvantages Independent of Scale Sometimes, established competitors have cost advantages that new entrants cannot duplicate. Proprietary product tech­ nology, favorable access to raw materials, desirable locations, and government subsi­ dies are examples. Successful competition requires new entrants to reduce the strategic relevance of these factors. For example, delivering purchases directly to the buyer can counter the advantage of a desirable location; new food establishments in an unde­ sirable location often follow this practice. Spanish clothing company Zara is owned by Inditex, the largest fashion clothing retailer in the world.102 From the time of its launching, Zara relied on classy, well-tailored, and relatively inexpensive items that were produced and sold by adhering to ethical practices to successfully enter the highly competitive global clothing market and overcome that market's entry barriers. It is suc­ cessful because it has used a novel business model in the industry. It also sells quality merchandise for less, offers good stores and store locations, and is well positioned in the industry.103 Business model innovation may be the key to survival and success in current retail industries.104

Government Policy Through their decisions about issues such as the granting of licenses and permits, governments can also control entry into an industry. Liquor retailing, radio and TV broadcasting, banking, and trucking are examples of industries in which government decisions and actions affect entry possibilities. Also, govern­ ments often restrict entry into some industries because of the need to provide quality service or the desire to protect jobs. Alternatively, deregulating industries, such as the airline and utilities industries in the United States, generally results in additional firms choosing to enter and compete within an industry.105 It is not uncommon for govern­ ments to attempt to regulate the entry of foreign firms, especially in industries consid­ ered critical to the country's economy or important markets within it.106 Governmental decisions and policies regarding antitrust issues also affect entry barriers. For example, in the United States, the Antitrust Division of the Justice Department or the Federal Trade Commission will sometimes disallow a proposed merger because officials con­ clude that approving it would create a firm that is too dominant in an industry and would thus create unfair competition. For example, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a suit in 2017 to block the merger of AT&T and Time Warner with the trial initiated in March 2018. The actions of the Department of Justice were unsuccessful and in June 2018, the merger was approved and completed.107 Such a negative ruling would obviously be an entry barrier for an acquiring firm.

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

Expected Retaliation Companies seeking to enter an industry also anticipate the reactions of firms in the indus­ try. An expectation of swift and vigorous competitive responses reduces the likelihood of entry. Vigorous retaliation can be expected when the existing firm has a major stake in the industry ( e.g., it has fixed assets with few, if any, alternative uses), when it has substan­ tial resources, and when industry growth is slow or constrained.108 For example, any firm attempting to enter the airline industry can expect significant retaliation from existing competitors due to overcapacity.

Locating market niches not being served by incumbents allows the new entrant to avoid entry barriers. Small entrepreneurial firms are generally best suited for identify­ ing and serving neglected market segments. When Honda first entered the U.S. motorcy­ cle market, it concentrated on small-engine motorcycles, a market that firms such as Harley-Davidson ignored. By targeting this neglected niche, Honda initially avoided a significant amount of head-to-head com­ petition with well-established competitors. After consolidating its position, Honda used its strength to attack rivals by intro­ ducing larger motorcycles and competing in the broader market.

2-4b Bargaining Power of Suppliers

Increasing prices and reducing the quality of their products are potential means sup­ pliers use to exert power over firms com­ peting within an industry. If a firm is unable to recover cost increases by its suppliers through its own pricing structure, its profit­ ability is reduced by its suppliers' actions.109

A supplier group is powerful when:

Honda's entry into the large motorcycle market is changing the

competitive landscape especially for the traditional competitors in this

market such as Harley-Davidson.

■ It is dominated by a few large companies and is more concentrated than the industry to which it sells.

■ Satisfactory substitute products are not available to industry firms. ■ Industry firms are not a significant customer for the supplier group. ■ Suppliers' goods are critical to buyers' marketplace success. ■ The effectiveness of suppliers' products has created high switching costs for industry firms. ■ It poses a credible threat to integrate forward into the buyers' industry. Credibility is

enhanced when suppliers have substantial resources and provide a highly differenti­ ated product. no

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57

58 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Some buyers attempt to manage or reduce suppliers' power by developing a long­ term relationship with them. Although long-term arrangements reduce buyer power, they also increase the suppliers' incentive to be helpful and cooperative in appreciation of the longer-term relationship (guaranteed sales). This is especially true when the partners develop trust in one another.111

The airline industry is one in which suppliers' bargaining power is changing. Though the number of suppliers is low, the demand for major aircraft is also relatively low. Boeing and Airbus aggressively compete for orders of major aircraft, creating more power for buyers in the process. When a large airline signals that it might place a "significant" order for wide-body airliners that either Airbus or Boeing might produce, both companies are likely to battle for the business and include a financing arrangement, highlighting the buyer's power in the potential transaction. And, with China's entry into the large com­ mercial airliner industry, buyer power has increased.

2-4c Bargaining Power of Buyers Firms seek to maximize the return on their invested capital. Alternatively, buyers (cus­ tomers of an industry or a firm) want to buy products at the lowest possible price-the point at which the industry earns the lowest acceptable rate of return on its invested cap­ ital. To reduce their costs, buyers bargain for higher quality, greater levels of service, and lower prices.112 These outcomes are achieved by encouraging competitive battles among the industry's firms. Customers (buyer groups) are powerful when:

■ They purchase a large portion of an industry's total output. ■ The sales of the product being purchased account for a significant portion of the

seller's annual revenues. ■ They could switch to another product at little, if any, cost. ■ The industry's products are undifferentiated or standardized, and the buyers pose a

credible threat if they were to integrate backward into the sellers' industry.

Consumers armed with greater amounts of information about the manufacturer's costs and the power of the Internet as a shopping and distribution alternative have increased bargaining power in many industries.

2-4d Threat of Substitute Products Substitute products are goods or services from outside a given industry that perform sim­ ilar or the same functions as a product that the industry produces. For example, as a sugar substitute, NutraSweet (and other sugar substitutes) places an upper limit on sugar man­ ufacturers' prices-NutraSweet and sugar perform the same function, though with dif­ ferent characteristics. Other product substitutes include e-mail and fax machines instead of overnight deliveries, plastic containers rather than glass jars, and tea instead of coffee.

Newspaper firms have experienced significant circulation declines over the past 20 years. The declines are a result of the ready availability of substitute outlets for news including Internet sources and cable television news channels, along with e-mail and cell phone alerts. Likewise, satellite TV and cable and telecommunication companies provide substitute services for basic media services such as television, Internet, and phone. The many electronic devices that provide services overlapping with the personal computer (e.g., laptops) such as tablets, watches (iWatch), etc. are changing markets for PCs, with multiple niches in the market.

In general, product substitutes present a strong threat to a firm when customers face few if any switching costs and when the substitute product's price is lower or its quality and performance capabilities are equal to or greater than those of the competing product. Interestingly, some firms that produce substitutes have begun forming brand alliances, which research shows can be effective when the two products are of relatively equal quality.

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

If there is a differential in quality, the firm with the higher quality product will obtain lower returns from such an alliance.113 Differentiating a product along dimensions that are valuable to customers (such as quality, service after the sale, and location) reduces a substitute's attractiveness.

2-4e Intensity of Rivalry among Competitors Because an industry's firms are mutually dependent, actions taken by one company usu­ ally invite responses. Competitive rivalry intensifies when a firm is challenged by a com­ petitor's actions or when a company recognizes an opportunity to improve its market position.114

Firms within industries are rarely homogeneous; they differ in resources and capabilities and seek to differentiate themselves from competitors. Typically, firms seek to differentiate their products from competitors' offerings in ways that customers value and in which the firms have a competitive advantage. Common dimensions on which rivalry is based include price, service after the sale, and innovation. More recently, fums have begun to act quickly (speed a new product to the market) in order to gain a competitive advantage.115

Next, we discuss the most prominent factors that experience shows affect the intensity of rivalries among firms.

Numerous or Equally Balanced Competitors Intense rivalries are common in industries with many companies. With multiple com­ petitors, it is common for a few firms to believe they can act without eliciting a response. However, evidence suggests that other firms generally are aware of competitors' actions, often choosing to respond to them. At the other extreme, industries with only a few firms of equivalent size and power also tend to have strong rivalries. The large and often similar-sized resource bases of these firms permit vigorous actions and responses. The competitive battles between Airbus and Boeing and between Coca-Cola and PepsiCo exemplify intense rivalry between relatively equal competitors.

Slow Industry Growth When a market is growing, firms try to effectively use resources to serve an expanding customer base. Markets increasing in size reduce the pressure to take customers from competitors. However, rivalry in no-growth or slow-growth markets becomes more intense as firms battle to increase their market shares by attracting competitors' custom­ ers. Certainly, this has been the case in the fast-food industry as explained in the Opening Case about McDonald's. McDonald's, Wendy's, and Burger King use their resources, capa­ bilities, and core competencies to try to win each other's customers. The instability in the market that results from these competitive engagements may reduce the profitability for all firms engaging in such battles. As noted in the Opening Case, McDonald's has suffered from this competitive rivalry but is taking actions to rebuild its customer base and achieve a competitive advantage or at least competitive parity.

High Fixed Costs or High Storage Costs When fixed costs account for a large part of total costs, companies try to maximize the use of their productive capacity. Doing so allows the firm to spread costs across a larger volume of output. However, when many firms attempt to maximize their productive capacity, excess capacity is created on an industry-wide basis. To then reduce inventories, individual companies typically cut the price of their product and offer rebates and other special discounts to customers. However, doing this often intensifies competition. The pattern of excess capacity at the industry level followed by intense rivalry at the firm

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59

60 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

level is frequently observed in industries with high storage costs. Perishable products, for example, lose their value rapidly with the passage of time. As their inventories grow, producers of perishable goods often use pricing strategies to sell products quickly.

Lack of Differentiation or Low Switching Costs When buyers find a differentiated product that satisfies their needs, they frequently purchase the product loyally over time. Industries with many companies that have successfully differentiated their products have less rivalry, resulting in lower competi­ tion for individual firms. Firms that develop and sustain a differentiated product that cannot be easily imitated by competitors often earn higher returns. However, when buyers view products as commodities (i.e., as products with few differentiated features or capabilities), rivalry intensifies. In these instances, buyers' purchasing decisions are based primarily on price and, to a lesser degree, service. Personal computers are a commodity product, and the cost to switch from a computer manufactured by one firm to another is low. Thus, the rivalry among Dell, Hewlett-Packard, Lenovo, and other computer manufacturers is strong as these companies consistently seek to find ways to differentiate their offerings.

High Strategic Stakes Competitive rivalry is likely to be high when it is important for several of the com­ petitors to perform well in the market. Competing in diverse businesses (such as pet­ rochemicals, fashion, medicine, and plant construction, among others), Samsung is a formidable foe for Apple in the global smartphone market. Samsung has committed a significant amount of resources to develop innovative products as the foundation for its efforts to try to outperform Apple in selling this particular product. Only a few years ago, Samsung held a sizable lead in market share. But in 2017, in the U.S. market, it was estimated that the iPhone achieved a holiday period market share of 31.3 percent while Samsung's Galaxy held 28.9 percent. Overall, these firms are in a virtual dead heat in the smartphone market.116 Because this market is extremely important to both firms, the smart-phone rivalry between them (and others) will likely remain quite intense.

High strategic stakes can also exist in terms of geographic locations. For example, sev­ eral automobile manufacturers have established manufacturing facilities in China, which has been the world's largest car market since 2009.117 Because of the high stakes involved in China for General Motors and other firms (including domestic Chinese automobile manufacturers) producing luxury cars (including Audi, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz), rivalry among them in this market is quite intense.

High Exit Barriers Sometimes companies continue competing in an industry even though the returns on their invested capital are low or even negative. Firms making this choice likely face high exit barriers, which include economic, strategic, and emotional factors causing them to remain in an industry when the profitability of doing so is questionable.

Common exit barriers that firms face include the following:

■ Specialized assets (assets with values linked to a business or location) ■ Fixed costs of exit (such as labor agreements) ■ Strategic interrelationships (relationships of mutual dependence, such as those

between one business and other parts of a company's operations, including shared facilities and access to financial markets)

■ Emotional barriers (aversion to economically justified business decisions because of fear for one's own career, loyalty to employees, and so forth)

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

■ Government and social restrictions ( often based on government concerns for job losses and regional economic effects; more common outside the United States)

Exit barriers are especially high in the airline industry. Fortunately, profitability has returned to the industry following the global financial crisis and is expected to reach its highest level in 2018. Industry consolidation and efficiency enhancements regarding airline alliances helped reduce airline companies' costs. This, combined with improving economic conditions in several countries, resulted in a greater demand for travel. This has helped eased the pressures on several firms that may have been contemplating leaving the airline travel industry.'18

2-5 Interpreting Industry Analyses Effective industry analyses are products of careful study and interpretation of data and information from multiple sources. A wealth of industry-specific data is available for firms to analyze to better understand an industry's competitive realities. Because of glo­ balization, international markets and rivalries must be included in the firm's analyses. And, because of the development of global markets, a country's borders no longer restrict industry structures. In fact, in general, entering international markets enhances the chances of success for new ventures as well as more established firms.'19

Analysis of the five forces within a given industry allows the firm to determine the industry's attractiveness in terms of the potential to earn average or above-average returns. In general, the stronger the competitive forces, the lower the potential for firms to generate profits by implementing their strategies. An unattractive industry has low entry barriers, suppliers and buyers with strong bargaining positions, strong competitive threats from product substitutes, and intense rivalry among competitors. These industry characteristics make it difficult for firms to achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns. Alternatively, an attractive industry has high entry barriers, sup­ pliers and buyers with little bargaining power, few competitive threats from product sub­ stitutes, and relatively moderate rivalry.120 Next, we explain strategic groups as an aspect of industry competition.

2-6 Strategic Groups A set of firms emphasizing similar strategic dimensions and using a similar strategy is called a strategic group.121 The competition between firms within a strategic group is greater than the competition between a member of a strategic group and companies outside that strategic group. Therefore, intra-strategic group competition is more intense than is inter-strategic group competition. In fact, more heterogeneity is evident in the performance of firms within strategic groups than across the groups. The performance leaders within groups can follow strategies similar to those of other firms in the group and yet maintain strategic distinctiveness as a foundation for earning above-average returns. 122

The extent of technological leadership, product quality, pricing policies, distribu­ tion channels, and customer service are examples of strategic dimensions that firms in a strategic group may treat similarly. Thus, membership in a strategic group defines the essential characteristics of the firm's strategy.

The notion of strategic groups can be useful for analyzing an industry's compet­ itive structure. Such analyses can be helpful in diagnosing competition, positioning, and the profitability of firms competing within an industry. High mobility barriers, high rivalry, and low resources among the firms within an industry limit the formation of strategic groups.123 However, after strategic groups are formed, their membership

61

A set of firms emphasizing

similar strategic dimensions

and using a similar strategy is

called a strategic group.

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62 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Toys 'R' Us Exemplifies the Apocalypse in the Retail Industries

More than 10,000 stores closed in the United States in 2017.

The companies that have gone bankrupt or are in serious

financial trouble read like a list of Who's Who in retailing,

The ones that could default in the near term include Sears,

Neiman Marcus, Payless, J Crew, PetSmart, and Steak 'n Shake,

among others. But, perhaps the bankruptcy of Toys 'R' Us in

2018 caused the most angst among consumers because

they remember what it used to be and know what it could

have been.

Toys 'R' Us was a dominant retailer of toys that had devoted

customers and toy manufacturers. The stores had every con­

ceivable toy and became a 'one-stop-shopping destination'for

most parents. It also reached out to and fostered the devel­

opment of many small and medium sized toy manufacturers

who largely owed their existence to Toys 'R' Us. At one time it

was perhaps the most significant toy retailer in the world. As it

grew, many of its competitors went out of business. Yet, after

the founder stepped down from the CEO position, a succession

of CEOs became complacent Toys 'R' Us stopped analyzing its

competitors, didn't invest in and update its stores, and began

to lose the devotion of its customers. This made it vulnerable

to new competition. Essentially, by ignoring competition and

maintaining the status quo, it let competitors take advantage

by better serving its customer base.

Large retailers such as Walmart and Target began to grow

their toy sales and take market share away from Toys 'R' Us. And

then Internet sales began to take market share. To respond,

Toys 'R' Us signed an exclusive agreement to sell its toys over

the Internet with Amazon. The contract was expensive (about

$50 million annually), and Amazon did not only sell the toys

from Toys 'R' Us. In fact, Amazon created an Internet market­

place selling multiple brands' and companies' toys. As such, Toy

'R' Us paid Amazon to become a substantial competitor.

At the height of these problems, Toys 'R' Us was sold to pri­

vate equity investors who completed a leveraged buyout that

saddled the company with substantial debt With large debt

payments, fewer resources were available to invest in the stores

and to respond to competitors. Thus, in 2018 it filed for bank­

ruptcy, closing all of its stores.

The exit ofToys 'R' Us leaves its two biggest competitors,

Wal mart and Amazon, now locked in a rivalr y of their own.

Sources: H. Peterson, 2018, Retailers are filing for bankruptcy at a staggering

rate-and these 19 companies could be the next to default. Business Insider,

www.msn.com, March 18; 2018, Toys R Us built a kingdom and the world's

biggest toy store. Then, they lost it, MSN, www.msn.com, March 17; 2018,

Nostalgic shoppers shed tears over Toys 'R' Us demise, (NBC, wwwcnbc.com,

March 1 S; M. Corkery, 2018, Toys 'R' Us case is test of pri vate equity in age of

Amazon, New York Times, nyti.ms/2DvabVS, March 1 S; M. Boyle, K. Bhasin &

L. Rupp, 2018, Walmart-Amazon battle takes to Manhattan with dueling

showcases, Bloomberg, Bloomberg.com, February 28; K Taylor, 2017, Here are

the 18 biggest bankruptcies of the 'retail apocalypse' of 2017, Business Insider,

www.businessinsider.com, December 20.

remains relatively stable over time. Using strategic groups to understand an industry's competitive structure requires the firm to plot companies' competitive actions and responses along strategic dimensions, such as pricing decisions, product quality, distribu­ tion channels, and so forth. This type of analysis shows the firm how certain companies are competing similarly in terms of how they use similar strategic dimensions.

Strategic groups have several implications. First, because firms within a group offer similar products to the same customers, the competitive rivalry among them can be intense. The more intense the rivalry, the greater the threat to each firm's profitability. Second, the strengths of the five forces differ across strategic groups. Third, the closer

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

the strategic groups are in terms of their strategies, the greater is the likelihood of rivalry between the groups.

As explained in the Strategic Focus, there is a massive 'train wreck' occurring in the retail industries. Former stalwarts such as Sears, Macy's, JCPenney, and Toys 'R' Us are all failing, largely because they ignored competition and it eventually caught up to them. Although other rivals began to erode their market share, the current problem revolves around the formidable Amazon. Amazon has been winning competitive battles against these weakened retailers, and even against other more formidable rivals Google and Walmart. Toys 'R' Us sowed the seeds of its demise a number of years ago by ignoring its competition. It was dominant in its industry, and then focused on growing its store base while paying little or no attention to what new competitors were doing. In fact, unknow­ ingly it helped Amazon become a major competitor. The lesson in this for Amazon is that even highly successful firms must continuously analyze and understand their competitors if they are to maintain their current market leading positions. If Amazon continues to effectively analyze its competition across industries, the question becomes, can any of its rivals beat it?124

2-7 Competitor Analysis The competitor environment is the final part of the external environment requiring study. Competitor analysis focuses on each company against which a firm competes directly. The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo, Home Depot and Lowe's, Carrefour SA and Tesco PLC, and Amazon and Google are examples of competitors that are keenly interested in understanding each other's objectives, strategies, assumptions, and capabilities. Indeed, intense rivalry creates a strong need to understand competitors.125 In a competitor analy­ sis, the firm seeks to understand the following:

■ What drives the competitor, as shown by its future objectives. ■ What the competitor is doing and can do, as revealed by its current strategy. ■ What the competitor believes about the industry, as shown by its assumptions. ■ What the competitor's capabilities are, as shown by its strengths and weaknesses. 126

Knowledge about these four dimensions helps the firm prepare an anticipated response profile for each competitor (see Figure 2.3). The results of an effective com­ petitor analysis help a firm understand, interpret, and predict its competitors' actions and responses. Understanding competitors' actions and responses clearly contributes to the firm's ability to compete successfully within the industry.127 Interestingly, research suggests that executives often fail to analyze competitors' possible reactions to competi­ tive actions their firm takes,128 placing their firm at a potential competitive disadvantage as a result.

Critical to an effective competitor analysis is gathering data and information that can help the firm understand its competitors' intentions and the strategic implica­ tions resulting from them.129 Useful data and information combine to form competitor intelligence, which is the set of data and information the firm gathers to better under­ stand and anticipate competitors' objectives, strategies, assumptions, and capabilities. In competitor analysis, the firm gathers intelligence not only about its competitors, but also regarding public policies in countries around the world. Such intelligence facilitates an understanding of the strategic posture of foreign competitors. Through effective competitive and public policy intelligence, the firm gains the insights needed to make effective strategic decisions regarding how to compete against rivals.

When asked to describe competitive intelligence, phrases such as "competitive spy­ ing" and "corporate espionage" come to mind for some. These phrases underscore the fact

63

Competitor intelligence

is the set of data and

information the firm gathers

to better understand and

anticipate competitors'

objectives, strategies,

assumptions, and capabilities.

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64

Figure 2.3 Competitor Analysis Components

Future Objectives • How do our goals compare with our

competitors' goals? • Where will emphasis be placed in the

future? • What is the attitude toward risk?

Current Strategy • How are we currently competing? • Does their strategy support changes

in the competitive structure?

Assumptions • Do we assume the future will be volatile? • Are we operating under a status quo? • What assumptions do our competitors

hold about the industry and themselves?

-

Capabilities

• What are our strengths and weaknesses? • How do we rate compared to our

competitors?

--------

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Response

• What will our competitors do in the. . . - . . . future?

• Where do we hold an advantage over- ..... . . - . . . -. - . ... . . . - . our competitors? . • How will this change our relationship

with our competitors?. . . - .

that competitive intelligence appears to involve trade-offs.130 The reason for this is that "what is ethical in one country is different from what is ethical in other countries:' This position implies that the rules of engagement to follow when gathering competitive intel­ ligence change in different contexts. 131 To avoid the possibility of legal entanglements and ethical quandaries, firms must govern their competitive intelligence gathering methods by a strict set of legal and ethical guidelines. 132 Ethical behavior and actions, as well as the mandates of relevant laws and regulations, should be the foundation on which a firm's competitive intelligence-gathering process is formed.

When gathering competitive intelligence, a firm must also pay attention to the com­ plementors of its products and strategy.133 Complementors are companies or networks of companies that sell complementary goods or services that are compatible with the focal firm's good or service. When a complementor's good or service contributes to the func­ tionality of a focal firm's good or service, it in turn creates additional value for that firm.

Complementors are companies or networks

There are many examples of firms whose good or service complements other compa­ nies' offerings. For example, fums manufacturing affordable home photo printers com­ plement other companies' efforts to sell digital cameras. Intel and Microsoft are perhaps the most widely recognized complementors. The two firms do not directly buy from or sell to each other, but their products are highly complementary.

of companies that sell complementary goods or services that are compatible with the focal firm's good or service.

Alliances among airline companies such as Oneworld and Star involve member companies sharing their route structures and customer loyalty programs as a means

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

of complementing each other's operations. (Alliances and other cooperative strategies are described in Chapter 9.) In this example, each of the two alliances is a network of complementors. American Airlines, British Airways, Finnair, Japan Airlines, and Royal Jordanian are among the airlines forming the Oneworld alliance. Air Canada, Brussels Airlines, Croatia Airlines, Lufthansa, and United Airlines are five of the members form­ ing the Star alliance. Both alliances constantly adjust their members and services offered to better meet customers' needs.

As our discussion shows, complementors expand the set of competitors that firms must evaluate when completing a competitor analysis. In this sense, American Airlines and United Airlines examine each other both as direct competitors on multiple routes but also as complementors that are members of different alliances (Oneworld for American and Star for United). In all cases though, ethical commitments and actions should be the foundation on which competitor analyses are developed.

2-8 Ethical Considerations

Firms must follow relevant laws and regulations as well as carefully articulated eth­ ical guidelines when gathering competitor intelligence. Industry associations often develop lists of these practices that firms can adopt. Practices considered both legal and ethical include:

1. Obtaining publicly available information (e.g., court records, competitors' help­ wanted advertisements, annual reports, financial reports of publicly held corpora­ tions, and Uniform Commercial Code filings)

2. Attending trade fairs and shows to obtain competitors' brochures, view their exhibits, and listen to discussions about their products

In contrast, certain practices (including blackmail, trespassing, eavesdropping, and stealing drawings, samples, or documents) are widely viewed as unethical and often are illegal as well.

Some competitive intelligence practices may be legal, but a firm must decide whether they are also ethical, given the image it desires as a corporate citizen. Especially with electronic transmissions, the line between legal and ethical practices can be difficult to determine. For example, a firm may develop website addresses that are like those of its competitors and thus occasionally receive e-mail transmissions that were intended for those competitors. The practice is an example of the challenges companies face in deciding how to gather intelligence about competitors while simul­ taneously determining how to prevent competitors from learning too much about them. To deal with these challenges, firms should establish principles and take actions that are consistent with them.

Professional associations are available to firms as sources of information regard­ ing competitive intelligence practices. For example, while pursuing its mission to help firms make "better decisions through competitive intelligence;' the Strategy and Competitive Intelligence Professionals association offers codes of professional practice and ethics to firms for their possible use when deciding how to gather competitive intelligence.134

Open discussions of intelligence-gathering techniques can help a firm ensure that employees, customers, suppliers, and even potential competitors understand its convic­ tions to follow ethical practices when gathering intelligence about its competitors. An appropriate guideline for competitor intelligence practices is to respect the principles of common morality and the right of competitors not to reveal certain information about their products, operations, and intentions.

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65

66

SUMMARY

The firm's external environment is challenging and complex.

Because of its effect on performance, firms must develop the

skills required to identify opportunities and threats that are a

part of their external environment.

The external environment has three major parts:

1. The general environment (segments and elements in the

broader society that affect industries and the firms compet­

ing in them}

2. The industry environment (factors that influence a firm, its

competitive actions and responses, and the industry's prof­

itability potential)

3. The competitor environment (in which the firm analyzes

each major competitor's future objectives, current strate­

gies, assumptions, and capabilities)

Scanning, monitoring, forecasting, and assessing are the four

parts of the external environmental analysis process. Effectively

using this process helps the firm in its efforts to identify oppor­

tunities and threats.

The general environment has seven segments: demographic,

economic, political/legal, sociocultural, technological, global,

and sustainable physical. For each segment, firms have to

determine the strategic relevance of environmental changes

and trends.

KEY TERMS

competitor analysis 40

competitor intelligence 63

complementors 64

demographic segment 43

economic environment 46

general environment 39

global segment 50

industry 53

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is it important for a firm to study and understand the

external environment?

2. What are the differences between the general environment

and the industry environment? Why are these differences

important?

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Compared with the general environment, the industry envi­

ronment has a more direct effect on firms' competitive actions

and responses. The five forces model of competition includes

the threat of entry, the power of suppliers, the power of buyers,

product substitutes, and the intensity of rivalry among competi­

tors. By studying these forces, a firm can identify a position in an

industry where it can influence the forces in its favor or where it

can buffer itself from the power of the forces in order to achieve

strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns.

Industries are populated with different strategic groups. Astra­

tegic group is a collection of firms following similar strategies

along similar dimensions. Competitive rivalry is greater within

a strategic group than between strategic groups.

Competitor analysis informs the firm about the future objec­

tives, current strategies, assumptions, and capabilities of the

companies with which it competes directly. A thorough com­

petitor analysis examines complementors that support form­

ing and implementing rivals' strategies.

Different techniques are used to create competitor intelli­

gence: the set of data, information, and knowledge that allow

the firm to better understand its competitors and thereby

predict their likely competitive actions and responses. Firms

absolutely should use only legal and ethical practices to gather

intelligence. The Internet enhances firms' ability to gather

insights about competitors and their strategic intentions.

industry environment 39

opportunity 41

political/legal segment 47

sociocultural segment 48

strategic group 61

sustainable physical environment segment 51

threat 41

technological segment 49

3. What is the external environmental analysis process (four parts)?

What does the firm want to learn when using this process?

4. What are the seven segments of the general environment?

Explain the differences among them.

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Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis 67

5. How do the five forces of competition in an industry affect its

profitability potential? Explain.

6. What is a strategic group? Of what value is knowledge of the

firm's strategic group in formulating that firm's strategy?

Mini-Case

7. What is the importance of collecting and interpreting data and

information about competitors? What practices should a firm

use to gather competitor intelligence and why?

Watch Out All Retailers, Here Comes Amazon; Watch Out Amazon, Here Comes Other Competitors

Amazon's sales in 2014 were $88.99 billion, an increase of 19.4 percent over 2013. In fact, its sales in 2014 were a whopping 160 percent more than its sales in 2010, only four years prior. Amazon has been able to achieve remarkable gains in sales by providing high quality, rapid, and relatively inexpensive (relative to competitors) service. Amazon has taken on such formidable compet­ itors as Walmart, Google, and Barnes & Noble, among others, and has come out of it as a winner, particularly in the last 4-5 years.

Walmart has been emphasizing its online sales as well. In 2014, it grew online sales by about $3 billion, for a 30 percent increase. That seems like excellent prog­ ress, until one compares it to Amazon's sales increase in 2014 of about $14.5 billion. Much opportunity remains for both to improve as total 2014 online sales were $300 billion.

Google is clearly the giant search engine with 88 percent of the information search market. However, when consumers are shopping to purchase goods, Amazon is the leader. In the third quarter of 2014, 39 percent of online shoppers in the United States began their search on Amazon, compared to 11 per­ cent for Google. Interestingly, in 2009 the figures were 18 percent for Amazon and 24 percent for Google. So, Amazon appears to be winning this competitive battle with Google.

Barnes & Noble lost out to Google before by ignoring it as a threat. Today, B&N has re-established itself in market niches trying not to compete with Google. For example, its college division largely sells through college bookstores, which have a 'monopoly' location granted by the university. However, Amazon is now targeting the college market by developing agreements with universities to operate co-branded

websites to sell textbooks, university t-shirts, etc. Most of the students already shop on Amazon, mak­ ing the promotion easier to market to universities and to sell to students.

A few years ago, Amazon was referred to as the Walmart of the Internet. But, Amazon has diversified its product/service line much further than Walmart. For example, Amazon now competes against Netflix and other services providing video entertainment. In fact, Amazon won two Golden Globe Awards in 2015 for programs it produced. Amazon also markets high fashion clothing for men and women. Founder and CEO of Amazon, Jeff Bezos, stated that Amazon's goal is to become a $200 billion company, and to do that, the firm must learn how to sell clothes and food.

It appears that Amazon is beating all competitors, even formidable ones such as Google and Walmart. But, Amazon still needs to carefully watch its compe­ tition. A new company, Jet.com, is targeting Amazon. Jet.com was founded by Marc Lore, who founded the highly successful Diaper.com and a former competitor of Amazon, Quidsi. Amazon hurt Quidsi in a major price war and eventually acquired the company for $550 million. Lore worked for Amazon for two years thereafter but eventually quit to found Jet.com. Jet.com plans to market 10 million products and guarantee the lowest price. Its annual membership will be $50 com­ pared to Amazon Prime's cost of $99. Competing with Amazon represents a major challenge. However, Jet. com has raised about $240 million in venture fund­ ing with capital from such players as Bain Capital Ventures, Google Ventures, Goldman Sachs, and Norwest Venture partners. Its current market value is estimated to be $600 million. The future competition between the two companies should be interesting.

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68 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Sources: G. Bensniger, 2015, Amazon makes a push on college campuses, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, February l; K . Bhasin & L. Sherman, 2015, Amazon Coutre: Jeff Bezos wants to sell fancy clothes, Bloomberg, www.bloomberg.com, February 18; L. Dormehl, 2015, Amazon and Netflix score big at the Golden Globe, Fast Company, www.fastcomany.com, January 12; S. Soper, 2015, Amazon.com rival Jet.com raises $140 million in

new funding, Bloomberg, www.bloomberg.com, February 11; B. Stone, 2015, Amazon bought this man's company. Now he is corning for him, Bloomberg, www.bloornberg.com, January 7; M. Kwatinetz, 2014, In online sales, could Walmart ever top Amazon? Fortune, www.fortune.com, October 23; R. Winkler & A. Barr, 2014, Google shopping to counter Amazon, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, December 15.

Mini-Case Questions

1. Can any firm beat Amazon in the marketplace? If not, why not? 3. What are Amazon's major strengths? Does it have any weak­

nesses? Please explain.If so, how can they best do so?

2 How formidable a competitor is Google for Amazon? Please

explain.

4. Is Jet.com a potential concern for Amazon? Why or why not?

NOTES

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1he right 10 remove addi1ional con1en1 at any 1imc if subsequcn1 righ1s rcs1ric1ions require ii.

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

70 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

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disclosure, Strategic Management repositioning within strategic group Strategy Journal, 5: 48-68.

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L. Gelabert, & L. R. Gomez-Mejia, 2013, 406-435; J. Galbreath & P. Galvin, 2008, Firm 22%, BBC News Business, www.bbc.co.uk,

Necessity as the mother of'green' factors, industry structure and performance March 13. 105.

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environmental innovations, Strategic classic debate, Journal of Business Research, been so successful? Quora, www.quora

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Copyright 2020 Ccngagc Learning. All Rights Rescr\'cd. May not be copied. scanned. or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to clcc1ronic rights. some third party contclll may be suppressed from the cBook and/or cChap1cr(s).

Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

72 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

the rest of the industry struggles, this store 112. S. Chae, T. Y. Choi, & D. Hur, 2017, Buyer (doctoral dissertation, Harvard University);

has created the 'best business model in power and supplier relationship Porter, Competitive Strategy, 129.

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it, Business Insider, www.businessinsider theory perspective, Journal of Supply Chain 2017, Competition of a different

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104. T. Clauss, 2017, Measuring business model C. Blome, & D. A. Wuttke, 2017, The Dark shapes competition and cooperation,

innovation: Conceptualization, scale side of buyer power: Supplier exploitation Administrative Science Quarterly, 62:

development, and proof of performance, and the role of ethical climates, Journal of 626-656; S. Cheng & H. Chang, 2009,

R&D Management, 47: 385-403. Business Ethics, 140: 97-114; F. H. Liu, 2014, Performance implications of cognitive

105. Y. Pan, L. Teng, A. B. Su pa pol, X. Lu, OEM supplier impact on buyer competence complexity: An empirical study of cognitive

D. Huang, & Z. Wang, 2014, Firms; FDI development, Journal of Strategy and strategic groups in semiconductor industry,

ownership: The influence of government Management, 7: 2-18. Journal of Business Research, 62: 1311-1320.

ownership and legislative connections, 113. R. Yan & Z. Cao, 2017, Is brand alliance 123. B. P. S. Murthi, A. A. Rasheed, & I. Goll,

Journal of International Business, always beneficial to firms? Journal of 2013, An empirical analysis of strategic

45: 1029-1043; 2011, Airline deregulation, Retailing and Consumer Services, 34: groups in the airline industry using

revisited, Bloomberg Businessweek, www 193-200 . latent class regressions, Managerial and

. businessweek.com, January 21. 114. J. Luoma, S. Ruutu, A. W. King, & H. Decision Economics, 34(2): 59-73; J. Lee,

106. S. H. Ang, M. H. Benischke, & J. P. Doh, 2015, Tikkanen, 2017, Time delays, competitive K. Lee, & S. Rho, 2002, An evolutionary

The interactions of institutions on foreign interdependence, and firm performance, perspective on strategic group emergence:

market entry mode, Strategic Management Strategic Management Journal, 38: A genetic algorithm-based model, Strategic

Journal, 36: 1536-1553. 506-525; C. Giachetti & G. B. Dagnino, Management Journal, 23: 727-746.

107. T. Johnson, 2018, AT&T-Time Warner merger 2014, Detecting the relationship between 124. V. Govindarajan, 2018, Can anyone stop

approved, Variety, https://variety.com/2018 competitive intensity and firm product Amazon from winning the industrial

/biz/news/; N. Reiff, 2018, AT&T and Time line length: Evidence from the worldwide Internet? Harvard Business Review, hbr.org,

Warner merger case: What you need to mobile phone industry, Strategic February 3.

know, lnvestopedia, www.investopedia Management Journal, 35: 138-1409. 125 . K.-Y. Hsieh, W. Tsai, & M.-J. Chen, 2015, If

. com, March 19. 115. Y. Yi, Y. Li, M.A. Hitt, Y. Liu, & Z. Wei, 2016, they can do it, why not us? Competitors

108. J. Luoma, T. Falk, D. Totzek, H. Tikkanen, The Influence of resource bundling on the as reference points in justifying escalation

& A. Mrozek, 2018, Big splash, no waves? speed of strategic change: Moderating of commitment, Academy of Management

Cognitive mechanisms driving incumbent effects of relational capital, Asia Pacific Journal, 58: 38-58; T. Keil, T. Laarmanen,

firms' responses to low-price market Journal of Management, 33: 435-467; & R. G. McGrath, 2013, Is a counterattack

entry strategies, Strategic Management G. Pacheco-de-Almeida, A. Hawk, & B. Yeung, the best defense? Competitive dynamics

Journal, in press; N. Argyes, L. Bigelow, & 2015, The right speed and its value, Strategic through acquisitions, Long Range Planning,

J. A. Nickerson, 2015, Dominant designs, Management Journal, 36: 159-176. 46: 195-215.

innovation shocks and the follower's 116. B. Lovejoy, 2017, iPhone market share grows 126. Porter, Competitive Strategy, 49.

dilemma, Strategic Management Journal, 6.4% in USA, takes share from Android 127. Know thy enemy: A review and agenda

36: 216-234. in most markets, 9to5mac, 9t05mac.com, for research on competitor identification;

109. F. Reimann & D. J. Ketchen, 2017, Power January 11. R. L. Priem, S. Li, & J.C. Carr, 2012, Insights

in supply chain management, Journal 117. K. Bradsher, 2014, China's embrace of and new directions from demand-side

of Supply Chain Management, 53: 3-9; foreign cars, New York Times, www.nytimes. approaches to technology innovation,

J. B. Heide, A. Kumar, & K. H. Wathne, com, April 8; K. Bradsher, 2013, Chinese auto entrepreneurship, and strategic

2014, Concurrent sourcing, governance buyers grow hungry for larger cars, New management research, Journal of

mechanisms and performance outcomes York Times, www.nytimes.com, April 21. Management, 38: 346-374.

in industrial value chains, Strategic 118. 2018, Net profit of commercial airlines 128. D. E. Hughes, J. Le Bon, & A. Rapp, 2013.

Management Journal, 35: 1164-1185; worldwide from 2005 to 2018 (in billion U.S. Gaining and leveraging customer-based

L. Poppo & K. Z. Zhou, 2014, Managing dollars), Statista, www.statista.com, March competitive intelligence: The pivotal

contracts for fairness in buyer-supplier 30; H. Martin, 2014, Global airline industry role of social capital and salesperson

exchanges, Strategic Management Journal, expects record profits in 2014, Los Angeles adaptive selling skills, Journal of the

35: 1508-1527. Times, articles.latimes.com, February 9. Academy of Marketing Science, 41: 91-110;

110. M. J. Mol & C. Brewster, 2014, The 119. M.A. Hitt, D. Li, & K. Xu, 2016, International D. B. Montgomery, M. C. Moore, & J. E.

outsourcing strategy of local and Strategy: From local to global and beyond, Urbany, 2005, Reasoning about competitive

multinational firms: A supply base Journal of World Business, 51: 58-73; reactions: Evidence from executives,

perspective, Global Strategy Journal, A. Goerzen, C. G. Asmussen, & B. B. Nielsen, Marketing Science, 24: 138-149.

4: 20-34. 2013, Global cities and multinational 129. H. Akbar & N. Tzokas, 2012, An exploration

111. R. P. Brito & P. L. S. Miguel, 2017, Power, enterprise location strategy, Journal of of new product development's front-end

governance, and value in collaboration: International Business Studies, 44: 427-450. knowledge conceptualization process in

Differences between buyer and supplier 120. F. Bauer, M.A. Dao, K. Malzer, & S. Y. Tarba, discontinuous innovations, British Journal

perspectives, Journal of Supply Chain 2017, How Industry Lifecycle sets boundary of Management, 24: 245-263; K. Xu, S. Liao,

Management, 53: 61-87; L. Poppo, K. Z. conditions for M&A integration, Long Range J. Li, & Y. Song, 2011, Mining comparative

Zhou, & J. J. Li, 2016, When can you trust Planning, 50: 501-517; M. E. Porter, 1980, opinions from customer reviews for

"trust?" Calculative trust, relational trust Competitive Strategy, New York: Free Press. competitive intelligence, Decision Support

and supplier performance, Strategic 121. F. J. Mas-Ruiz, F. Ruiz-Moreno, & A. L. de Systems, 50: 743-754; S. Jain, 2008, Digital

Management Journal, 37: 724-741; J. Roloff, Guevara Martinez, 2014, Asymmetric rivalry piracy: A competitive analysis, Marketing

M. S. Af31ander, & D. Z. Nayir, 2015, The within and between strategic groups, Science, 27: 610-626.

supplier perspective: Forging strong Strategic Management Journal, 35: 419-439; 130. S. Wright, 2013, Converting input to

partnerships with buyers; Journal of M. S. Hunt, 1972, Competition in the major insight: Organising for intelligence-based

Business Strategy, 36(1): 25-32. home appliance industry, 1960-1970 competitive advantage. In S. Wright (ed.),

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 2: The External Environment: Opportunities, Threats, Industry Competition, and Competitor Analysis

Competitive Intelligence, Analysis and

Strategy: Creating Organisational Agility.

Abingdon: Routledge, 1-35; J. G. York,

2009, Pragmatic sustainability: Translating

environmental ethics into competitive

advantage, Journal of Business Ethics,

85: 97-109.

131. R. Huggins, 2010, Regional competitive

intelligence: Benchmarking and policy­

making. Regional Studies, 44: 639-658.

132. L. T. Tuan, 2013, Leading to learning

and competitive intelligence, The

Leaming Organization, 20: 216-239;

K. A. Sawka, 2008, The ethics of

competitive intelligence, Kiplinger

Business Resource Center Online, www

.kiplinger.com, March.

133. R. B. Bouncken & S. Kraus, 2013, Innovation

in knowledge-intensive industries: The

double-edged sword of coopetition,

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Journal of Business Research, 66: 2060-2070;

T. Mazzarol & S. Reboud, 2008, The role of

complementary actors in the development

of innovation in small firms, International

Journal of Innovation Management, 12:

223-253; A. Brandenburger & B. Nalebuff,

1996, Co-opetition, New York: Currency

Doubleday.

134. 2018, SCIP Code of ethics for Cl

professionals, www.scip.org, March 30.

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3

Studying this chapter should provide L you with the strategic management

knowledge needed to:

3-1 Explain why firms need to study and understand their internal organization.

3-2 Define value and discuss its importance.

3-3 Describe the differences between tangible and intangible resources.

3-4 Define capabilities and discuss their development.

3-5 Describe four criteria used to determine if resources and capabilities are core competencies. .

3-6 Explain how firms analyze their value chain to determine where they are able to create value when using their resources, capabilities, and core competencies.

3-7 Define outsourcing and discuss reasons for its use.

3-8 Discuss the importance of identifying internal strengths and weaknesses.

39 Describe the importance of , avoiding core rigidities.

( J Copyright 2020 Ccngagc Learning. All Righ1s Reserved. May not be copied. scanned. or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to elec1 c rights, some third party co Editorial review has deemed thai any suppressed contelll docs not materially affcc1 the overall learning experience. Cengage Leaming ·c s 1he right to remove addif

."ii '

C yright 2020 Ccngagc Leami All Rights Reserved.

Editoria view has deemed tha1 any s rcssed content does

L ARGE PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES, B IG DATA ANALYTICS, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND CORE COMPE TENCIES: A BRAVE NEW WORLD

To date, and perhaps surprisingly, the idea of using data strategically remains somewhat novel in some organizations. However, the reality of "big data" and "big data analytics" (which is "the process of examining big data to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, and other useful information that can be used to make better decisions") is becoming increasingly popular in business. Indeed, in the current competitive landscape, most businesses must use big data analytics (BDA) across all customer channels (mobile, Web, e-mail, and physical stores)

throughout their supply chain to help them become more innovative. This is the situation for large pharmaceutical companies (the firms often called "big

pharma") in that many have been working to develop a core competence in BDA. (We define and discuss core competencies in this chapter.) There are

several reasons they are doing this. In addition to the vast increases in the amounts of data that must be studied and interpreted for

competitive purposes, "health care reform and the changing landscape of health care delivery" systems throughout the world are influencing

these firms to think about developing BDA as a core competence.

Many benefits can accrue to big pharma firms that develop BDA

as a core competence. For example, having BDA as a core competence can help a firm quickly

Al can help analyze data on clinical trials, health records, genetic

profiles, and preclinical studies. China has a goal to become the world

leader in Al.

identify trial candidates and accelerate their recruitment, develop improved inclusion and exclusion criteria to use in clinical trials, and uncover unintended uses and indications for prod­

ucts. In terms of customer functionality, superior products can be provided at a faster pace as a foundation for helping patients live better and healthier lives.

In developing their BDA capabilities, many of the big pharma companies are investing in ar­ tificial intelligence (Al). Al provides the capability to analyze many different sets of information. For example, Al can help analyze data on clinical trials, health records, genetic profiles, and preclinical studies. Al can analyze and integrate these data to identify patterns in the data and

suggest hypotheses about relationships. A new drug generally requires a decade of research and $2.6 billion of investment. And only about 5 percent of the drugs that enter experimental research make it to the market and are successful. Eventually, it is expected that the use of Al could reduce the early research development time from 4-6 years to 1 year, not only greatly reducing the time of development but also the costs.

As we discuss in this chapter, capabilities are the foundation for developing core com­

petencies. There are several capabilities big pharma companies need for BDA to be a core competence. Supportive architecture, the proper mix of data scientists, and "technology that integrates and manages new types and sources of data flexibility and scalability while main­ taining the highest standards of data governance, data quality, and data security" are examples

76

of capabilities that big pharma need if they wish to develop BDA as a core competence. Of

course, using artificial intelligence provides strong support for the application of BDA.

Having a strong BDA competence could be critical for pharmaceutical firms in the future.

Most Chinese pharmaceutical firms are medium-sized and sell generic drugs and therapeutic

medicines, investing in R&D at only about 25% of the amount invested by big pharma in devel­

oped countries. However, China has a plan to develop large, competitive pharmaceutical firms

by 2025. In 2017, for example, China's second largest class of investments was biopharma.

Interestingly, the largest Chinese investment that year was in information systems, including Al.

China has a goal to become the world leader in Al.

In recent years, big pharma has been earning mediocre returns of about 3 percent ROI,

down from 10 percent a decade earlier. Thus, big pharma executives feel pressure especially

with the initial costs of developing BDA and Al. Hopefully, they soon will be able to reduce

their costs and experience higher rates of success in the development of new drugs. Until

then, however, analysts are predicting record numbers of mergers and acquisitions in the

pharmaceutical industry, with big pharma acquiring successful medium-sized pharmaceuticals

and biotechnology firms.

Sources: S. Mukherjee, 2018, How big pharma is using Al to make better drugs, Fortune, fortune.com, March 19: Z. Torrey, 2018, China prepares for big pharma, thediplomat.com, March 14; E. Corbett, 2018, European mid-sized pharma companies-biotechs and big pharma? The Pharmaletter, www.thepharmaletter.com, March 9; M. Jewel, 2018, Signs that 2018 will be a record year for pharma M&A, ThePharmaletter, www.thepharmaletter.com, March1; 8. Nelson, 2018, Why big pharma and biotech are betting big on Al, NBC News, www.nbc.news, March 1; Big data analytics: What it is & why it matters, 201 S, SAS, www .sas.com, April 2; Big data for the pharmaceutical industry, Informatica, www.informatica.com, March 17; B. Atkins, 201 S, Big data and the board, Wall Street Journal Online, www.wsj.com, April 16; S. F. DeAngelis, 2014, Pharmaceutical big data analytics promises a healthier future, Enterrasolutions, www.enterrasolutions.com, June 5; T. Wolfram, 2014, Data analytics has big pharma rethinking its core competencies, Forbes Online, www.forbes.com, December 22.

A s discussed in the first two chapters, several factors in the global economy, including the rapid development of the Internet's capabilities and globalization in general, are

making it difficult for firms to develop competitive advantages.' Increasingly, innovation appears to be a vital path to efforts to develop competitive advantages, particularly sus­ tainable ones.2 Innovative actions are required by big pharma companies, and they need to develop new drugs more quickly and at lower costs while improving the success of the drugs that they develop. As the Opening Case shows, they are trying to use artificial intelligence to help develop capabilities in big data analytics that hopefully can become a core competence.

As is the case for big pharma companies, innovation is critical to most firms' suc­ cess. This means that many firms seek to develop innovation as a core competence. We define and discuss core competencies in this chapter and explain how firms use their resources and capabilities to form them. As a core competence, innovation has long been critical to Boeing's success, too. Today, however, the firm is focusing on incre­ mental innovations as well as developing new technologies that are linked to major innovations and the projects they spawn, such as the 787 Dreamliner. The first delivery of the 787-10 Dreamliner was made to Singapore Airlines on March 26, 2018. Boeing believes its incremental innovations enable the firm to deliver reliable products to cus­ tomers more quickly and at a lower cost.3 As we discuss in this chapter, firms and organizations-such as those we mention here-achieve strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns by acquiring, bundling, and leveraging their resources for the purpose of taking advantage of opportunities in the external environment in ways that create value for customers.4

Even if the firm develops and manages resources in ways that create core compe­ tencies and competitive advantages, competitors will eventually learn how to duplicate the benefits of any firm's value-creating strategy; thus, all competitive advantages have

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

a limited life.5 Because of this, the question of duplication of a competitive advantage is not if it will happen, but when. In general, a competitive advantage's sustainability is a function of three factors:

1. The rate of core competence obsolescence because of environmental changes 2. The availability of substitutes for the core competence 3. The imitability of the core competence6

For all firms, the challenge is to effectively manage current core competencies while simultaneously developing new ones.7 Only when firms are able to do this can they expect to achieve strategic competitiveness, earn above-average returns, and remain ahead of competitors in both the short and long term.

We studied the general, industry, and competitor environments in Chapter 2. Armed with knowledge about the realities and conditions of their external environment, firms have a better understanding of marketplace opportunities and the characteristics of the competitive environment in which those opportunities exist. In this chapter, we focus on the firm. By analyzing its internal organization, a firm determines what it can do. Matching what a firm can do (a function of its resources, capabilities, and core competen­ cies in the internal organization) with what it might do (a function of opportunities and threats in the external environment) yields insights for the firm to select strategies from among those we discuss in Chapters 4 through 9.

We begin this chapter by briefly describing conditions associated with analyzing the firm's internal organization. We then discuss the roles of resources and capabilities in developing core competencies, which are the sources of the firm's competitive advantages. Included in this discussion are the techniques firms use to identify and evaluate resources and capabilities and the criteria for identifying core competencies from among them. Resources alone typically do not provide competitive advantages. Instead, resources cre­ ate value when the firm uses them to form capabilities, some of which become core competencies, and hopefully competitive advantages. Because of the relationship among resources, capabilities, and core competencies, we also discuss the value chain and exam­ ine four criteria that firms use to determine if their capabilities are core competencies and, as such, sources of competitive advantage.8 The chapter closes with comments about outsourcing as well as the need for firms to prevent their core competencies from becom­ ing core rigidities. The existence of core rigidities indicates that the firm is too anchored to its past, a situation that prevents it from continuously developing new capabilities and core competencies.

3-1 Analyzing the Internal Organization

3-1 a The Context of Internal Analysis One of the conditions associated with analyzing a firm's internal organization is the real­ ity that in today's global economy, some of the resources that were traditionally crit­ ical to firms' efforts to produce, sell, and distribute their goods or services-such as labor costs, access to financial resources and raw materials, and protected or regulated markets-although still important, are now less likely to be the source of competitive advantages.9 An important reason for this is that an increasing number of firms are using their resources to form core competencies through which they successfully implement an international strategy (discussed in Chapter 8) as a means of overcoming the advantages created by more traditional resources.

Given the increasing importance of the global economy, those analyzing their firm's internal organization should use a global mind-set to do so. A global mind-set is the

77

A global mind-set is the

ability to analyze, understand,

and manage an internal

organization in ways that

are not dependent on the

assumptions of a single

country, culture, or context.

Copyright 2020 Cengagc Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied. scanned, or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to clcc1ronic rights. some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

78

Value is measured by a product's performance characteristics and by its attributes for which customers are willing to pay.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

ability to analyze, understand, and manage an internal organization in ways that are not dependent on the assumptions of a single country, culture, or context.10 Because they are able to span artificial boundaries, those with a global mind-set recognize that their firms must possess resources and capabilities that allow understanding of and appropriate responses to competitive situations that are influenced by country-specific factors and unique cultures. Using a global mind-set to analyze the internal organization has the potential to significantly help the firm in its efforts to outperform rivals.11

Finally, analyzing the firm's internal organization requires that evaluators examine the firm's entire portfolio of resources and capabilities. This perspective suggests that individual firms possess at least some resources and capabilities that other companies do not-at least not in the same combination. Resources are the source of capabilities, some of which lead to the development of core competencies; in turn, some core competencies may lead to a competitive advantage for the firm.12 Understanding how to leverage the firm's unique bundle of resources and capabilities is a key outcome decision makers seek when analyzing the internal organization.13 Figure 3.1 illustrates the relationships among resources, capabilities, core competencies, and competitive advantages and shows how their integrated use can lead to strategic competitiveness. As we discuss next, firms use the resources in their internal organization to create value for customers.

3-1 b Creating Value

Firms use their resources as the foundation for producing goods or services that will create value for customers.14 Value is measured by a product's performance characteristics and by its attributes for which customers are willing to pay. Firms create value by innova­ tively bundling and leveraging their resources to form capabilities and core competencies.15 Firms with a competitive advantage create more value for customers than do competitors.16

Walmart uses its "every day low price" approach to doing business (an approach that is grounded in the firm's core competencies, such as information technology and distribution

Figure 3.1 Components of an Internal Analysis

Capabilities

Resources • Tangible • Intangible

Core Competencies

• Valuable • Rare • Costly to Imitate • Nonsubstitutable

• Outsource

Strategic Competi­ tiveness

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Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

channels) to create value for those seeking to buy products at a low price compared to competitors' prices for those products. The stronger these firms' core competencies, the greater the amount of value they're able to create for their customers.17

Ultimately, creating value for customers is the source of above-average returns for a firm. What the firm intends regarding value creation affects its choice of business-level strategy (see Chapter 4) and its organizational structure (see Chapter 11).18 In Chapter 4's discussion of business-level strategies, we note that value is created by a product's low cost, by its highly differentiated features, or by a combination of low cost and high differ­ entiation compared to competitors' offerings. A business-level strategy is effective only when it is grounded in exploiting the firm's capabilities and core competencies. Thus, the successful firm continuously examines the effectiveness of current capabilities and core competencies while thinking about the capabilities and competencies it will require for future success.19

At one time, firms' efforts to create value were largely oriented toward understand­ ing the characteristics of the industry in which they competed and, in light of those characteristics, determining how they should be positioned relative to competitors. This emphasis on industry characteristics and competitive strategy underestimated the role of the firm's resources and capabilities in developing core competencies as the source of competitive advantages. In fact, core competencies, in combination with product-market positions, are the firm's most important sources of competitive advantage.20 A firm's core competencies, integrated with an understanding of the results of studying the condi­ tions in the external environment, should drive the selection of strategies.21 As Clayton Christensen noted, "successful strategists need to cultivate a deep understanding of the processes of competition and progress and of the factors that undergird each advantage. Only thus will they be able to see when old advantages are poised to disappear and how new advantages can be built in their stead:'22 By emphasizing core competencies when selecting and implementing strategies, companies learn to compete primarily on the basis of firm-specific differences. However, while doing so they must be simultaneously aware of changes in the firm's external environment.23

3-1 c The Challenge of Analyzing the Internal Organization The strategic decisions managers make about the internal organization are nonrou­ tine,24 have ethical implications,25 and significantly influence the firm's ability to earn above-average returns. 26 These decisions involve choices about the resources the firm needs to collect and how to best manage and leverage them.

Making decisions involving the firm's assets-identifying, developing, deploying, and protecting resources, capabilities, and core competencies-may appear to be rel­ atively easy. However, this task is as challenging and difficult as any other with which managers are involved; moreover, the task is increasingly internationalized. 27 Some believe that the pressure on managers to pursue only decisions that help the firm meet anticipated quarterly earnings makes it difficult to accurately examine the firm's inter­ nal organization. 28

The challenge and difficulty of making effective decisions are implied by preliminary evidence suggesting that one-half of organizational decisions fail.29 Sometimes, mistakes are made as the firm analyzes conditions in its internal organization.30 Managers might, for example, think a capability is a core competence when it is not. This may have been the case at Polaroid Corporation, as decision makers continued to believe that the capa­ bilities it used to build its instant film cameras were highly relevant at the time its com­ petitors were preparing to introduce digital cameras. In this instance, Polaroid's decision makers may have concluded that superior manufacturing was a core competence, as was the firm's ability to innovate in terms of creating value-adding features for its instant

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Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

79

80

At one time, Polaroid's cameras created a

significant amount of value for customers.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

cameras. If a mistake is made when analyzing and managing a firm's resources, decision makers must have the confidence to admit it and take corrective actions.JI

A firm can improve by studying its mistakes; in fact, the learning generated by making and correcting mistakes can be important in the creation of new capabilities and core com­ petencies.J2 One capability that can be learned from failure is when to quit. Polaroid should have obviously changed its strategy earlier than it did, so it could have been able to avoid demise. Another potential example concerns News Corp:s Amplify unit (founded 2011), which was created to change the way children are taught. As of mid-2015, the firm had invested over $1 billion in the unit, which makes tablets, sells online curricula, and offers testing services. In 2014, Amplify generated a $193 million loss, facing competition from well-established textbook publishers enhancing their own ability to sell similar digital products. In September 2015, News Corp. decided to sell Amplify to a team of managers and private investors, incurring a significant loss.JJ

� � As we discuss next, three conditions-uncertainty, com-

I plexity, and intraorganizational conflict-affect managers as

i they analyze the internal organization and make decisions

·� about resources (see Figure 3.2). iii

i When studying the internal organization, managers face C!J

uncertainty because of a number of issues, including those

Poor decisions may have contributed to the firm's

subsequent inability to create value and its initial

filing for bankruptcy in 2001.

of new proprietary technologies, rapidly changing economic and political trends, transformations in societal values, and shifts in customers' demands.J4 Environmental uncertainty increases the complexity and range of issues to examine when studying the internal environment_Js Consider how uncertainty affects the ways to use resources at coal com - panies such as Peabody Energy Corp. and Murray Energy

Corp. Coal companies have been suffering in the last decade or more with significant regulations and the competition from cleaner forms of energy such as natural gas. They have been aided some by the reduction of regulations by the Trump administration, but the competition from cleaner and cheaper forms of energy remains. Thus, they still have to deal with a complex and uncertain environment.

Figure 3.2 Conditions Affecting Managerial Decisions about Resources, Capabilities,

and Core Competencies

Conditions

Uncertainty

Complexity

Uncertainty exists about the characteristics of

the firm's general and industry environments

and customers' needs.

Complexity results from the interrelationships

among conditions shaping a firm.

lntraorganizational Conflicts lntraorganizational conflicts may exist among

managers making decisions as well as among

those affected by the decisions.

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

Biases regarding how to cope with uncertainty affect decisions made about how to manage the firm's resources and capabilities to form core competencies. 3 6

Additionally, intraorganizational conflict may surface when decisions are made about the core competencies a firm should develop and nurture. Conflict might surface in the energy companies mentioned above about the degree to which resources and capabilities should be used to form new core competencies to support newer "clean technologies:'

In making decisions affected by these three conditions, judgment is required. Judgment is the capability of making successful decisions when no obviously correct model or rule is available or when relevant data are unreliable or incomplete. In such situations, decision makers must be aware of possible cognitive biases, such as over­ confidence. Individuals who are too confident in the decisions they make about how to use the firm's resources may fail to fully evaluate contingencies that could affect those decisions.37

When exercising judgment, decision makers often take intelligent risks. In the current competitive landscape, executive judgment can become a valuable capability. One reason is that, over time, effective judgment that decision makers demonstrate allows a firm to build a strong reputation and retain the loyalty of stakeholders whose support is linked to above-average returns. 38

Finding individuals who can make the most successful decisions about using the organization's resources is challenging, and important. The quality of decisions regarding resources and their management affect a firm's ability to achieve strategic competitive­ ness. Individuals holding such key decision-making positions are called strategic leaders. Discussed fully in Chapter 12 and for our purposes in this chapter, we can think of strate­ gic leaders as individuals with an ability to examine the firm's resources, capabilities, and core competencies and make effective choices about their use.

Next, we consider the relationships among a firm's resources, capabilities, and core competencies. While reading these sections, keep in mind that organizations have more resources than capabilities and more capabilities than core competencies.

3-2 Resources, Capabilities, and Core Competencies

Resources, capabilities, and core competencies are the foundation of competitive advan­ tage. Resources are bundled to create organizational capabilities. In turn, capabilities are the source of a firm's core competencies, which are the basis of establishing competitive advantages.39 We show these relationships in Figure 3.1 and discuss them next.

3-2a Resources

Broad in scope, resources cover a spectrum of individual, social, and organizational phe­ nomena. By themselves, resources do not allow firms to create value for customers as the foundation for earning above-average returns. Indeed, resources are combined to form capabilities. 4° For example, Subway links its fresh ingredients with several other resources, including the continuous training it provides to those running the firm's fast food restau­ rants, as the foundation for customer service as a capability; customer service is also a core competence for Subway.

As its sole distribution channel, the Internet is a resource for Amazon.com. The firm uses the Internet to sell goods at prices that typically are lower than those offered by competitors selling the same goods through more costly brick-and-mortar storefronts. By combining other resources (such as access to a wide product inventory), Amazon has

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81

82

Tangible resources are

assets that can be observed

and quantified.

Intangible resources

are assets that are rooted deeply in the firm's history,

accumulate over time, and

are relatively difficult for

competitors to analyze and

imitate.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

developed a reputation for excellent customer service. Amazon's capability in terms of customer service is a core competence as well in that the firm creates unique value for customers through the services it provides to them.

Some of a firm's resources (defined in Chapter 1 as inputs to the firm's production process) are tangible while others are intangible. Tangible resources are assets that can be observed and quantified. Production equipment, manufacturing facilities, dis­ tribution centers, and formal reporting structures are examples of tangible resources. For energy giant Kinder Morgan, its stock of oil and gas pipelines are a key tangible resource. Intangible resources are assets that are rooted deeply in the firm's history, accumulate over time, and are relatively difficult for competitors to analyze and imi­ tate. Because they are embedded in unique patterns of routines, intangible resources are difficult for competitors to analyze and imitate. Knowledge, trust between manag­ ers and employees, managerial capabilities, organizational routines (the unique ways people work together), scientific capabilities, the capacity for innovation, brand name, the firm's reputation for its goods or services and how it interacts with people (such as employees, customers, and suppliers), and organizational culture are intangible resources.41

Intangible resources require nurturing to maintain their ability to help firms engage in competitive battles. For example, brand has long been a valuable intangible resource for Coca-Cola Company. The same is true for"logo-laden British brand Superdry;' a case highlighted at the end of the chapter. As you will read, SuperGroup PLC, the owner of Superdry, encountered problems a few years ago in its efforts to maintain and enhance the value of the Superdry brand. New management and a new approach are attempting to renew the Superdry brand.42

As noted in the Strategic Focus, intangible resources may be even more important in the development of core competencies. Of course, three of the firms described in the Strategic Focus-Fainsbert Mase Brown & Susmann, Gen pact, and Document Security Systems-were service firms, which commonly base their core competencies on their human capital. However, even Hecla Mining Company, which has significant investments in specialized mining equipment, must also have valuable human capital for its core com­ petence in "high grade, narrow-vein underground mining:'

For each analysis, tangible and intangible resources are grouped into categories. The four primary categories of tangible resources are financial, organizational, physical, and technological (see Table 3.1). The three primary categories of intangible resources are human, innovation, and reputational (see Table 3.2).

Table 3.1 Tangible Resources

Financial Resources

Organizational Resources

Physical Resources

Technological Resources

The firm's capacity to borrow

The firm's ability to generate funds through internal operations

Formal reporting structures

The sophistication of a firm's plant and equipment and the

attractiveness of its location

Distribution facilities

Product inventory

Availability of technology-related resources such as copyrights,

patents, trademarks, and trade secrets

Sources: Adapted from J.B. Barney, 1991, Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage, Journal of Management, 17: 101;

R. M. Grant, 1991, Contemporary Strategy Analysis, Cambridge: U.K.: Blackwell Business, 100-102.

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organizat ion: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages 83

Tangible and Intangible Resources as the Base for Core Competencies

While tangible resources are important, intangible resources

are perhaps even more important in the development of firms'

core competencies. Understandably, most professional service

firms have few tangible resources but can have high market

value primarily because of their intangible resources. For exam­

ple, Fainsbert Mase Brown & Susmann, LLP is a premier law

firm located in Los Angeles, California. Obviously, its goal is to

provide superior legal services to its clients. Within this broad

frame, however, there is a core competence. The firm provides

legal advice and support on significant real estate, business,

and corporate transactions for large institutions, high net-worth

individuals, and privately owned businesses. For example,

in 2018 the firm provided the legal services to conclude the

negotiations for the Industrial Realty Group's purchase of the

3.1 million square foot IBM technology campus in Rochester,

Minnesota. This complex transaction required more than one

year to negotiate with a multi-level corporate legal team.

Likewise, other major service firms are heavily dependent

on their intangible assets. For example, Genpact requires

highly knowledgeable human capital for its core competence.

Genpact provides solutions to major process problems for

its clients. Genpact describes its competence as providing

"digital-led innovation and digitally enabled intelligent oper­

ations" for clients. The firm solves clients' problems using data

analytics, helping its clients transform their operations. Another

technology-based service firm is Document Security Systems,

Inc. (DSS). DSS has a core competence in the development of

anti-counterfeit, authentication, and diversion software that

protects organizations against Internet fraud and theft. And it

tries to remain a leader in this field through continued invest­

ment in research and new technology. In 2018, it announced

an agreement to partner with the Hong Kong R&D Center for

Logistics and Supply Chain to develop the next generation of

protection products using blockchain technology.

Firms with larger amounts of tangible resources also need

valuable intangible resources. For example, Hecla Mining

Company has a core competence in " high grade, narrow-vein

underground mining:'Obviously, the company has significant

investments in specialized mining equipment in order to

employ this core competence. But significant engineering and

mining knowledge and expertise is required to successfully

engage in this type of mining. This knowledge and expertise

resides in the human capital (intangible assets) within the firm.

It is important to note that firms' reputations are often

significant intangible assets. For example, professional

service firms must be considered not only highly knowl­

edgeable in the areas in which they compete, but also

must be considered honest and highly trustworthy. In

meeting this challenge, Genpact was selected as one of the

"World's Most Ethical Companies" in 2018. Companies can

also enhance intangible assets, such as their reputation,

through use of their core competencies. For example, in the

aftermath of Hurricane Harvey in 2017, Johnson & Johnson

provided medical supplies, FedEx provided logistical sup­

port to provide bottled water, and Butterball provided

40,000 pounds of canned turkey to help citizens in the

recover y. Companies that are ethical and good corporate

citizens often are highly respected and are called on to

use their core competencies to serve an increasing number

of customers.

Sources: Document Security Systems, Inc., 2018, DSS Partners with Hong Kong

R&D Centre for logistics and supply chain management enabling technologies

for blockchain research, globenewswire.com, March 19; Streetlnsider, 2018, Hecla

Mining (HL) Announces $462 million Acquisition of Klondes Mines, Ltd. (K), www

.streetinsider.com, March 19; Businessfnsider, 2018, Gen pact named one of the 2018

world's most ethical companies by the Ethisphere Institute, markets.businessinsider

.com, March14; Cision PR Newswire, 2018, Fainsbert Mase Brown & Sussmann, LLP

completes acquisition closing on 3.1 million sq. ft. IBM campus in Minnesota,

www.prnewswire, February 23; P. N. Danziger, 2018, Fire, fioods, hurricanes: How

and why corporations must help, Forbes, www.forbes.com, October 20.

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84

Table 3.2 Intangible Resources

Human Resources

Innovation Resources

Reputational Resources

Knowledge

Trust

Skills

Abilities to collaborate with others

• Ideas

• Scientific capabilities

• Capacity to innovate

Brand name

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Perceptions of product quality, durability, and reliability

Positive reputation with stakeholders such as suppliers and customers

Sources: Adapted from R. Hall, 1992, The strategic analysis of intangible resources, Strategic Management Journal, 13: 136-139:

R. M. Grant, 1991, Contemporary Strategy Analysis, Cambridge: U.K.: Blackwell Business, 101-104.

Tangible Resources As tangible resources, a firm's borrowing capacity and the status of its physical facilities are visible. The value of many tangible resources can be established through financial statements, but these statements do not account for the value of all of the firm's assets because they disregard some intangible resources.43 The value of tangible resources is also constrained because they are hard to leverage-it is difficult to derive additional business or value from a tangible resource. For example, an airplane is a tangible resource, but "you can't use the same airplane on five different routes at the same time. You can't put the same crew on five different routes at the same time. And the same goes for the financial investment you've made in the airplane:'44

Although production assets are tangible, many of the processes necessary to use them are intangible as in the case of Hecla Mining Company described in the Strategic Focus. Thus, the learning and potential proprietary processes associated with a tangible resource, such as manufacturing facilities, can have unique intangible attributes, such as quality control processes, unique manufacturing processes, and technologies that develop over time.45

Intangible Resources Compared to tangible resources, intangible resources are a superior source of capabilities and subsequently, core competencies.46 In fact, in the global economy, a firm's intellec­ tual capital often plays a more critical role in corporate success than do physical assets.47

Because of this, being able to effectively manage intellectual capital is an increasingly important skill for today's leaders to develop.48

Because intangible resources are less visible and more difficult for competitors to understand, purchase, imitate, or substitute for, firms prefer to rely on them rather than on tangible resources as the foundation for their capabilities. In fact, the more unob­ servable (i.e., intangible) a resource is, the more valuable that resource is to create capa­ bilities.49 Another benefit of intangible resources is that, unlike most tangible resources, their use can be leveraged. For instance, sharing knowledge among employees does not diminish its value for any one person. To the contrary, two people sharing their indi­ vidualized knowledge sets often can be leveraged to create additional knowledge that, although new to each individual, contributes potentially to performance improvements for the firm.

Reputational resources (see Table 3.2) are important sources of a firm's capabil­ ities and core competencies. Indeed, some argue that a positive reputation can even be a source of competitive advantage.50 Earned through the firm's actions as well as

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

its words, a value-creating reputation is a product of years of superior marketplace competence as perceived by stakeholders.51 A reputation indicates the level of aware­ ness a firm has been able to develop among stakeholders and the degree to which they hold the firm in high esteem. 52

A well-known and highly valued brand name is a specific reputational resource.53 A continuing commitment to innovation and aggressive advertising facilitates firms' efforts ;to take advantage of the reputation associ-

i ated with their brands.54 Harley-Davidson ;:; has a reputation for producing and servic- j ing high-quality motorcycles with unique 1iqdesigns. Because of the desirability of its rep- utation, the company also produces a wide range of accessory items that it sells based on its reputation for offering unique products with high quality. Sunglasses, jewelry, belts, wallets, shirts, slacks, and hats are just a few of the large variety of accessories customers

Developing capabilities in specific functional areas can give

companies a competitive edge. The effective use of social media to

direct advertising to specific market segments has given some firms

an advantage over their rivals.

can purchase from a Harley-Davidson dealer or from its online store.55 Taking advantage of today 's technologies, some firms are using social media as a

means of influencing their reputation. Recognizing that thousands of conversations occur daily throughout the world and that what is being said can affect its reputation, Coca-Cola company encourages its employees to be a part of these social media-based discussions as a means of positively influencing the company's reputation. Driving the nature of these conversations is a set of social media principles that Coca-Cola employ­ ees use as a foundation for how they will engage with various social media. Being transparent and protecting consumers' privacy are examples of the commitments the firm established. 56

3-2b Capabilities

The firm combines individual tangible and intangible resources to create capabilities. In turn, capabilities are used to complete the organizational tasks required to produce, distribute, and service the goods or services the firm provides to customers for the pur­ pose of creating value for them. As a foundation for building core competencies and hopefully competitive advantages, capabilities are often based on developing, carrying, and exchanging information and knowledge through the firm's human capital.57 Hence, the value of human capital in developing and using capabilities and, ultimately, core com­ petencies cannot be overstated.58 In fact, it seems to be " well known that human capital makes or breaks companies:' 59 At pizza-maker Domino's, human capital is critical to the firm's efforts to change how it competes. Describing this, CEO Patrick Doyle says that, in many ways, Domino's is becoming "a technology company ... that has adapted the art of pizza-making to the digital age:' 60

As illustrated in Table 3.3, capabilities are often developed in specific functional areas (such as manufacturing, R&D, and marketing) or in a part of a functional area (e.g., advertising). Table 3.3 shows a grouping of organizational functions and the capa­ bilities that some companies are thought to possess in terms of all or parts of those functions.

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85

86 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Table 3.3 Example of Firms' Capabilities

Functional Areas Capabilities Examples of Firms

Distribution

Human Resources

Management Information

Systems

Marketing

Management

Manufacturing

Research & Development

Effective use of logistics management techniques

Motivating, empowering, and retaining employees

Effective and efficient control of inventories through point­

of-purchase data collection methods

Effective promotion of brand-name products

Effective customer service

Innovative merchandising

• Ability to envision the future of clothing

Design and production skills yielding reliable products

Product and design quality

Miniaturization of components and products

Innovative technology

Development of sophisticated elevator control solutions

Rapid transformation of technology into new products and

processes

Digital technology

3-2c Core Competencies

Walmart

Microsoft

Walmart

Procter & Gamble

• Ralph Lauren Corp.

• McKinsey & Co.

• Nordstrom Inc.

• Crate & Barrel

Hugo Boss

Zara

• Komatsu

Witt Gas Technology

Sony

Caterpillar

Otis Elevator Co.

Chaparral Steel

Thomson Consumer Electronics

Defined in Chapter 1, core competencies are capabilities that serve as a source of com­ petitive advantage for a firm over its rivals. Core competencies distinguish a company competitively and reflect its personality. Core competencies emerge over time through an organizational process of accumulating and learning how to deploy different resources and capabilities.61 As the capacity to take action, core competencies are the "crown jewels of a company;' the activities the company performs especially well compared to compet­ itors and through which the furn adds unique value to the goods or services it sells to customers.62 Thus, if a big pharma company (such as Pfizer) developed big data analytics as a core competence, one could conclude that the firm had formed capabilities through which it was able to analyze and effectively use huge amounts of data in a competitively superior manner.

Innovation is thought to be a core competence at Apple. As a capability, R&D activi­ ties are the source of this core competence. More specifically, the way Apple has combined some of its tangible (e.g., financial resources and research laboratories) and intangible (e.g., scientists and engineers and organizational routines) resources to complete research and development tasks creates a capability in R&D. By emphasizing its R&D capability, Apple can innovate in ways that create unique value for customers in the form of the products it sells, suggesting that innovation is a core competence for Apple.

Excellent customer service in its retail stores is another of Apple's core competen­ cies. In this instance, unique and contemporary store designs (a tangible resource) are combined with knowledgeable and skilled employees (an intangible resource) to provide superior service to customers. A number of carefully developed training and development procedures are capabilities on which Apple's core competence of excellent customer service is based. The procedures that are capabilities include specification of how employees are to interact with customers, carefully written training manuals to

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

describe on-site tech support that is to be provided to customers, and deep thinking about every aspect of the store's design including music that is played. Apple has a spe­ cial training program designed to build associates' knowledge of Apple products and how to sell them.63

3-3 Building Core Competencies Two tools help firms identify their core competencies. The first consists of four specific criteria of sustainable competitive advantage that can be used to determine which capa­ bilities are core competencies. Because the capabilities shown in Table 3.3 have satisfied these four criteria, they are core competencies. T he second tool is the value chain analysis. Firms use this tool to select the value-creating competencies that should be maintained, upgraded, or developed and those that should be outsourced.

3-3a The Four Criteria of Sustainable Competitive Advantage

Capabilities that are valuable, rare, costly to imitate, and nonsubstitutable are core competencies (see Table 3.4). In turn, core competencies help firms to gain competitive advantages over their rivals. Capabilities failing to satisfy the four criteria are not core competencies, meaning that although every core competence is a capability, not every capability is a core competence. In slightly different words, for a capability to be a core competence, it must be valuable and unique from a customer's point of view. For a core competence to be a potential source of competitive advantage, it must be inimi­ table and nonsubstitutable by competitors.64

A sustainable competitive advantage exists only when competitors are unable to duplicate the benefits of a firm's strategy or when they lack the resources to attempt imitation. For some period of time, the firm may have a core competence by using capabilities that are valuable and rare, but imitable. For example, some firms are trying to develop a core competence and potentially, a competitive advantage by out-greening their competitors. (Interestingly, developing a "green" core competence can contribute to the firm's efforts to earn above-average returns while benefitting the broader society.) For many years, Walmart has been committed to using its resources in ways that sup­ port environmental sustainability while pursuing a competitive advantage in the pro­ cess. In this regard, Walmart has three major end goals: to create zero waste, operate with 100 percent renewable energy, and sell products that sustain our resources and the environment. To facilitate these efforts, Walmart recently labeled over 10,000 products on its e-commerce site as products that are "Made by a Sustainability Leader:' Initially, these items were batched into roughly 80 product categories. In addition to seeking

Table 3.4 The Four Criteria of Sustainable Competitive Advantage

Valuable Capabilities

Rare Capabilities

Costly-to-Imitate Capabilities

Nonsubstitutable Capabilities

Help a firm neutralize threats or exploit opportunities

Are not possessed by many others

Historical: A unique and a valuable organizational culture or

brand name

Ambiguous cause: The causes and uses of a competence are

unclear

Social complexity: Interpersonal relationships, trust, and

friendship among managers, suppliers, and customers

No strategic equivalent

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87

88

Valuable capabilities

allow the firm to exploit

opportunities or neutralize

threats in its external

environment.

Rare capabilities are

capabilities that few, if any,

competitors possess.

Costly-to-imitate

capabilities are capabilities

that other firms cannot easily

develop.

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

a competitive advantage through these actions, Walmart hoped to make it easier for customers to make "sustainable choices" when purchasing products. Walmart is also working to lead the industry in deploying clean technologies as a means of reducing fuel consumption and air pollution.65 Of course, Walmart competitors such as Target are engaging in similar actions. Time will reveal the degree to which Walmart's green practices can be imitated.

The length of time a firm can expect to create value by using its core competencies is a function of how quickly competitors can successfully imitate a good, service, or process. Value-creating core competencies may last for a relatively long period of time only when all four of the criteria we discuss next are satisfied. T hus, Walmart would know that it has a core competence and possibly, a competitive advantage in terms of green practices if the ways the firm uses its resources to complete these practices satisfy the four criteria.

Valuable Valuable capabilities allow the firm to exploit opportunities or neutralize threats in its external environment. By effectively using capabilities to exploit opportunities or neu­ tralize threats, a firm creates value for customers.66 For example, Groupon created the "daily deal" marketing space; the firm reached $1 billion in revenue faster than any other company in history. In essence, the opportunity Groupon's founders pursued was to cre­ ate a marketplace through which businesses could introduce their goods or services to customers who would be able to experience them at a discounted price. Restaurants, hair and nail salons, and hotels are examples of the types of companies making frequent use of Groupon's services. Young, urban professionals desiring to affordably experience the cities in which they live are the firm's target customers. But, Groupon's financial per­ formance has been lower than desired by investors primarily because of competition.67

W hile offering value to customers, the capabilities to offer its services can be imitated and its initial success invited rivals to enter the market. Competing daily-deal websites such as LivingSocial quickly surfaced and offered similar and often less expensive deals. In fact, many competitors have entered the market, to include Yipit, Woot, RetailMeNot, Tanga, and Ebate in addition to LivingSocial. 68

Rare Rare capabilities are capabilities that few, if any, competitors possess. A key question to be answered when evaluating this criterion is "how many rival firms possess these valuable capabilities?" Capabilities possessed by many rivals are unlikely to become core competencies for any of the involved firms. Instead, valuable but common (i.e., not rare) capabilities are sources of competitive parity.69 Competitive advantage results only when firms develop and exploit valuable capabilities that become core compe­ tencies and that differ from those shared with competitors. The central problem for Groupon is that its capabilities to produce the "daily deal" reached competitive parity quickly. Similarly, Walmart has developed valuable capabilities that it uses to engage in green practices; but, as mentioned previously, Target seeks to develop sustainability capabilities through which it can duplicate Walmart's green practices. Target's suc­ cess in doing so, if this happens, suggests that Walmart's green practices are valuable but not rare.

Costly to Imitate Costly-to-imitate capabilities are capabilities that other firms cannot easily develop. Capabilities that are costly to imitate are created because of one reason or a com­ bination of three reasons (see Table 3.4). First, a firm sometimes is able to develop

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

capabilities because of unique historical conditions. As firms evolve, they often acquire or develop capabilities that are unique to them. 70 A firm with a unique and valuable organizational cul ture that emerged in the early stages of the com­ pany's history "may have an imperfectly imitable advantage over firms founded in another historical period;' 71 one in which less valuable or less competitively useful values and beliefs strongly influenced the development of the firm's culture. Briefly discussed in Chapter l, organizational cul­ ture is a set of values that are shared by members in the organization. An organi­ zational culture is a source of advantage when employees are held together tightly by their belief in it and the leaders who helped to create it.72 Historically, empha­ sizing cleanliness, consistency, and service and the training that reinforces the value of these characteristics created a culture at

Southwest Airlines crew hold puppies who became homeless after

Hurricane Maria damaged the island of Puerto Rico. The flight,

which was donated by Southwest Airlines, carried 14,000 pounds

of supplies.

McDonald's that some thought was a core competence and a competitive advantage for the firm. However, as explained in Chapter 2's Opening Case, McDonald's has experi­ enced problems with a number of strategic actions taken by competitors. McDonald's hired a new CEO in 2015 and is now making a number of menu changes to make its food offerings healthier and more attractive overall to customers.73 McDonald's hopes these changes along with others will help it to reinvigorate its historically unique cul­ ture as a core competence.

A second condition of being costly to imitate occurs when the link between the firm's core competencies and its competitive advantage is causally ambiguous.74 In these instances, competitors can't clearly understand how a firm uses its capabilities that are core competencies as the foundation for competitive advantage. As a result, firms are uncertain about the capabilities they should develop to duplicate the benefits of a compet­ itor's value-creating strategy. For years, firms tried to imitate Southwest Airlines' low-cost strategy, but most have been unable to do so, primarily because they can't duplicate this firm's unique culture.

Social complexity is the third reason that capabilities can be costly to imitate. Social complexity means that at least some, and frequently many, of the firm's capabilities are the product of complex social phenomena. Interpersonal relationships, trust, friend­ ships among managers and between managers and employees, and a firm's reputation with suppliers and customers are examples of socially complex capabilities.75 Southwest Airlines is careful to hire people who fit with its culture. This complex interrelationship between the culture and human capital adds value in ways that other airlines cannot, such as jokes on flights by the flight attendants or the cooperation between gate per­ sonnel and pilots.

Nonsubstitutable

89

Nonsubstitutable capabilities are capabilities that do not have strategic equivalents. This final criterion "is that there must be no strategically equivalent valuable resources that are themselves either not rare or imitable. Two valuable firm resources ( or two bundles

Nonsubstitutable

capabilities are capabilities

that do not have strategic

equivalents.

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90 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Table 3.5 Outcomes from Combinations of the Criteria for Sustainable Competitive Advantage

Is the Capability Is the Capability Is the Capability Is the Capability Competitive Performance Valuable? Rare? Costly to Imitate? Nonsubstitutable? Consequences Implications

No No

Yes No

Yes Yes

Yes Yes

No No . Competitive Below-average

disadvantage returns

No Yes/no Competitive parity Average returns

No Yes/no . Temporary Average returns

competitive to above-average

advantage returns

Yes Yes/no Sustainable com- Above-average

petitive advantage returns

of firm resources) are strategically equivalent when they each can be separately exploited to implement the same strategies:'76 In general, the strategic value of capabilities increases as they become more difficult to substitute. The more intangible, and hence invisible, capabilities are, the more difficult it is for firms to find substitutes and the greater the challenge is to competitors trying to imitate a firm's value-creating strategy. Firm-specific knowledge and trust-based working relationships between managers and nonmanagerial personnel, such as has existed for years at Southwest Airlines, are examples of cap a - bilities that are difficult to identify and for which finding a substitute is challenging. However, causal ambiguity may make it difficult for the firm to learn and may stifle progress because the firm may not know how to improve processes that are not easily codified and thus are ambiguous.77

In summary, only using valuable, rare, costly-to-imitate, and nonsubstitutable capabilities has the potential for the firm to create sustainable competitive advantages. Table 3.5 shows the competitive consequences and performance implications resulting from combinations of the four criteria of sustainability. The analysis suggested by the table helps managers determine the strategic value of a firm's capabilities. The firm should not emphasize capabilities that fit the criteria described in the first row in the table (i.e., resources and capabilities that are neither valuable nor rare and that are imitable and for which strategic substitutes exist). Capabilities yielding competitive parity and either temporary or sustainable competitive advantage, however, should be supported. Some competitors such as Coca-Cola and PepsiCo and Boeing and Airbus may have capabilities that result in competitive parity. In such cases, the firms will nurture these capabilities while simultaneously trying to develop capabilities that can yield either a temporary or sustainable competitive advantage.78

3-3b Value Chain Analysis Value chain analysis allows the firm to understand the parts of its operations that cre­ ate value and those that do not.79 Understanding these issues is important because the firm earns above-average returns only when the value it creates is greater than the costs incurred to create that value.80

The value chain is a template that firms use to analyze their cost position and to identify the multiple means that can be used to facilitate implementation of a chosen strategy.81 Today's competitive landscape demands that firms examine their value chains in a global rather than a domestic-only context.82 In particular, activities associated with supply chains should be studied within a global context.83

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

Figure 3.3 A Model of the Value Chain

Support Functions

Finance

I Human Resources I

Management Information Systems

Supply-Chain ______.._ -----.,.. Operations Management

Value Chain Activities

--+ Distribution --+ Marketing (Including

Sales)

We show a model of the value chain in Figure 3.3. As depicted in the model, a firm's value chain is segmented into value chain activities and support functions. Value chain activities are activities or tasks the firm completes in order to produce products and then sell, distribute, and service those products in ways that create value for customers. Support functions include the activities or tasks the firm completes in order to support the work being done to produce, sell, distribute, and service the products the firm is producing. A firm can develop a capability and/or a core competence in any of the value chain activities and in any of the support functions. When it does so, it has established an ability to create value for customers. In fact, as shown in Figure 3.3, customers are the ones firms seek to serve when using value chain analysis to identify their capabilities and core competencies. When using their unique core competencies to create unique value for customers that competitors cannot duplicate, firms have established one or more competitive advantages.84 Deutsche Bank believes that its application development and information security technologies are proprietary core competencies that are a source of competitive differentiation for the firm.85 As explained in a Strategic Focus about out­ sourcing later in the chapter, Deutsche Bank will not outsource these two technologies given that the firm concentrates on them as a means of creating value for customers.

The activities associated with each part of the value chain are shown in Figure 3.4, while the activities that are part of the tasks firms complete when dealing with support functions appear in Figure 3.5. All items in both figures should be evaluated relative to competitors' capabilities and core competencies. To become a core competence and a source of competitive advantage, a capability must allow the firm to either:

1. Perform an activity in a manner that provides value superior to that provided by competitors, or

2. Perform a value-creating activity that competitors cannot perform.

Only under these conditions does a firm create value for customers and have oppor­ tunities to capture that value.

Customer Value

Follow-Up Service

Value chain activities

are activities or tasks the

91

firm completes in order to produce products and then sell, distribute, and service those products in ways that create value for customers.

Support functions include the activities or tasks the firm completes in order to support the work being done to produce, sell, distribute, and service the products the firm is producing.

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92 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

Figure 3.4 Creating Value through Value Chain Activities

Supply•Chain Management Follow-up Service

Activities including sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics management that are necessary for the firm to receive raw materials and convert them into final products.

Activities taken to increase a produ ct's value for customers. Surveys to receive feedback about the customer's satisfaction, offering technical support after the sale, and fully complying with a product's warranty are examples of these activities.

Operations

Distribution

Activities related to getting the final product to the customer. Efficiently handling customers' orders, choosing the optimal delivery channel, and working with the finance support function to arrange for customers' payments for delivered goods are examples of these activities.

1

Activities taken for the purpose of segmenting target customers on the basis of their unique needs, satisfying customers' needs, reta ining customers, and locating additional customers. Advertising campaigns, developing and managing product brands, determining appropriate pricing strategies, and training and supporting a sales force are specific examples of these

Activities necessary to efficiently change raw materials into finished products. Developing employees' work schedules, design ing producti on processes and physical layout of the operations' facil ities, determ ining production capacity needs, and selecting and ma inta ining producti on equipment are examples of specific operations activ ities.

activities.

Creating value for customers by completing activities that are part of the value chain often requires building effective alliances with suppliers (and sometimes others to which the firm outsources activities, as discussed in the next section) and devel­ oping strong positive relationships with customers. When firms have strong positive relationships with suppliers and customers, they are said to have social capital.B6 The relationships themselves have value because they lead to transfers of knowledge as well as to access to resources that a firm may not hold internally.B7 To build social capital whereby resources such as knowledge are transferred across organizations requires trust between partners. Indeed, partners must trust each other to allow their resources to be used in such a way that both parties will benefit over time while neither party will take advantage of the other.BB

Evaluating a firm's capability to execute its value chain activities and support func­ tions is challenging. Earlier in the chapter, we noted that identifying and assessing the value of a firm's resources and capabilities requires judgment. Judgment is equally nec­ essary when using value chain analysis, because no obviously correct model or rule is universally available to help in the process.

What should a firm do about value chain activities and support functions in which its resources and capabilities are not a source of core competence? Outsourcing is one solution to consider.

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

Figure 3.5 Creating Value through Support Functions

3-4

Finance

Activities associated with effectively acquring and managing financial resources. Securing adequate financial capital, investing in organizational functions in ways that will support the firm's efforts to produce and distribute its products in the short and long term, and managing relationships with those providing financial capital to the firm are specific examples of these activities.

Outsourcing

Human Resources

Activities associated with managing the firm's human capital. Selecting, training, retaining, and compensating human resources in ways that create a capability and hopefully a core competence are specific examples of these activities.

Management Information Systems

Activities taken to obtain and manage information and knowledge throughout the firm. Identifying and uti lizing sophisticated technologies, determining optimal ways to collect and distribute knowledge, and linking relevant information and knowledge to organizational functions are activities associated with this support function.

Concerned with how components, finished goods, or services will be obtained, outsourcing is the purchase of a value-creating activity or a support function activity from an external supplier. Not-for-profit agencies as well as for-profit organizations actively engage in outsourcing.89 Firms engaging in effective outsourcing increase their flexibility, mitigate risks, and reduce their capital investments.90 Moreover, in some industries virtually all firms seek the value that can be captured through effective out­ sourcing. However, as is the case with other strategic management process decisions, careful analysis is required before the firm decides to outsource.91 And if outsourcing is to be used, firms must recognize that only activities where they cannot create value or where they are at a substantial disadvantage compared to competitors should be outsourced.92 Experience suggests that virtually any activity associated with the value chain functions or the support functions may fall into this category. We discuss differ­ ent activities that some firms outsource in the Strategic Focus. We also consider core competencies that firms to whom others outsource activities may try to develop to satisfy customers' future outsourcing needs.

93

Outsourcing can be effective because few, if any, organizations possess the resources and capabilities required to achieve competitive superiority in each value chain activity and support function. For example, research suggests that few companies can afford to internally develop all the technologies that might lead to competitive advantage.93 By

Outsourcing is the purchase

of a value-creating activity or

a support function activity

from an external supplier.

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94 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

nurturing a smaller number of capabilities, a firm increases the probability of developing core competencies and achieving a competitive advantage because it does not become overextended. In addition, by outsourcing activities in which it lacks competence, the firm can fully concentrate on those areas in which it has the potential to create value.

There are concerns associated with outsourcing.94 Two significant ones are the poten­ tial loss in a firm's ability to innovate and the loss of jobs within the focal firm. W hen evaluating the possibility of outsourcing, firms should anticipate possible effects on their ability to innovate in the future as well as the impact of losing some of their human capital. On the other hand, firms are sometimes able to enhance their own innovation capabilities by studying how the companies to which they've outsourced complete those activities.95 Because a focal firm likely knows less about a foreign company to which it chooses to outsource, concerns about potential negative outsourcing effects in these cases may be particularly acute, requiring careful study and analysis as a result.96 Deciding to outsource to a foreign supplier is commonly called offshoring.

3-5 Competencies, Strengths, Weaknesses, and Strategic Decisions

By analyzing the internal organization, firms identify their strengths and weaknesses as reflected by their resources, capabilities, and core competencies. If a firm has weak capabilities or does not have core competencies in areas required to achieve a compet­ itive advantage, it must acquire those resources and build the needed capabilities and competencies.

As noted in the Strategic Focus, some firms decide to outsource a function or activity where it is weak in order to improve its ability to use its remaining resources to create value. Many financial institutions are outsourcing functions that support cashless trans­ action because their IT systems cannot handle these activities efficiently. Some govern­ ments are outsourcing services to increase the quality and efficiency with which the ser­ vices are delivered (e.g., U.K. outsourcing some surgeries to French healthcare providers). Outsourcing decisions must be made carefully, considering all of the options. However, when done effectively, outsourcing can provide access to needed resources.

In considering the results of examining the firm's internal organization, managers should understand that having a significant quantity of resources is not the same as hav­ ing the "right" resources. The "right" resources are those with the potential to be formed into core competencies as the foundation for creating value for customers and developing competitive advantages because of doing so. Interestingly, decision makers sometimes become more focused and productive when seeking to find the right resources when the firm's total set of resources is constrained.97

Tools such as outsourcing help the firm focus on its core competencies as the source of its competitive advantages. However, evidence shows that the value-creating ability of core competencies should never be taken for granted. Moreover, the ability of a core compe­ tence to be a permanent competitive advantage can't be assumed. The reason for these cau­ tions is that all core competencies have the potential to become core rigidities.98 Typically, events occurring in the firm's external environment create conditions through which core competencies can become core rigidities, generate inertia, and stifle innovation.99

After studying its external environment to determine what it might choose to do (as explained in Chapter 2) and its internal organization to understand what it can do (as explained in this chapter), the firm has the information required to select a business-level strategy that it will use to compete against rivals. We describe different business-level strategies in the next chapter.

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Chapter 3: The Internal Organizat ion: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages 95

The Extreme Specialization of Outsourcing: Who Is Doing It and Who Is Not?

Outsourcing activities and functions has been growing dramat­

ically over the last decade. With the election of Donald Trump,

companies in some industries-particularly manufacturing­

have reduced their outsourcing outside of the United States for

fear of government actions against them. However, outsourc­

ing remains strong in other sectors of the economy.

As we discussed in the Opening Case, big pharma com­

panies are using some of their resources and capabilities to

develop "big data analytics" as a core competence because of

the value of these analytics to these firms. In contrast, these

same firms are outsourcing drug safety processes and proce­

dures to other firms, many of which are located in India or have

offices located there. In fact, monitoring drug safety is "one of

outsourcing's newest frontiers, and the now $2 billion busi­

ness is booming as regulators require closer tracking of rare

side effects and interactions between medicines'.' Accenture,

Cognizant, and Tata Consultancy Services Ltd. are some of

the firms to which big pharma companies AstraZeneca PLC,

Nova rtis AG, and Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. are outsourcing the

monitoring of drug safety. Thus, the big pharma firms have

decided that data analytics processes are an activity in which

they can capture value while monitoring drug safety is not.

Similar examples exist within firms competing in other indus­

tries. Deutsche Bank has outsourced some data center services

to Hewlett-Packard; however, it is retaining control over certain

technology application areas it believes are proprietary and, as

such, are core competencies through which the firm creates value.

In fact, outsourcing information technology activities has been

growing in banking and the financial sector. This is due to the

rapid move to cashless transaction and mobile banking. Many of

the banks have "legacy" information technology systems that are

difficult to change over to handle these new functions. As such,

they are outsourcing many activities such as commercial credit

card payments to what is referred to as fintech firms. The number

of these specialized fintech firms is growing dramatically because

of the increasing amount of cashless transactions and the need for

help by banks and other financial institutions such as credit unions.

Interestingly, government has become a major outsourcer.

Governments are trying to outsource the provision of services

from government agencies to private and non-profit organizations

who can perform the services more efficiently and with higher

quality. In fact, even the British Health Service is outsourcing

some health services (e.g., surgeries) to healthcare organizations

in other European countries (e.g., France), trying to manage its

own backlog of requests for healthcare services.

Wipro and Infosys have historically been successful as firms

to whom others outsource activities. However, this success

has been largely a product of being able to employ relatively

inexpensive programmers to complete tasks lacking significant

amounts of complexity. The technology service needs have

become more sophisticated and challenging. And, with the

reductions of outsourcing in some sectors, some of these firms

are struggling. For example, Infosys and Cognizant have laid

off many employees in India and Infosys is trying to establish

operations in the United States.

Therefore, the nature of outsourcing is changing and firms

are becoming more specialized. Additionally, some industries are

outsourcing less (e.g., manufacturing) and others are outsourcing

more (financial institutions). Nevertheless, outsourcing remains a

critical means for firms to gain access to valuable resources that

they need to seize and maintain a competitive advantage.

Sources: R. Koczkar, 2018, Governmental outsourcing a boon for service providers,

The Australian, www.australian.com, March 22; K. Ferguson, 201 8, Why outsourcing

can leave a lasting mark on the US banking industry, Payments Journal, payments­

journal.com, March 23; A. Frazzetto, 2018, Outsourcing in the new normal: Three

trends reshaping the global industry, Forbes, www.forbes.com, March 21; K. de

Freytas-Tamura, 2018, U.K., Land of'brexit; quietly outsources some surgeries to

France, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, March 17; A. Jain, 2018, This global fin­

tech enabler has a strategy to enter India's crowded payment space, Entrepreneur,

www.entrepreneur.com, March 9; L. Joyce, 2018, Six Strategic keys to becoming

a mobile-centric bank, The Financial Brand, thefinancialbrand.com, March 6; 2015,

Deutsche Bank, H-P divide IT responsibility in cloud deal, Waif Street Journal Online,

www.wsj.com, February 25; D. A. Thoppil, 2015, Indian outsourcers struggle to

evolve as growth slows, Waif Street Journal Online, www.wsj.com, February 22; S

McLa in, 2015, Big Pharma farms out drug safety to India, Waif Street Journal Online,

www.wsj.com, February 2; S. McLain, 2015, New outsourcing frontier in India:

Monitoring drug safety, Waif Street Journal Online, www.wsj.com, February 1.

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96

SUMMARY

In the current competitive landscape, the most effective

organizations recognize that strategic competitiveness and

above-average returns result only when core competencies

(identified by studying the firm's internal organization) are

matched with opportunities (determined by studying the firm's

external environment).

No competitive advantage lasts forever. Over time, rivals use

their own unique resources, capabilities, and core compe­

tencies to form different value-creating propositions that

duplicate the focal firm's ability to create value for customers.

Because competitive advantages are not permanently sustain­

able, firms must exploit their current advantages while simul­

taneously using their resources and capabilities to form new

advantages that can lead to future competitive success.

Effectively managing core competencies requires careful anal­

ysis of the firm's resources (inputs to the production process)

and capabilities (resources that have been purposely inte­

grated to achieve a specific task or set of tasks). The knowledge

the firm's human capital possesses is among the most signifi­

cant of an organization's capabilities and ultimately provides

the base for most competitive advantages. The firm must

create an organizational culture that allows people to integrate

their individual knowledge with that held by others so that,

collectively, the firm has a significant amount of value-creating

organizational knowledge.

Capabilities are a more likely source of core competence and

subsequently of competitive advantages than are individual

resources. How a firm nurtures and supports its capabilities

KEY TERMS

costly-to-imitate capabilities 88

global mind-set 77

intangible resources 82

nonsubstitutable capabilities 89

outsourcing 93

rare capabilities 88

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is it important for a firm to study and understand its inter­

nal organization?

2. What is value? Why is it critical for the firm to create value?

How does it do so?

3. What are the differences between tangible and intangi­

ble resources? Why is it important for decision makers

Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

to become core competencies is less visible to rivals, making

efforts to understand and imitate the focal firm's capabilities

difficult.

Only when a capability is valuable, rare, costly to imitate, and

nonsubstitutable is it a core competence and a source of com­

petitive advantage. Over time, core competencies must be

supported, but they cannot be allowed to become core rigidi­

ties. Core competencies are a source of competitive advantage

only when they allow the firm to create value by exploiting

opportunities in its external environment. When this is no lon­

ger possible, the company shifts its attention to forming other

capabilities that satisfy the four criteria of sustainable compet­

itive advantage.

Value chain analysis is used to identify and evaluate the com­

petitive potential of resources and capabilities. By studying

their skills relative to those associated with value chain activ­

ities and support functions, firms can understand their cost

structure and identify the activities through which they are

able to create value.

When the firm cannot create value in either a value chain

activity or a support function, outsourcing is considered. Used

commonly in the global economy, outsourcing is the purchase

of a value-creating activity from an external supplier. The firm

should outsource only to companies possessing a competitive

advantage in terms of the particular value chain activity or

support function under consideration. In addition, the firm

must continuously verify that it is not outsourcing activities

through which it could create value.

support functions 91

tangible resources 82

valuable capabilities 88

value 78

value chain activities 91

to understand these differences? Are tangible resources

more valuable for creating capabilities than are intangible

resources, or is the reverse true? Why?

4. What are capabilities? How do firms create capabilities?

5. What four criteria must capabilities satisfy for them to

become core competencies? Why is it important for firms to

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Chapter 3:The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages 97

use these criteria to evaluate their capabilities' value-creating

potential?

6. What is value chain analysis? What does the firm gain by

successfully using this tool?

7. What is outsourcing? Why do firms outsource?

Mini-Case

8. How do firms identify internal strengths and weaknesses? Why

is it vital that managers have a clear understanding of their

firm's strengths and weaknesses?

9. What are core rigidities? What does it mean to say that each

core competence could become a core rigidity?

Is Strengthening the Superdry Brand a Foundation to Strategic Success?

British-based SuperGroup, owner of Superdry and its carefully banded product lines, is taking actions to deal with recent performance problems. These problems manifested themselves in various ways, including the need for the firm to issue three profit warnings in one six-month period and a 34 percent decline in the price of its stock in 2014 compared to 2013.

Founded in 1985, the firm is recognized as a dis­ tinctive, branded fashion retailer selling quality cloth­ ing and accessories. In fact, the firm says that "the Superdry brand is at the heart of the business." The brand is targeted to discerning customers who seek to purchase "stylish clothing that is uniquely designed and well made." In this sense, the company believes that its men's and women's products have "wide appeal, capturing elements of 'urban' and 'streetwear' designs with subtle combinations of vintage Americana, Japanese imagery, and British tailoring, all with strong attention to detail." Thus, the firm's brand is criti­ cal to the image it conveys with its historical target customer-teens and those in their early twenties. Those leading SuperGroup believe that customers love the Superdry products as well as the "theatre and per­ sonality" of the stores in which they are sold. These outcomes are important given the company's intention of providing customers with "personalized shopping experiences that enhance the brand rather than just selling clothes:'

As noted above, problems have affected the firm's performance. What the firm wants to do, of course, is correct the problems before the Superdry brand is damaged. Management turmoil is one of the firm's problems. In January of 2015, the CEO abruptly left. Almost simultaneously, the CFO was suspended for fil­ ing for personal bankruptcy, and the Chief Operating

Officer left to explore other options. Some analysts believe that the firm's growth had been ill-conceived, signaling the possibility of ineffective strategic deci­ sions on the part of the firm's upper-level leaders. As one analyst said: "The issue with SuperGroup is that they've expanded too quickly, without the supporting infrastructure:'

Efforts are now underway to address these problems. In particular, those now leading SuperGroup intend to better control the firm as a means of protecting the value of its brand. A new CEO has been appointed who believes that "the business is very much more in control" today than has been the case recently. A well-regarded interim CFO has been appointed, and the firm's board has been strengthened by added experienced individu­ als. Commenting about these changes, an observer said that SuperGroup has "moved from an owner-entrepre­ neurial style of management to a more professional and experienced type of management. The key thing is, it is much better now than it was:'

Direct actions are also being taken to enhance the Superdry brand. The appointment of Idris Elba, actor from The Wire, is seen as a major attempt to reig­ nite the brand's image. In fact, SuperGroup says that Elba epitomizes what the Superdry brand is-British, grounded, and cool. The thinking here, too, is that Elba, who at the time of his selection was 42, would appeal to the customer who was "growing up" with the Superdry brand. For these customers, who are 25 and older, SuperGroup is developing Superdry products with less dramatic presentations of the brand's well­ known large logos. Additional lines of clothing, for ski­ ing and rugby for example, are being developed for the more mature Superdry customer. After correcting the recently encountered problems, SuperGroup intends

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98 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

to expand into additional markets, including China. In every instance though, the firm will protect the brand when entering new competitive arenas and will rely on it as the foundation for intended success.

problems, Wall Street Journal Online, www.wsj.com, April 15; S. Chaudhuri, 2015, Superdry looks to U.S. to drive growth, Wall Street Journal Online, www.wsj.com, March 26; H. Mann, 2015, SuperGroup strategy oozes Hollywood glamour, Interactive Investor, www.iii.co.uk, March 26; A. Monaghan & S. Butler, 2015, Superdry signs up Idris

Sources: About SuperGroup, 2015, SuperGroupPLC.com, www.supergroup . co.uk, April 5; S. Chaudhuri, 2015, Superdry brand works to iron out

Elba, The Guardian Online, www.theguardian.com, March 26; A. Petroff, 2015, Is this the worst CFO ever? CNNMoney, www.money.cnn.com, February 25 .

Case Discussion Questions

1. What influences from the external environment over the next

several years do you think might affect SuperDry's ability to

compete?

3. Will the actions that Superdry is taking solve its problems?

Why or why not?

4. What value does Superdry create for its customers?

2. Does Superdry have one or more capabilities that are valuable,

rare, costly to imitate, and nonsubstitutable? If so, what are

they? If not, on which criteria do they fall short?

5. What actions would you recommend the management of

Superdry take to resolve its problems and turn around the

performance of the firm?

NOTES

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves 1he right to remove additional con1en1 at any time if subsequent rights res1rictions require it.

Chapter 3:The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages 99

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

100 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

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Chapter 3:The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

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102 Part 1: Strategic Management Inputs

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 3:The Internal Organization: Resources, Capabilities, Core Competencies, and Competitive Advantages

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4

Studying this chapter should provide you with the strategic management

knowledge needed to:

Discuss the relationship between customers and business-level strategies in terms of who, what, and how.

4-2 Explain the purpose of forming and implementing a business-level strategy.

4-3 Describe business models and explain their relationship with business-level strategies.

4-4 Explain the differences among five types of business-level strategies.

45

4-6

Use the five forces of competition model to explain how firms can earn above-average returns when using each business-level strategy.

Discuss the risks associated with using each of the business-level strategies.

L

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C yright 2020 Ccngagc

Editoria view has deemed thar

DIGITAL: AN INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF

STRATEGY CHOICE AND STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION

"The pace of change is faster and more relentless, the level of uncertainty higher and the degree of complexity greater than it has even been:' In the first three chapters and in other parts of the book as well, we discuss the influence of these realities on today's firms and their stakeholders. These realities challenge each type of strategy (business-level, corporate-level, merger and acquisition, international, and cooperative) a firm may choose to implement.

Each type of strategy a firm chooses to implement helps it deal with the competitive reali­ ties mentioned above. Defined in Chapter 1 as an integrated and coordinated set of commit­ ments and actions designed to exploit core competencies and gain a competitive advantage, strategy helps companies in their efforts to change quickly and effectively and reduce the levels of uncertainty and complexity in their external environment (see Chapter 2) and internal environment (see Chapter 3). In this sense, when involved with strategy, leaders and those with whom they work seek to set a firm's direction, sequence how the firm will allocate and as necessary reallocate resources, and commit to creating a cer- tain type of value for a certain type of customer. Business-level strategy, this chapter's topic, finds a firm choosing a strategy to use to gain a competitive ad­ vantage by exploiting its core competencies within one or � more specific product markets. o:

f � Innovation is a key part o -, firms' efforts to achieve success [ with their strategies. In turn,

}information and technologies "' play vital roles in innovation- B related projects and activities. This means that firms need to have a digital strategy as part of what they do to implement each type of business-level strategy. Those committed to

Netflix uses data analytics to identify behavioral patterns

among its customers. This data gives Netflix the ability to

recommend shows and movies tailored to each individual

users' preferences.

having a digital strategy believe that the world's competitive environments are increasingly information intensive and interconnected.

In essence, a digital strategy"is the application of information and technology to raise hu­ man performance:' Increasing human performance is important in that, as noted in Chapters 1 and 3, human capital is one of the most significant competitive advantages a firm can develop. Thus, a digital strategy has the potential to help the firm develop a competitive advantage­ human capital-as it seeks to implement its business-level strategy. People engaged with dig­ ital activities within a company help the firm become more agile and more capable of dealing with competitive challenges more quickly and effectively.

Digital principles-principles that redefine company imperatives around customers, growth, efficiency, and innovation-are the basis of an effective digital strategy. Using digitally based technologies and tools such as data analytics (which is the gathering and interpreting of data to identify behavioral patterns among customers for the purpose of serving customers' needs better during future transactions), a firm's digital strategy finds it (1) concentrating on outcomes customers repeatedly notice, value, and choose; (2) using information and technologies to de­ rive more output from each unit of input; and (3) seeking to learn how to do new things in new ways as a means of enhancing the functionality of products it creates for customers.

Leaders committed to the importance of developing a digital strategy are foundational to a firm's efforts to develop such a strategy. Working with others, these leaders make choices about

106

A business-level

strategy is an integrated

and coordinated set of

commitments and actions

the firm uses to gain a

competitive advantage by

exploiting core competencies

in a specific product market.

how to form an effective data analytics function, determine the degree to which cloud computing

(which is the sharing of resources, software, and information via an Internet-based network) ben­

efits the firm's digital strategy, and predict the future with the type of clarity that allows the firm

to recognize what could be a viable competitive position for it in the years to come.

Sources: 2018, 5 key technology trends for 2018, Cincinnati Business Courier, www.bizjournals.com, March 7; 2018, Data analytics, Techopedia, www.techopedia.com, March 9; J. Ferguson & N. Anderson, 2018, How to build a digital strategy, World Economic Forum, www.weforum.org, January 1 O; K. Tama-Rutgliano, 2018, Mapping out your digital marketing strategy for 2018, Forbes, www.forbes.com, January 2; A. Bollard, E. Larrea, A. Singla, & R. Sood, 2017, The next-generation operating model for the digital world, McKinsey & Company, www.mckinsey.com, March; T. Oliveria, M. Alhinho, R. Rita, & G. Dhillon, 2017, Modelling and testing consumer trust dimensions in e-commerce, Computers in Human Behavior, 71: 153-164; M. McDonald, 2016, Becoming a truly digital organization, Accenture, www.accenture.com, March 31; M. McDonald, 201 5, What is digital strategy? Accenture, www.accenture.com, March 3.

I ncreasingly important to firm success, strategy is concerned with making choices among two or more alternatives.' We noted in Chapter 1 that the choice of a strategy indicates a

firm's decision to pursue one course of action instead of others. Opportunities and threats in the external environment influence the choices the firm makes2 (see Chapter 2) as do the nature and quality of the resources, capabilities, and core competencies in the firm's internal organization3 (see Chapter 3).

As discussed in the Opening Case, information and the technologies available to gather and analyze it are at the core of a firm's effort to form a digital strategy. Used to facilitate the selection and implementation of the firm's strategy or strategies, a digital strategy helps a firm concentrate on understanding its customers and their needs with greater clarity as a foundation for being able to develop innovations that create more value for those customers.4 Integrating information and technologies has the potential to help employees increase their effectiveness and efficiency, possibly resulting in a compet­ itive advantage for the firm in the form of its human capital. Astute firms recognize that information and technologies to manage it can inform determining what customers the firm will seek to serve as well as the strategy it will use to do so.

In previous chapters, we described how firms study conditions in their external envi­ ronment and the resources, capabilities, and core competencies that are part of their internal environment. Studying these environments is the first step in the strategic man­ agement process.

This chapter is the first one to deal with "strategy" directly, which is the second part of the strategic management process as explained in Chapter 1. By selecting and implement­ ing one or more strategies (see Figure 1.1), firms seek to gain strategic competitiveness and earn above-average returns.5 Strategies are purposeful, develop before firms engage rivals in marketplace competitions, and demonstrate a shared understanding of the firm's vision and mission.6 A strategy that is consistent with the conditions and realities of a firm's external and internal environments marshals, integrates, and allocates available resources, capabilities, and competencies to align them properly with opportunities in the external environment. When effective, a strategy also rationalizes the firm's vision and mission along with the actions taken to achieve them. In the final analysis, sound strate­ gic choices that reduce uncertainty regarding outcomes are the foundation for building successful strategies.

Business-level strategy, this chapter's focus, indicates the choices the firm has made about how it intends to compete in individual product markets. Business-level strategy is an integrated and coordinated set of commitments and actions the firm uses to gain a competitive advantage by exploiting core competencies in a specific product market.7

The choices are important because the firm's strategies influence its performance, cer­ tainly its long-term performance. Given the complexity of competing successfully in

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

the global economy, the choices about how the firm will compete are challenging. As explained later in a Strategic Focus, this is the case for Macy's as it seeks to find ways to implement its business-level strategy of differentiation with greater effectiveness.

Every firm must develop and implement a business-level strategy. However, some firms may not use all the strategies-corporate-level, merger and acquisition, interna­ tional, and cooperative-we examine in Chapters 6 through 9. A firm competing in a single-product market in a single geographic location does not need a corporate-level strategy regarding product diversity or an international strategy to deal with geographic diversity. In contrast, a diversified firm will use one of the corporate-level strategies as well as a separate business-level strategy for each product market in which it competes. Every firm-ranging from the local dry cleaner to the multinational corporation-must develop and use at least one business-level strategy. Thus, business-level strategy is the core strategy-the strategy that the firm forms to describe how it intends to compete against rivals on a day-to-day basis in its chosen product market.8

We discuss several topics to examine business-level strategies. Customers are the foundation of successful business-level strategies; firms must continue creating value for their customers if they are to retain them. 9 Because of this reality, we present information about customers that is relevant to business-level strategies. In terms of customers, when selecting a business-level strategy, the firm determines

1. who will be served, 2. what needs those target customers have that it will satisfy, and 3. how those needs will be satisfied.

Selecting customers and deciding which of their needs the firm will try to satisfy, as well as how it will do so, are challenging tasks. Competition across the globe cre­ ates attractive options for customers. Because of this, individual firms must identify and implement a specific strategy that will best meet their target customers' needs.10 Effective global competitors have become adept at identifying the needs of customers in different cultures and geographic regions as well as learning how to respond to changes in their needs.

Prior to describing the purpose of business-level strategies, and of the five business­ level strategies, we define business models and explain their relationship with strate­ gies, particularly business-level strategies. The five business-level strategies we then consider are generic in nature in that any organization competing in any industry can use any of them.11 Our analysis describes how effective use of each strategy allows the firm to position itself favorably relative to an industry's five competitive forces (see Chapter 2). In addition, we use the value chain (see Chapter 3) to present exam­ ples of the primary and support activities that are necessary to implement specific business-level strategies. Because no strategy is risk-free,12 we describe the different risks the firm may encounter when using these strategies. In Chapter 11, we explain the organizational structures and controls linked with the successful use of each business-level strategy.

4-1 Customers: Their Relationship with Business-Level Strategies

Strategic competitiveness results only when the firm satisfies a group of customers by using its competitive advantages as the basis for competing in individual product mar­ kets.13 A key reason firms must satisfy customers with their business-level strategy is that returns earned from relationships with customers are the lifeblood of all organizations.14

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107

108 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

The most successful companies try to find new ways to satisfy current customers and/ or to meet the needs of new customers. Being able to do this can be even more difficult when firms and consumers face challenging economic conditions. During such times, firms may decide to reduce their workforce to control costs. This can lead to problems, however, because having fewer employees makes it more difficult for companies to meet individual customers' needs and expectations. In these instances, firms can follow several possible courses of action, such as paying extra attention to their best customers and developing a flexible workforce by cross- training employees so they can undertake a variety of responsibilities on their jobs.

4-1 a Effectively Managing Relationships with Customers Firms strengthen their relationships with customers by delivering superior value to them. Strong interactive relationships with customers often provide the foundation for the firm to earn profits because of how well they serve customers' unique needs.

Importantly, delivering superior value often results in increased customer satisfac­ tion. In turn, customer satisfaction has a positive relationship with profitability because satisfied customers are more likely to be repeat customers. However, a wide variety of choices and easily accessible information about the functionality of firms' products create increasingly sophisticated and knowledgeable customers, making it difficult for com­ panies to earn their loyalty. As such, many firms interact regularly with customers to co-create value that, in turn, results in satisfied customers.15

A number of companies have become skilled at the art of managing all aspects of their relationship with their customers.16 For example, competitors and others admire Amazon for the quality of information it maintains about its customers, the services it renders, and its ability to anticipate customers' needs. Using the information it has, Amazon tries to serve what it believes are the unique needs of each customer. To date, the firm has maintained a strong reputation for being able to do this.17

Next, we discuss three dimensions that characterize firms' relationships with custom­ ers. Successful companies understand these dimensions and manage their relationships with customers in light of them.

4-1 b Reach, Richness, and Affiliation The reach dimension of relationships with customers revolves around the firm's access and connection to customers. In general, firms seek to extend their reach, adding cus­ tomers in the process of doing so.

Reach is an especially critical dimension for social networking sites such as Facebook in that the value these firms create for users is to connect them with others. The number of Facebook users is increasing dramatically; access to a large number of users influences a social networking site's efforts to be successful. As of the end of January of 2018, there were close to 1.9 billion monthly active users, making Facebook the world's most popular social networking site.18 Obviously, Facebook's reach increases opportunities for the firm to create value for those using its site.

Reach is also important to Netflix Inc. The firm acquired two million subscribers more than Wall Street analysts anticipated during the final three months of 2017. These results drove Netflix's market capitalization to more than $100 billion for the first time.19

Overall, 2017 was a year in which the firm's international "subscriber base increased at a rapid pace once again, while domestic subscriber base growth stabilized in the low double

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

digits:' 20 Analysts and firm personnel expected subscriber growth in both domestic and international markets for Netflix in 2018 and beyond, suggesting that Netflix would gain all-important access to still additional customers.

Richness, the second dimension of firms' relationships with customers, con­ cerns the depth and detail of the two-way flow of information between the firm and customers. The potential of the richness dimension to help the firm establish a competitive advantage in its relationship with customers leads many firms to offer online services as a means of superior management of information exchanges with them. Broader and deeper information-based exchanges allow firms to improve their understanding of customers and their needs. Such exchanges also enable customers to become more knowledgeable about how the firm can satisfy them. Internet tech­ nology and e-commerce transactions, which are part of a firm's digital strategy, have substantially reduced the costs of meaningful information exchanges with current and potential customers.

As we have noted, Amazon is a leader in using the Internet to build relationships with customers. In fact, Amazon's mission is "to be the Earth's most customer-centric company."21 Operationally, this means that Amazon seeks "to build a place where peo­ ple can come to find and discover anything they might want to buy."22 Amazon and other firms committed to the importance of richness use information from customers to help them develop innovative new products that provide superior satisfaction of customers' needs. 23

Affiliation, the third dimension, is concerned with facilitating useful interactions with customers. Viewing the world through the customer's eyes and constantly seeking ways to create more value for the customer have positive effects in terms of affiliation. This approach enhances customer satisfaction and has the potential to result in fewer customer complaints. This is important in that for services, for example, customers often do not complain when dissatisfied; instead, they simply go to competitors for their service needs, although a firm's strong brand can mitigate the switching. 24 To enhance their affiliation with customers, some companies now have a position called "Chief Customer Officer:' Those appointed to this position previously carried the title of "Chief Marketing Officer." This is the case for Tesco, the largest retail grocer in the United Kingdom. To further interact with some of its customers, Walmart now delivers groceries to those who order items online and then come to the store to receive their items from an employee who brings them to their vehicle. The firm is also testing deliv­ ering food to customers' refrigerators. Demonstrating potentially positive outcomes from further affiliation with customers is the view of Walmart officials who believe that "the 'high touch' approach of online grocery ordering is improving people's opinion of the shopping experience at its stores, making them more likely to purchase general merchandise in addition to food:' 25 Likewise, because of data available through digiti­ zation, firms have a tremendous amount of individual customer data.26 Analyzing data about customers allows firms to find additional ways to affiliate with them through value-creating interactions.

As we discuss next, managing customer relationships effectively (along the dimen­ sions of reach, richness, and affiliation) helps the firm answer questions related to the issues of who, what, and how.

4-1 c Who: Determining the Customers to Serve

Deciding who the target customer is that the firm intends to serve with its business-level strategy is an important decision. 27 Companies divide customers into groups based on

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109

110

Market segmentation

is the process of dividing

customers into groups based

on their needs.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

differences in customers' needs (needs are discussed further in the next section) to make this decision. Market segmentation is the process of dividing customers into groups based on their needs.28 Market segmentation is a process used to cluster customers with similar needs into individual and identifiable groups. In the animal food products busi­ ness, for example, the food-product needs of owners of companion pets (e.g., dogs and cats) differ from the needs for food and health-related products of those owning pro­ duction animals (e.g., livestock). Hill's Pet Nutrition, which is a subsidiary of Colgate­ Palmolive Company, sells food products for pets. The firm's vision is to "make nutrition a cornerstone of veterinary medicine" while its mission is "to help enrich and lengthen the special relationships between people and their pets:' 29 Hill's categorizes its food products for cats as pets into four market segments: kitten, adult (one year-plus), mature (seven years plus), and senior (11 years plus). The food products the firm produces and sells dif­ fer based on the veterinary-determined needs of each segment of pet cats.

Firms can use almost any identifiable human or organizational characteristic to subdivide a market into segments that differ from one another on a given characteristic. In Table 4.1, we show common characteristics on which customers' needs vary.

4-1 d What: Determining Which Customer Needs to Satisfy After the firm decides who it will serve, it must identify the targeted customer group's needs that its products can satisfy. In a general sense, needs (what) are related to a prod­ uct's benefits and features. Successful firms learn how to deliver to customers what they want, when they want it. For example, a number of global automobile manufacturers are attempting to build an affordable electric car for consumers in emerging economies.30 In general, emerging markets are ones in which customers have little money to spend to buy a vehicle; in addition, the vehicle must be able to navigate roads that are part of underde­ veloped infrastructures.

In the case of these automobile manufacturers-and for all firms competing in all industries-having close and frequent interactions with both current and potential customers helps them identify individuals' and groups' current and future needs. For example, knowledge gained about purchasing practices is facilitating efforts by Kroger, the largest grocery store chain in the United States, to enhance its understanding of customers' needs. Using data analytics, Kroger relies on current purchases to support

Table 4.1 Basis for Customer Segmentation

Consumer Markets

1. Demographic factors (age, income, sex, etc.)

2. Socioeconomic factors (social class, stage in the family life cycle)

3. Geographic factors (cultural, regional, and national differences)

4. Psychological factors (lifestyle, personality traits)

5. Consumption patterns (heavy, moderate, and light users)

6. Perceptual factors (benefit segmentation, perceptual mapping)

Industrial Markets

1. End-use segments (identified by Standard Industrial Classification [SIC) code)

2. Product segments (based on technological differences or production economics)

3. Geographic segments (defined by boundaries between countries or by regional differences

within them)

4. Common buying factor segments (cut across product market and geographic segments)

5. Customer size segments

Source: Based on information in S. C. Jain, 2009, Marketing Planning and Strategy, Mason, OH: South-Western (engage

Custom Publishing.

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

related sales. "If a customer is buying baby food regularly, a coupon may be generated (for the customer) for baby diapers or other baby products:' In this manner, Kroger is simulta­ neously able to satisfy customers' needs better and increase its sales revenues. Essentially then, the firm's digital strategy finds it using information and technology to develop its promotion and marketing strategies.31 From a strategic perspective, a basic need of all customers is to buy products that create value for them. The generalized forms of value that products provide are either low cost with acceptable features or highly differentiated features with acceptable cost. The most effective firms strive continuously to anticipate changes in customers' needs. The firm that fails to anticipate and certainly to recognize changes in its customers' needs may lose them to competitors whose products provide more value. Successful firms recognize that consumer needs change. For example, recent trends suggest that additional numbers of consumers desire to have an experience instead of simply purchasing a product. Starbucks is an example of a firm seeking to provide cus­ tomers with an experience, not just a cup of coffee or a food item. Customers also prefer to buy customized products. Again, Starbucks has been doing this for some time, allowing customers to design their own drinks from a multitude of choices.

4-1 e How: Determining Core Competencies Necessary to Satisfy Customer Needs

After deciding who the firm will serve and the specific needs those customers have, the firm is prepared to determine how to use its resources, capabilities, and competencies to develop products that can satisfy its target customers' needs. As explained in Chapters 1 and 3, core competencies are resources and capabilities that serve as a source of compet­ itive advantage for the firm over its rivals. Firms use core competencies (how) to imple­ ment value-creating strategies, thereby satisfying customers' needs. Only those firms with the capacity to improve consistently, innovate, and upgrade their competencies can meet and exceed customers' expectations across time.32 By continuously upgrading their competencies, firms are able to maintain an advantage over their rivals by provid­ ing customers with products that create value that exceeds the value created for them by competitors' offerings. 33

Companies draw from a wide range of core competencies to produce products that satisfy customers' needs. In today's competitive environment and across industries, devel­ oping a core competence in the R&D function is critical. Apple, Amazon, Facebook, and Google recognize this reality and invest significant resources to deal with it. Recently, for example, Apple increased its spending on R&D by 30 percent, bringing that total to 5 percent of sales revenue. At the same time, Facebook was allocating 13.4 percent of rev­ enue to R&D, Google spent 16.6 of its revenue on R&D, and Amazon increased its R&D expenditure by 28 percent. These commitments to R&D are in part to shape that function so that it is a core competence for each firm and a path through which the companies can produce and sell innovative products.34

SAS Institute Inc. is the world's largest privately owned software company and is the leader in business intelligence and analytics. Customers use SAS programs for data warehousing, data mining, and decision support purposes. SAS's mission is to "deliver proven solutions that drive innovation and improve performance:' Thus, this firm seeks to help its customers in their efforts to innovate and improve their performance as a result. To reach its mission, SAS itself must be innovative as it develops new products. Supporting SAS's commitment to innovation is its allocation of 26 percent of its sales revenue to R&D in 2017 (up from 23 percent just a few years ago). The firm's reach is extensive in that 96 of the top 100 companies on the 2017 Fortune Global 500 list were SAS customers. The firm's total customer base includes over 83,000 businesses, univer­ sities, and governmental agencies.35

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111

112 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Our discussion about customers shows that all organizations must use their capabil­ ities and core competencies (the how) to satisfy the needs (the what) of the target group of customers ( the who) the firm has chosen to serve.

4-2 The Purpose of a Business-Level Strategy

The purpose of a business-level strategy is to create differences between the firm's posi­ tion and those of its competitors.36 To position itself differently from competitors, a firm must decide if it intends to perform activities differently or if it will perform different activities. Strategy defines the path that provides the direction of actions organizational leaders take to help their firm achieve success.37 In fact, "choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than rivals" is the essence of a business-level strategy.38 Thus, the firm's business-level strategy is a deliberate choice about how it will perform the value chain's primary and support activities to create unique value. Indeed, in the current complex competitive landscape, successful use of a business-level strategy results from the firm learning how to integrate the activities it performs in ways that cre­ ate superior value for customers.

The manner in which Southwest Airlines Co. has integrated its activities is the foun­ dation for the firm's ability to use the cost leadership strategy successfully (we discuss this strategy later in the chapter). However, as required by the cost leadership strat­ egy, Southwest Airlines also provides customers with a set of features they find to be acceptable along with a low cost for its services. The tight integration among Southwest's activities is a key source of the firm's ability, historically, to operate more profitably than do its primary competitors. Today, Southwest flies more passengers in the United States than any other airline.39

Southwest Airlines has configured the activities it performs into six areas of strategic intent-limited passenger service; frequent, reliable departures; lean, highly productive ground and gate crews; high aircraft utilization with few aircraft models; very low ticket prices; and short-haul, point-to-point routes between mid-sized cities and secondary air­ ports. Individual clusters of tightly linked activities enhance the likelihood the firm will execute its cost leadership strategy successfully. For example, no meals, no seat assign­ ments, and no baggage transfers form a cluster of individual activities that support the objective of offering limited passenger service.

Southwest's tightly integrated activities make it difficult for competitors to imitate the firm's cost leadership strategy. The firm's unique culture and customer service are sources of competitive advantage that rivals have been unable to imitate, although some tried and failed (e.g., US Airways' MetroJet subsidiary, United Airlines' Shuttle by United, Delta's Song, and Continental Airlines' Continental Lite). Hindsight shows that these competi­ tors offered low prices to customers, but weren't able to operate at costs close to those of Southwest or to provide customers with any notable sources of differentiation, such as a unique experience while in the air. The key to Southwest's success has been its ability to maintain low costs across time while providing customers with acceptable levels of differentiation such as an engaging culture. Firms using the cost leadership strategy must understand that in terms of sources of differentiation accompanying the cost leader's product, the customer defines acceptable. Fit among activities is a key to the sustainability of competitive advantage for all firms, including Southwest Airlines. Strategic fit among the many activities is critical for competitive advantage. It is more difficult for a compet­ itor to match a configuration of integrated activities than to imitate a particular activity such as sales promotion, or a process technology.40

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

Next, we discuss business models, which are part of a comprehensive business-level strategy.41 W hile business models inform the development and use of the other types of strategies a firm may choose to implement, their primary use is with business-level strategies. The reason for this is that as noted previously in this chapter, a business-level strategy is the firm's core strategy-the one the firm forms to describe how it intends to compete against rivals on a day-to-day basis in its chosen product market. As part of a firm's business-level strategy, the chosen business model influences the implementa­ tion of strategy, especially in terms of the interdependent processes the firm uses during implementation.42 Developing and integrating a business model and a business-level strategy increases the likelihood of company success.43 We use a discussion of business models and their relationship with strategy as a foundation for then describing five types of business-level strategies firms may choose to implement.

4-3 Business Models and their Relationship with Business-Level Strategies

As is the case with strategy, there are multiple definitions of a business model.44 The consensus across these definitions is that a business model describes what a firm does to create, deliver, and capture value for its stakeholders.45 As explained in Chapter 1, stakeholders value related yet different outcomes. For example, for shareholders, the firm captures and distributes value to them in the form of a return on their investment. For customers, the firm creates and delivers value in the form of a product featuring the combination of price and features for which they are willing to pay. For employees, the firm creates and delivers value in the form of a job about which they are passionate as well as through which they have opportunities to develop their skills by participating in continuous learning experiences. In a sense then, a business model is a framework for how the firm will create, deliver, and capture value while a business-level strategy is the set of commitments and actions that yields the path a firm intends to follow to gain a competitive advantage by exploiting its core competencies in a specific product market. Understanding customers in terms of who, what, and how is foundational to developing and using successfully both a business model and a business-level strategy. 46

Regardless of the business model chosen, those leading a company should view that selection as one that will require adjustment in response to conditions that change from time to time in the firm's external environment (e.g., an opportunity to enter a new region surfaces) and its internal environment (e.g., the development of new capabilities).47

Particularly because it is involved primarily with implementing a business-level strategy, the operational mechanics of a business model should change given the realities a firm encounters while engaging rivals in marketplace competitions.

There is an array of different business models, from which firms select one to use.48

A franchise business model, for example, finds a firm licensing its trademark and the processes it follows to create and deliver a product to franchisees. In this instance, the firm franchising its trademark and processes captures value by receiving fees and royalty payments from its franchisees.

McDonald's and Panera Bread both use the franchise business model. McDonald's uses the model as part of its cost leadership strategy while Panera Bread uses it to imple­ ment a differentiation strategy (we discuss both strategies in detail in the next major section). McDonald's' cost leadership strategy finds it using processes detailed in its fran­ chise business model to deliver food items to its customers that are offered at a low price but with acceptable levels of differentiation. Customers receive acceptable levels of differ­ entiation in terms of taste quality, service quality, the cleanliness of the firm's units, and

113

A business model describes

what a firm does to create,

deliver, and capture value for

its stakeholders.

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114 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

the value the customers believe they receive when buying McDonald's food.49 (Additional information about McDonald's and its cost leadership strategy appear later in the chapter in a Strategic Focus.)

Panera Bread also uses a franchise business model, but its model differs from the McDonald's franchise business model. One difference is that a person can purchase a single McDonald's unit. This is not the case for Panera Bread: "Panera Bread does not sell single-unit franchises, so it is not possible to open just one bakery-cafe. Rather, we have chosen to develop by selling market areas which require the franchise developer to open a number of units, typically 15 bakery-cafes in a period of 6 years:' 50 Operating in the fast-casual part of the restaurant industry (McDonald's operates in the fast food part of the industry), Panera implements the differentiation strategy to provide customers "with good food ( that) they can feel good about:' 51 Through the differentiation strategy, Pan era uses a carefully designed set of processes to offer differentiated food items in a differen­ tiated setting to provide customers with value for which they are willing to pay and at a cost that is acceptable to them. Thus, while McDonald's and Panera Bread use the same business model, the franchising business model these firms use differ in actions the firms take to implement different business-level strategies.

As mentioned, there are multiple kinds of business models, such as the subscription model. In this instance, the business model finds a firm offering a product to customers on a regular basis such as once-per-month, once-per-year, or upon demand. Netflix uses a subscription business model as does Blue Apron, a firm founded on the belief that the way food is grown and distributed is complicated, making it difficult for families to make "good" choices about what they eat. Blue Apron delivers food directly to cons um - ers, eliminating the "middleman" by doing so. The firm partners with farmers who are committed to sustainable production processes "to raise the highest-quality ingredients:' Thus, Blue Apron combines the differentiation strategy with a subscription model to create, deliver, and capture value for the stakeholders (e.g., customers, suppliers, employees, and local communities) with whom the firm interacts while implementing its business-level strategy. 52 Other business models that also support the use of any of the five generic busi­ ness-level strategies we discuss next include the following: (1) a freemium model (here the firm provides a basic product to customers for free and earns revenues and profits by selling a premium version of the service-examples include Drop box and Mail Chimp); (2) an advertising model (where for a fee, firms provide advertisers with high-quality access to their target customers-Google and Pinterest are examples of firms using this business model); and (3) a peer-to-peer model (where a business matches those wanting a particular service with those providing that service-two examples are Task Rabbit and Airbnb).

4-4 Types of Business-Level Strategies Firms choose between five business-level strategies to establish and defend their desired strategic position against competitors: cost leadership, differentiation, focused cost leader­ ship, focused differentiation, and integrated cost leadership/differentiation (see Figure 4.1). Each business-level strategy can help the firm establish and exploit a competitive advantage (either lowest cost or distinctiveness) as the basis for how it will create value for customers within a particular competitive scope (broad market or narrow market). How firms inte­ grate the activities they complete within each business level strategy demonstrates how they differ from one another. 53 For example, firms have different activity maps, and thus, a Southwest Airlines activity map differs from those of competitors JetBlue, United Airlines, American Airlines, and so forth. Superior integration of activities increases the

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

Figure 4.1 Five Business-Level Strategies

Target Market

Broad Market

Narrow Market

Segment(s)

Basis for Customer Value

Lowest Cost

Cost Leadership

Focused Cost Leadership

Distinctiveness

Differentiation

Focused Differentiation

Source: Based on M. E. Porter, 1998, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press;

D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, & R. D. Ireland, 2007, Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside

the black box, Academy of Management Review, 32: 273-292; D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, R. D. Ireland, & B. A. Gilbert, 2011, Resource

orchestration to create competitive advantage: Breadth, depth and life cycles effects, Journal of Management, 37: 1390-1412.

likelihood a firm will develop an advantage relative to competitors as a path to earning above-average returns.

When selecting a business-level strategy, firms evaluate two types of potential com­ petitive advantages: "lower cost than rivals or the ability to differentiate and command a premium price that exceeds the extra cost of doing so:' 54 Lower costs result from the firm's ability to perform activities differently than rivals; being able to differentiate indicates the firm's capacity to perform different (and valuable) activities. Thus, based on the nature and quality of its internal resources, capabilities, and core competencies, a firm seeks to form either a cost competitive advantage or a distinctiveness competitive advantage as the basis for implementing its business-level strategy.55

Two types of target markets are broad market and narrow market segment(s) (see Figure 4.1). Firms serving a broad market seek to use their capabilities to create value for customers on an industry-wide basis. A narrow market segment means that the firm intends to serve the needs of a narrow customer group. With focus strategies, the firm "selects a segment or group of segments in the industry and tailors its strategy to serving them to the exclusion of others."56 Buyers with special needs and buyers located in specific geographic regions are examples of narrow customer groups. As shown in Figure 4.1, a firm could also strive to develop a combined low cost/distinctiveness value creation approach as the foundation for serving a target customer group that is larger than a narrow market segment but not as comprehensive as a broad (or industry-wide) customer group. In this instance, the firm uses the integrated cost leadership/differen­ tiation strategy.

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115

116

The cost leadership

strategy is an integrated set

of actions taken to produce

products with features that

are acceptable to customers

at the lowest cost, relative to

that of competitors.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

None of the five business-level strategies shown in Figure 4.1 is inherently or uni­ versally superior to the others. The effectiveness of each strategy is contingent on the opportunities and threats in a firm's external environment and the strengths and weak­ nesses derived from its resource portfolio. It is critical, therefore, for the firm to select a business-level strategy that represents an effective match between the opportunities and threats in its external environment and the strengths of its internal organization based on its core competencies. After the firm chooses its strategy, it should consistently emphasize actions that are required to implement it successfully.

4-4a Cost Leadership Strategy The cost leadership strategy is an integrated set of actions taken to produce products with features that are acceptable to customers at the lowest cost, relative to that of com­ petitors.57 Firms using the cost leadership strategy commonly sell standardized goods or services, but with competitive levels of differentiation, to the industry's most typical customers. Process innovations, which are newly designed production and distribution methods and techniques that allow the firm to operate more efficiently, are critical to a firm's efforts to use the cost leadership strategy successfully. Commonly, firms using the cost leadership strategy scour the world to find low-cost producers to which they out­ source various functions (e.g., manufacturing goods) as a means of keeping their costs low relative to competitors' costs.58

As we have noted, firms implementing the cost leadership strategy strive con­ stantly to drive their costs lower and lower relative to competitors so they can sell their products to customers at a low and perhaps the lowest cost. Charles Schwab competes against low-cost competitor Vanguard Group (and others) to sell an array of financial products. Both firms offer numerous "passively managed" rather than "actively man­ aged" funds to customers. Recently, Schwab claimed that the costs of its market cap index mutual funds were " lower than comparable competitor funds with the lowest investment minimums:' 59 To offer a source of differentiation that customers wanting to buy low-cost products with acceptable levels of differentiation would find interesting, Schwab announced in January of 2018 that the expense ratio it would charge for three new equity index funds would be zero until June 30, 2018. At that time, the expense ratios for the three new funds would increase from zero to .04 or .05 percent.60 Along with Vanguard and other competitors such as Fidelity, Schwab also offers commis­ sion-free ETF (exchange-traded funds) trades for a number of its ETFs. As an example of a source of differentiation, waiving Schwab's standard trade commission of $4.95 per transaction for a number of ETFs allows customers to save money when buying the firm's products. Now the fifth largest U.S. ETF sponsor, analysts suggest that "one of the primary reasons Schwab has been able to ascend to the upper echelon of ETF issuers in terms of size is the provider's willingness to compete with and in many cases beat rival sponsors when it comes to low fees:' 61

As primary activities, inbound logistics (e.g., materials handling, warehousing, and inventory control) and outbound logistics (e.g., collecting, storing, and distributing prod­ ucts to customers) often account for significant portions of the total cost to produce some products. Research suggests that having a competitive advantage in logistics creates more value with a cost leadership strategy than with a differentiation strategy.62

Thus, cost leaders seeking competitively valuable ways to reduce costs may want to concentrate on the primary activities of inbound logistics and outbound logistics. An example of this is the decision by a number of low-cost producers to outsource their manufacturing operations to low-cost firms with low-wage employees (e.g., China).63

However, outsourcing also makes the firm more dependent on suppliers over which they may have little control. Because of this, firms analyze outsourcing possibilities

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

carefully prior to committing to any of them. Outsourcing creates interdependencies between the outsourcing firm and the suppliers. If dependencies become too great, supplier power may result in higher costs for the outsourcing firm. Such actions could harm the cost leader's ability to maintain a low-cost competitive advantage.64 Cost leaders also examine all support activities to find additional potential cost reductions. Developing new systems for finding the optimal combination of low cost and acceptable levels of differentiation in the raw materials required to produce the firm's products is an example of how the procurement support activity can help when implementing the cost leadership strategy.

As described in Chapter 3, firms use value-chain analysis to identify the parts of the company's operations that create value and those that do not. Figure 4.2 demonstrates the value-chain activities and support functions that allow a firm to create value when implementing the cost leadership strategy. Companies lacking the ability to integrate the activities and functions shown in this figure typically lack the core competencies needed to use the cost leadership strategy successfully.

Effective use of the cost leadership strategy allows a firm to earn above-average returns in spite of the presence of strong competitive forces (see Chapter 2). The next sections ( one for each of the five forces) explain how firms seek to earn above-average returns by implementing the cost leadership strategy.

Figure 4.2 Examples of Value-Creating Activities Associated with the Cost Leadership Strategy

Finance

Manage financial resources to ensure positive cash flow and low debt costs.

Support Functions

Supply-Chain Management

Effective Value Chain relationships

Activities with suppliers to maintain efficient flow of goods (supplies) for operations

Human Resources

Develop policies to ensure efficient hiring and retention to keep costs low. Implement training to ensure high employee efficiency.

Management Information Systems

Develop and maintain cost-effective MIS operations.

Operations

Build ___. economies

of scale and efficient operations (e.g., production processes)

Distribution

Use of low- cost modes of transporting goods and delivery times that produce lowest costs

Marketing (Including

Sales)

Targeted i---. advertising

and low prices for high sales volumes

I__.

117

Customers

Follow-up Service

Efficient follow-up to reduce returns

Source: Based on M. E. Porter, 1998, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press; D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, & R. D. Ireland, 2007, Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box, Academy of Management Review, 32: 273-292; D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, R. D. Ireland, & B. A. Gilbert, 2011, Resource orchestration to create competitive advantage: Breadth, depth and life cycles effects, Journal of Management, 37: 1390-1412.

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118 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Rivalry with Existing Competitors Having the low-cost position is valuable when dealing with rivals. Because of the cost leader's advantageous position, rivals hesitate to compete on the price variable, espe­ cially before evaluating the potential outcomes of such competition. 65 Walmart and Dollar General use the cost leadership strategy. Successfully executing their strategies causes competitors to avoid focusing on the price variable as a means-and certainly as the pri­ mary means-of competing against Walmart and Dollar General.

A number of factors influence the degree of rivalry that firms encounter when imple­ menting the cost leadership strategy. Examples of these factors include organizational size, resources possessed by rivals, a firm's dependence on a particular market, location and prior competitive interactions between firms, and a firm's reach, richness, and affilia­ tion with its customers.66 Walmart's size deters some competitors from competing against this firm. The richness and affiliation Amazon has with its customers create competitive challenges for competitors, even Walmart as it ramps up its effort through Walmart.com to challenge Amazon's superiority in online sales.

Those using the cost leadership strategy may also try to reduce the amount of rivalry they experience from competitors. Firms may decide to form collaborations, such as joint ventures and strategic alliances (see Chapter 9), to reduce rivalry. 67 In other instances, cost leaders try to develop strong and mutually supportive relationships with stakeholders (e.g., important government officials, suppliers, and customers) to reduce rivalry and lower their cost as a result. As noted in Chapter 2, guanxi is the name used to describe relationships that Chinese firms develop with others to reduce rivalry.68

Bargaining Power of Buyers (Customers) Powerful customers (e.g., those purchasing a significant amount of the focal firm's out­ put) can force a cost leader to reduce its prices. However, prices will not be reduced below the level at which the cost leader's next-most-efficient industry competitor can earn average returns. Although powerful customers might be able to force the cost leader to reduce prices below this level, they probably would not choose to do so. Prices that are low enough to prevent the next-most-efficient competitor from earning average returns would force that firm to exit the market, leaving the cost leader with less competition and an even stronger bargaining position. When customers are able to purchase only from a single firm operating in an industry lacking rivals, they pay more for products. In some cases, rather than forcing firms to reduce their prices, powerful customers may pressure firms to provide innovative products and services.

Bargaining Power of Suppliers The cost leader generally operates with margins greater than the margins earned by its competitors. Commonly, the cost leader maintains a strong commitment to reducing its costs further as a means of increasing its margins. Among other benefits, higher gross margins relative to those of competitors make it possible for the cost leader to absorb its suppliers' price increases. When an industry faces substantial increases in the cost of its supplies, only the cost leader may be able to pay the higher prices and continue to earn either average or above average returns. Alternatively, a powerful cost leader may be able to force its suppliers to hold down their prices, which would reduce the suppliers' margins in the process.

Walmart is the largest retailer in North America. Because of this, Walmart is some­ times able to use its power to force suppliers to reduce the price of products it buys from them. Walmart is the largest supermarket operator in the United States, and its Sam's Club division is the second largest warehouse club in the United States. Its sales revenue of $495.76 billion in 2018 makes the firm an attractive outlet for suppliers to place their

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

products. Because of its size (recently, there were 11,695 Walmart stores and 665 Sam's Club units located in 28 countries) and reach with customers (approximately 260 million customers shop at Walmart's stores weekly),69 Walmart historically has been able to bar­ gain for low prices from its suppliers. However, in light of increasing competition with Amazon in terms of online sales and because of the possibility of Amazon establishing storefronts, Walmart may find in the future that it has less bargaining power with suppli­ ers than has been the case historically.70

To reduce costs, some firms may outsource an entire function such as manufacturing to a single or a small number of suppliers.71 Outsourcing may take place in response to earnings pressure as expressed by shareholders, particularly institutional investors.72 In the face of earnings pressure, a firm's decision-makers may conclude that outsourcing will be less expensive, allowing it to reduce its products' prices as a result.73 This is not a risk­ free decision though. For example, some businesspeople believe that "outsourcing can create new costs, as suppliers and partners demand a larger share of the value created:' 74

This possibility highlights how important it is for the firm to select the most appropriate company to engage in outsourcing and then to manage its relationship with that com­ pany. Through effective management of the relationship between a firm and the one to which it outsources an activity, trust can develop. In turn, trust may be the foundation on which a firm might choose to integrate an outsourcing firm into its value chain to find ways to reduce its costs further.75

Potential Entrants Through continuous efforts to reduce costs to levels that are lower than those against whom it competes, a cost leader becomes highly efficient. Increasing levels of effi­ ciency (e.g., economies of scale) enhance profit margins. In turn, attractive profit margins create an entry barrier to potential competitors.76 New entrants must be willing to accept less than average returns until they gain the experience required to approach the cost leader's efficiency. To earn even average returns, new entrants must have the competencies required to match the cost levels of competitors other than the cost leader. The low profit margins (relative to margins earned by firms implementing the differentiation strategy) make it necessary for the cost leader to sell large volumes of its product to earn above-average returns. However, firms striving to be the cost leader must avoid pricing their products so low that they cannot operate profitably, even though volume increases.

Product Substitutes Compared with its industry rivals, the cost leader also holds an attractive position rela­ tive to product substitutes. A product substitute becomes a concern for the cost leader when its features and characteristics, in terms of cost and levels of differentiation that are acceptable to customers, are potentially attractive to the firm's customers. When faced with possible substitutes, the cost leader has more flexibility than do its competitors. To retain customers, it often can reduce its product's price. With still lower prices and com - petitive levels of differentiation, the cost leader increases the probability that customers will continue to prefer its product rather than a substitute.

Competitive Risks of the Cost Leadership Strategy The cost leadership strategy is not risk-free. One risk is that the processes used by the cost leader to produce and distribute its product could become obsolete because of com­ petitors' innovations.77 These innovations may allow rivals to produce products at costs lower than those of the original cost leader, or to provide additional differentiated features without increasing the product's price to customers.

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119

120

The differentiation

strategy is an integrated set

of actions taken to produce

products (at an acceptable

cost) that customers perceive

as being different in ways that

are important to them.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

A second risk is that too much focus by the cost leader on cost reductions may occur at the expense of trying to understand customers' perceptions of "competitive levels of differentiation:' Some believe, for example, that Walmart often has too few salespeople available to help customers and too few individuals at checkout registers. These com­ plaints suggest that there might be a discrepancy between how Walmart's customers define "minimal acceptable levels of service" and the firm's attempts to drive its costs increasingly lower.

Imitation is a final risk of the cost leadership strategy. Using their own core com - petencies, competitors sometimes learn how to imitate the cost leader's strategy. When this happens, the cost leader must increase the value its product provides to customers. Commonly, the cost leader increases the value it creates by selling the current product at an even lower price or by adding differentiated features that create value for customers while maintaining price.

4-4b Differentiation Strategy The differentiation strategy is an integrated set of actions taken to produce products (at an acceptable cost) that customers perceive as being different in ways that are important to them.7s While cost leaders serve a typical customer in an industry, differentiators target customers for whom the firm creates value because of the manner in which its products differ from those produced and marketed by competitors. Product innovation, which is "the result of bringing to life a new way to solve the customer's problem-through a new product or service development-that benefits both the customer and the sponsoring company;' 79 is critical to successful use of the differentiation strategy.so

Firms must be able to provide customers with differentiated products at competitive costs to reduce upward pressure on the price they pay. When a firm produces differen­ tiated features for its products at non-competitive costs, the price for the product may exceed what target customers are willing to pay. If firms have a thorough understanding of the value its target customers seek, the relative importance they attach to the satisfac­ tion of different needs and for what they are willing to pay a premium, the differentia­ tion strategy can be effective in helping them earn above-average returns. Of course, to achieve these returns, the firm must apply its knowledge capital (knowledge held by its employees and managers) to provide customers with a differentiated product that pro­ vides them with value for which they are willing to pay.s1

Through the differentiation strategy, the firm produces distinctive products for cus­ tomers who value differentiated features more than low cost. For example, superior prod­ uct reliability, durability, and high-performance sound systems are among the differen­ tiated features of Toyota Motor Corporation's Lexus products. (Nevertheless, Lexus does offer its vehicles to customers at a competitive purchase price relative to other luxury automobiles.)

As with Lexus products, a product's unique attributes, rather than its purchase price, provide the value for which customers are willing to pay. Now the second-largest luxury brand by revenue behind only Louis Vuitton, Gucci relies today on innovative and unique product designs from Alessandro Michele. These new designs "mix colorful streetwear, historical references and garish animal prints:'s2 The firm believes that these unique designs, for which customers are willing to pay, will help it defy what is typically a boom - bust cycle with fashion-based products.

To maintain success by implementing the differentiation strategy, the firm must con­ sistently upgrade differentiated features that customers value and/or create new valuable features (i.e., innovate) without significant cost increases.s3 This approach requires firms to change their product lines frequently.s4 These firms may also offer a portfolio of prod­ ucts that complement each other, thereby enriching the differentiation for the customer

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

and perhaps satisfying a portfolio of consumer needs. Because a differentiated product satis- fies customers' unique needs, firms following the differentiation strategy are able to charge premium prices. The ability to sell a product at a price that substantially exceeds the cost of creating its differentiated features allows the firm to outperform rivals and earn above­ average returns. Rather than costs, a firm using the differentiation strategy primarily concen­ trates on investing in and developing features that differentiate a product in ways that cre- ate value for customers.85 Overall, a firm using the differentiation strategy seeks to be differ- ent from its competitors in as many dimen­ sions as possible. The less similarity between a firm's goods or services and those of its com­ petitors, the more buffered it is from rivals' actions. Still, customers must view the prices they are paying for the differentiated products they buy from a firm as acceptable to them in g

�order for this strategy to succeed. Commonly !recognized differentiated goods include those a,

offered by Gucci and Louis Vuitton, men's { suits tailored by Brioni, Caterpillar's heavy- !

2' duty earth-moving equipment, and the dif- .£ ferentiated consulting services McKinsey & �

�Co. offers clients. - �Many dimensions are available to firms -E �seeking to differentiate their products from �competitors' offerings. Unusual features, �>

responsive customer service, rapid product E innovations, technological leadership, per- :!'! ceived prestige and status, different tastes, and engineering design and performance are exam­ ples of approaches to differentiation.86 While the number of ways to reduce costs may be

A runway model wearing creations by Alessandro Michele, Gucci's

Creative Director.

finite, virtually anything a firm can do to create real or perceived value in consumers' eyes is a basis for differentiation. Consider product design as a case in point. Because it can create a positive experience for customers, design is an important source of differen­ tiation (even for cost leaders seeking to find ways to add functionalities to their low-cost products as a way of differentiating their products from competitors) and, hopefully for firms emphasizing it, of competitive advantage.87 Examples of other competitive dimen­ sions firms use to differentiate their products include Halliburton's (an oil-field services company) focus on superior execution of projects88 and Subaru's focus on product lon­ gevity and durability.89

Firms use the value chain to determine if they are able to link the activities required to create value by using the differentiation strategy. In Figure 4.3, we show examples of value chain activities and support functions that firms use commonly to differentiate a product. Companies without the skills needed to link these activities cannot expect to use the differentiation strategy successfully.

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121

122 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Figure 4.3 Examples of Value-Creating Activities Associated with the Differentiation Strategy

Support Functions

Finance

Make long -term investments in the development of new technology and innovative products, in marketing and advertising, and in an ability to provide exceptional service.

Human Resources

Recruit highly qualified employees and invest in training that provides them with the latest technological knowledge and the capabilities to provide breakthrough services.

Management Information Systems

Acquire and develop excellent information systems that provide up-to-date market intelligence and real-time information in all areas relevant for strategic and major operational decisions.

_______________________________________ ..,. Customers

Value Chain Activities

Supply-Chain Management

Develop and maintain positive relations with major suppliers. __. Ensure the receipt of high quality supplies (raw materials and other goods).

Operations Distribution

Manufacture Provide high-quality accurate and goods. timely delivery Develop --. of goods to flexible systems customers. that allow rapid word responses to customers' changing needs.

Marketing Follow-up (Including Service

Sales) Build strong Have positive a specially relationships trained unit to

--. with customers. --. provide after- Invest in an sales service. effective Ensure high promotion and customer advertising satisfaction. program.

Source: Based on information from M. E. Porter, 1998, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press; D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, & R. D. Ireland, 2007, Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box, Academy of Management Review, 32: 273-292; D. G. Sirmon, M.A. Hitt, R. D. Ireland, & B. A. Gilbert, 2011, Resource orchestration to create competitive advantage: Breadth, depth and life cycles effects, Journal of Management, 37: 1390-1412.

Next, we explain how firms using the differentiation strategy can successfully posi­ tion themselves in terms of the five forces of competition (see Chapter 2) to earn above­ average returns.

Rivalry with Existing Competitors Customers tend to be loyal purchasers of products differentiated in ways that are mean­ ingful to them. As their loyalty to a brand increases, customers become less sensitive to price increases. The relationship between brand loyalty and price sensitivity insulates a firm from competitive rivalry. Thus, positive reputations with customers sustain the competitive advantage of firms using a differentiation strategy.90 Nonetheless, firms using a differentiation strategy must be aware of imitation efforts by rivals and aware of any resulting successes. This is the case between Samsung and Apple as Samsung seeks to improve on Apple's products, potentially creating value for customers when doing so. In the context of competitive rivalry (see Chapter 5), Apple must respond to imitation efforts to improve the value its products create for customers. Simultaneously, as a firm using the differentiation strategy, Apple must develop new and novel products to maintain its

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

reputation for producing and selling innovative and stylish products that target customers find valuable.91

Bargaining Power of Buyers (Customers) The distinctiveness of differentiated products reduces customers' sensitivity to price increases. Customers are willing to accept a price increase when a product still satisfies their unique needs better than does a competitor's offering. Thus, the golfer whose needs are met by the Ping G Stretch series of clubs or Piretti Putters will likely continue buying those products even when encountering price increases. Purchasers of brand-name food items (e.g., Heinz ketchup, Sir Kensington's ketchup, and Kleenex tissues) accept price increases in those products as long as they continue to perceive that they satisfy their distinctive needs at an acceptable cost. In all of these cases, customers are relatively insen­ sitive to price increases because they do not think an acceptable product alternative exists.

Bargaining Power of Suppliers Because the firm using the differentiation strategy charges a premium price for its prod­ ucts, suppliers must provide high-quality components, driving up the differentiator's costs. However, the high margins the firm earns in these cases partially insulate it from suppliers' influence. The reason for this is that higher margins make it possible for the firm to absorb potentially higher costs from its suppliers.92 On the other hand, because of buyers' relative insensitivity to price increases, the firm implementing a differentia­ tion strategy might choose to pass the additional cost of supplies on to the customer by increasing the price of its unique product. However, when buyer firms outsource an entire function or large portions of it to a supplier, especially R&D for a firm following a differ­ entiation strategy, they can become dependent on and thus vulnerable to that supplier.93

Potential Entrants Customer loyalty and the need to overcome the uniqueness of a differentiated prod­ uct create substantial barriers to potential entrants. Entering an industry under these conditions typically demands significant investments of resources and patience while seeking customers' loyalty. In these cases, some potential entrants decide to make smaller investments to see if they can gain a "foothold" ( or a relatively secure position through which competitive progress is possible) in the market. In these cases, the firm's loss if it fails to develop a foothold is minimal while the gain from developing a foothold could be substantial.94

Product Substitutes Firms selling brand-name products to loyal customers hold an attractive position relative to product substitutes. In contrast, companies without brand loyalty face a higher proba­ bility of customers switching either to products that offer differentiated features that serve the same function (particularly if the substitute has a lower price) or to products that offer more features and perform functions that create more value. In these instances, firms may be vulnerable to innovations from outside the industry that provide superior satisfaction in terms of customers' needs (e.g., Amazon's Alexa in the music industry).95

Competitive Risks of the Differentiation Strategy One risk of the differentiation strategy is that customers may decide that the price dif­ ferential between the differentiator's product and the cost leader's product is too large. In this instance, a firm may be offering differentiated features that exceed target customers' needs. The firm then becomes vulnerable to competitors that are able to offer customers a combination of features and price that is more consistent with their needs.

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123

124

The focus strategy is an

integrated set of actions

taken to produce products

that serve the needs of

a particular segment of

customers.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Another risk of the differentiation strategy is that a firm's means of differentiation may cease to provide value for which customers are willing to pay or that how the firm seeks to differentiate its offerings is unclear to target customers. A differentiated product becomes less valuable if imitation by rivals causes customers to perceive that competitors offer essen­ tially the same product, but at a lower price. For example, does buying and using an iPhone create value that exceeds the costs and features of some competitors' offerings?

A third risk of the differentiation strategy is that experience can narrow customers' perceptions of the value of a product's differentiated features. For example, customers having positive experiences with generic tissues may decide that the differentiated fea­ tures of the Kleenex product are not worth the extra cost. To counter this risk, firms must continue to differentiate their product (e.g., through innovation) for customers at a price they are willing to pay.96

Counterfeiting is the differentiation strategy's fourth risk. Counterfeits have a trade­ mark or logo that is identical to or indistinguishable from a legal logo owned by another party, thus infringing the rights of the legal owner. When a consumer purchases such a product and discovers the deception, regret creates distrust of the branded product and reduces differentiation. 97 Because of this, firms take actions to prevent counterfeiters from imitating their products.

Failing to provide crisp and identifiable differentiation to customers in the form of a firm's products (goods and services) is a fifth risk of the differentiation strategy. When this is the case, the firm does not meet customers' expectations through its efforts to implement the differentiation strategy. Another way of viewing this is to say that firms sometimes fail to create differentiation for which the customer is willing to pay. As explained in the Strategic Focus, this may be the case for Macy's department stores. For the past few years, this firm's efforts fell short in terms of satisfying stakeholders including shareholders (who have seen the value of their ownership positions decline) and customers (who are not frequenting Macy's stores to shop). We describe actions Macy's is taking to reverse its fortunes and to become successful again by implementing the differentiation strategy.

4-4c Focus Strategies

The focus strategy is an integrated set of actions taken to produce products that serve the needs of a particular segment of customers. Thus, firms implementing a focus strategy utilize their core competencies to serve the needs of a particular industry segment or niche to the exclusion of others. Market segments firms may choose to serve by imple­ menting a focus strategy include the following:

1. a particular buyer group (e.g., youth or senior citizens), 2. a different segment of a product line (e.g., products for professional painters or the

do-it-yourself group), or 3. a different geographic market (e.g., northern or southern Italy).98

Firms can serve many types of customer needs when using a focus strategy. For exam­ ple, founded in 1936 by Don Prudencio Unanue and his wife Carolina, Goya Foods, Inc. is the largest Hispanic-owned food company in the United States. Segmenting the Hispanic market into unique groups, Goya offers more than 2,500 "high-quality and affordable food products from the Caribbean, Mexico, Spain, Central and South America:' 99 The firm is a leading authority on Hispanic food and seeks to be a premier source for those desiring to purchase authentic Latin cuisine. By successfully using a focus strategy, firms such as Goya gain a competitive advantage in specific market niches or segments, even though they do not possess an industry-wide competitive advantage.

Although the breadth of a target is clearly a matter of degree, the essence of the focus strategy "is the exploitation of a narrow target's differences from the balance of

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy 125

The Differentiation Strategy-Can Macy's Again Find Ways to

Achieve Success by Implementing this Strategy?

Rowland Hussey Macy established the firm known today as

Macy's Inc. in 1858 at the corner of 14th Street and 6th Avenue

in New York City (sales on the day the store opened totaled

$11.06). R.H. Macy, the firm's original name, contributed a

number of innovations to retailing. Known for its creative

merchandising approaches, Macy's was the first department

store to offer bath towels in an array of colors and was the

first retailer in New York City to hold a liquor license. Macy's

also "pioneered such revolutionary business practices as the

one-price system, in which the same item was sold to every

customer at one price, and quoting specific prices for goods in

newspaper advertising"

At the time of its founding and on a going-forward basis,

Macy's chose to implement the differentiation strategy as a

means of succeeding with customers and other stakehold­

ers. Historically, Macy's differentiated itself from competitors

on several dimensions including offering private label

brands, providing unique service, stocking trendier prod­

ucts, using specially trained experts to staff its perfume and

make-up counters, and organizing the layout of its stores to

promote easy access to products for customers during their

shopping experience.

For many decades, Macy's was a successful department

store retailer as it implemented its differentiation strategy.

Times have changed for retailers such as Macy's though. Today,

for example, 70 percent of merchandise found in department

stores like Macy's is available from Amazon and other online

vendors as well. The lack of differentiation between the inven­

tory of a storefront retailer such as Macy's and the inventory

of online retailers "is the single biggest challenge department

stores face:' Because of the lack of clear differentiation between

what Macy's and competitors such as retail discounters (e.g.,

T.J. Maxx), nimble and focused firms (e.g., Ulta Beauty), and

online vendors offer, it seems that Macy's is failing to meet

customers' expectations regarding sharp differentiation for

which they are willing to pay. Evidence for the firm's lack of

success in recent times includes multiple consecutive quarters

of sales declines and the decision to sell a number of stores to

generate cash. Facing this type of situation, analysts believe

that "the best opportunity department stores (including

Macy's) have is to create products that set them apart, to give

customers a reason to go:' How is Macy's responding to this

situation7 What is the firm doing to address the challenge of

finding ways to implement its differentiation strategy with

greater degrees of success7 As we discuss next, the firm is

taking several actions, many of which return it to its commit­

ment to innovation.

Macy's North Star Strategy is a set of commitments and

actions the firm is taking to improve its execution in terms

of the differentiation strategy. The North Star Strategy has

five components: (1) from familiar to favorite-the interest

here is to anticipate customers' needs and respond to them

NICOPANDA, known for its edgy and playful looks, launched

an exclusive apparel collect1on with Macy's ,n 2018.

quickly and effectively by offering desirable products and

enjoyable shopping experiences; (2) must be Macy's-the firm

is again emphasizing its private brands (such as 1.N.C. apparel,

Hotel Collection and Impulse beauty items) as a way to offer

value-creating products and services that are exclusive

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126 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

to Macy's; (3) every experience matters-the firm believes including part-time workers. Through this plan, all employees

benefit when sales exceed internal benchmarks. For customers,

Macy's established its Star Rewards loyalty program recently. A

three-tier program, the benefits fiowing to customers increase

as they spend more with the firm. Collectively, those leading

Macy's and its stakeholders hope that the innovations the

that its "competitive advantage is the ability to combine the

human touch in our physical stores with cutting-edge tech­

nology" (including mobile apps and the "Buy Online Pickup in

Stores" program); (4) funding our future-to have the financial

resources needed to reinvest in innovations that will create

valuable differentiation for customers, Macy's is reinvesting in

innovation, reducing expenses that do not serve the customer

directly, and creating value by selling units in its vast real estate

portfolio; and (S) what's new, what's next-this commitment

and actions resulting from it "explores how we innovate to turn

consumer and technology trends to our advantage and drive

growth'.' As we see, part of Macy's efforts to implement its dif­

ferentiation strategy with greater degrees of success is to form

a digital strategy through which it uses technology to interpret

information as a means of creating more value for customers.

Overall, Macy's is trying to set itself apart from compet­

itors in ways that create value for customers. In addition to

emphasizing its private label brands, the firm established

mobile checkout capabilities to speed up ser vice to customers.

It also introduced an incentive plan to its 130,000 employees,

firm is establishing and on which it is executing will be the

foundation through which the differentiation strategy leads to

company success.

Sources: 2018, Bluemercury, Macy's Homepage, www.macy's.com, March 9; 2018,

Company history, Macy's Homepage, www.macys.com, March 9; S. Kapner & A.

Prang, 2018, Holiday sales rebound at Macy's and JCPenney, Wall Streer Journal,

www.wsj.com, January 4; A. Levine-Weinberg, 2018, Macy's, Inc. real estate sales

will continue in 2018, The Motley Fool, www.fool.com, January 16;W. Loeb, 2018,

Macy's makes progress under Gennett, but much remains to be done, Forbes,

www.forbes.com, February 28; Z. Meyer & C. Jones, 2018, Macy's buoyed by brisk

sales, popular new loyalty program, USA Today, www.usatoday.com, February 27;

E. Winkler, 2018, Macy's has a spring in its step, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com,

February 27; C. Jones, 2017, Why Wal mart is soaring while Macy's f lounders, USA

Today, www.usatoday.com, February 22; P. Wahba, 2017, How Macy's is turning

beauty store Bluemercury into its secret weapon, Fortune, www.fortune.com,

October 4; P. Wahba, 2017, How Macy's new CEO plans to stop the b leeding,

Forrune, www.fortune.com, March 22; G. Petro, 2016, Macy's, JCPenney, and Sears:

Where's the differentiation? Forbes, www.forbes.com, June 22.

the industrY:'10° Firms using the focus strategy intend to serve a particular customer seg­ ment of an industry more effectively than can industry-wide competitors. Entrepreneurial firms and certainly entrepreneurial start-ups commonly serve a specific market niche or segment, partly because they do not have the knowledge or resources to serve the broader market.101 Firms implementing a focus strategy generally prefer to operate "below the radar" of larger and more resource rich firms that serve the broader market. The focus strategy leads to success when the firm serves a segment well whose unique needs are so specialized that broad-based competitors choose not to serve that segment or when they create value for a segment that exceeds the value created by industry-wide competitors.

Firms can create value for customers in specific and unique market segments by using the focused cost leadership strategy or the focused differentiation strategy.

Focused Cost Leadership Strategy Based in Sweden, IKEA, a global furniture retailer with 403 store locations in 49 markets and sales revenue of 38.3 billion euros in 2017,102 uses the focused cost leadership strategy. Germany, the United States, France, Britain, and China are the firm's largest markets.103

Using the focused cost leadership strategy, IKEA hosted 936 million store visits and 2.3 billion website visits from customers in 2017. The company's founder, Ingvar Kamprad, died recently at the age of 91.

Demonstrating the low cost part of the firm's strategy is its commitment to strive constantly "to reduce costs without compromising qualitY:'104 When customers see a "new lower price" announcement, IKEA says that it means that the firm has discovered a way to offer good quality, function, and better prices on its products. Highlighting the focus part of IKEA's focused cost leadership strategy is the firm's target market: young buyers desiring style at a low cost.

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

Design is critical to the firm's ability to provide style at a low cost to customers. Regarding design, the firm notes the following: "We feel that good design combines form, function, quality, and sustainability at a low price. We call it 'Democratic Design' because we believe good home furnishing is for everyone:'ws For these customers, the firm offers home furnishings that combine good design, function, and acceptable quality with low prices. According to the firm, it seeks "to offer a wide range of well-designed, functional home furnishing products at prices so low that as many people as possible will be able to afford them:'

IKEA emphasizes several activities to keep its costs low. For example, instead of rely­ ing primarily on third-party manufacturers, the firm's engineers design low-cost, mod­ ular furniture that is ready for customers to assemble. To eliminate the need for sales associates or decorators, IKEA positions the products in its stores so that customers can view different living combinations (complete with sofas, chairs, tables, etc.) in a sin­ gle room-like setting. The room-specific settings help customers imagine how furniture would look in their home. Historically, not offering delivery services was a third practice that supported efforts to keep the firm's costs low. To be more competitive though, IKEA recently offered a delivery option to customers. In the company's words: "Delivery starts at $29! Prices range from $29 to $59. The prices vary based on demand and distance from the closet IKEA retail store to your shipping address:'w6

Although the firm emphasizes low costs, IKEA offers some differentiated features that appeal to or are acceptable to its target customers. Unique furniture designs, in-store playrooms for children, wheelchairs for customer use, and extended hours are examples of the differentiated features IKEA customers like in addition to the low cost of the firm's products.

Focused Differentiation Strategy Other firms implement the focused differentiation strategy. As noted earlier, firms can differentiate their products along many dimensions. For example, some of the new gen - eration of food trucks populating cities such as Los Angeles use the focused differentia­ tion strategy, serving, for example, organic food that often trained chefs and well-known restaurateurs prepare.

Headquartered in Los Angeles and in light of its mission to "heal our planet, one meal at a time;' Green Truck "serves an all organic menu sourced from local organic farms:'w7 To reach as many customers as possible, Green Truck uses Twitter and Facebook to inform customers of its locations as it moves from point to point in Los Angeles_ws

With a focus strategy, firms must be able to complete various primary value-chain activities and support functions in a competitively superior manner to develop and sus­ tain a competitive advantage and earn above-average returns. The activities required to use the focused cost leadership strategy are virtually identical to those of the industry­ wide cost leadership strategy (see Figure 4.2); activities required to use the focused dif­ ferentiation strategy are largely identical to those of the industry-wide differentiation strategy (see Figure 4.3). Similarly, the manner in which each of the two focus strategies allows a firm to deal successfully with the five competitive forces parallels those of the two broad strategies. The only difference is in the firm's choice of target market-that is, its competitive scope (see Figure 4.1). W ith a focus strategy, the firm chooses to focus on a narrow market segment. Thus, Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 and the text describing the five competitive forces also explain the relationship between each of the two focus strategies and competitive advantage.

In the Strategic Focus, we use a single product-hamburgers-as offered by different firms to present specific examples of the focused cost leadership and the focused differ­ entiation strategies. For comparison purposes, we also mention firms using either the cost

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127

128 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

What Type of Hamburger Would You Like to Buy and Eat Today?

Hamburgers are popular in many parts of the world. Merriam­

Webster offers the following definition of a hamburger: "ground

beef; a patty of ground beef; a sandwich consisting of a patty

of hamburger in a split typically round bun'.'This informative

definition seems straightforward. However, as those who

consume this food product know, there are multiple varieties

of hamburgers available for customers to purchase. In this

Strategic Focus, we describe how firms use four of the five

generic business-level strategies to make and sell hamburgers

(we do not use the integrated cost leadership/differentiation

strategy here).

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the number of dimen­

sions on which firms can differentiate products is virtually

endless. Essentially, any product attribute that customers value

and for which they are willing to pay is a potential source of

differentiation. Companies using a focused differentiation strat­

egy to produce and sell hamburgers seek to present a narrow

or specific group of customers with a product that is distinctive

in ways that are important to them.

Located in Bryan, TX, and with a geographic focus as well

as a product focus, Proudest Monkey uses the focused differ­

entiation strategy. This firm's owners say that their restaurant

is "all about good times and good company'.' One differentiator

of this firm is its location, which is a part of a downtown area

that the community seeks to revitalize. Another differentiator is

the fact that a historic building houses the firm. In constructing

their restaurant, the owners were careful to maintain the build­

ing's integrity. Known among customers as "The Monkey," the

firm differentiates its hamburgers in addition to offering cus­

tomers an opportunity to dine in an establishment housed in

a way that is consistent with a region's history. Quality is a key

differentiator. To offer consistent quality to customers, the firm's

unique menu is "simple" and "fresh" Each morning, employees

make fresh patties, sauces, and toppings. An extended list of

Texas crah beers is available to customers as well as are "unique

to the Monkey" Ice Cream Martinis with names such as Arnold

Palmer, Chocolate Covered Strawberry, and Mint Chocolate

Chip. Prices for the firm's unique burgers (examples are the

Willie Norris and the Yard Bird) range from $6.95 to $8.35. The

restaurant also offers unique french fries that are prepared as

"dirty" (salt, pepper, & sugar) or as "yuppie" (olive oil, salt, pepper,

garlic powder, and parmesan cheese).

Instead of focusing on a narrow group of customers,

Smash burger, founded in Colorado in 2007, uses the

differentiation strategy to target a "broad market" of customers

with what the firm believes are unique food items. With over

350 units located in 32 U.S. states and 5 countries, this firm dif­

ferentiates its hamburgers in ways that a large set of customers

finds appealing. Smash burger 's mission is to "put burgers back

into people's lives. We want to change the way people think

about burgers and the way they feel when they have a burger'.'

The firm's hamburgers "are always made-to-order, never frozen,

smashed and seared to perfection on our grill'.'The fresh meat

used to make a Smashburger is literally smashed on a grill

using a specialized tool the firm developed. Using this process,

which the firm contends increases the desirability of its meat

patties, Smashburger makes hamburgers such as the Classic

Smash, the BBQ, Bacon & Cheddar, the Avocado Club, and the

Bacon Cheeseburger. Prices for a Smashburger range from

roughly $6.59 to $7.79. Customers can order Smashfries (with

rosemary and garlic integrated into the cooking of the fries) to

accompany their Smashburger if so inclined.

Founded in 1923 in Flint, Ml, Kewpee Hamburgers is the

second known hamburger chain in the United States. Now

headquartered in Lima, OH where three of the firm's five

remaining units are located (the other two are in Lansing, Ml

and Racine, WI), this firm uses geography and low prices as the

basis of its focused cost leadership strategy. Interestingly, the

first Kewpee storefront built in Lima, OH is a national historic

site. Kewpee serves low-cost food items to a narrow segment

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy 129

of people located in three Midwestern states. Using locally

raised beef, Kewpee makes hamburgers that are basic and

that appeal to a local population wanting a basic hamburger

with minimal differentiators. The firm's slogan-"Hamburger

pickle on top, makes your heart go flippity-flop!" captures the

standardized and non-differentiated aspect of Kewpee ham­

burgers. With its basic food products offered in undifferentiated

buildings, the hamburgers' prices are inexpensive compared

In contrast to Kewpee, McDonald's uses the cost leadership

strategy to serve a broad market of customers. As of January

2018, there were more than 36,000 McDonald's restaurants

to the prices of hamburgers offered by Proudest Monkey,

Smashburger, and other hamburger establishments following

the focused differentiation or the differentiation strategy. The

regular Kewpee hamburger is $2.20 while the special ham­

burger (including Miracle Whip, lettuce, and tomato) is $2.40. If

not in the mood for a hamburger, Kewpee offers customers a

cheese sandwich for $1.90. A double-large soft drink is $1.00.

As a means of providing some differentiation when imple­

menting its focused cost leadership strategy, Kewpee provides

different slices of pie at special prices for each month of the

year. February sees customers having access to Februcherry

while Marchocolate is available in March.

in the world. The company's 1.9 million workers serve over

69 million people daily. Ray Kroc, the founder of McDonald's,

wanted to build a restaurant system that would result in cus­

tomers being able to buy products of consistent quality at all

of the firm's locations. Focusing on "quality, service, cleanliness

and value;' McDonald's offers an array of food products at lower

costs that appeal to a large number of customers throughout

the world. The "dollar menu" is an important part of this firm's

cost leadership strategy, as is the case for other hamburger

chains, such as Burger King, using the same strategy.

Sources: 2018, About us-monkey eat, monkey drink, Proudest Monkey

Homepage, www.proudestmonkey.com, March 9; 2018, Our mission, About

us, McDonald's Homepage, www.mcdonalds.com, March 9; 2018, Definition of

hamburger, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com, March 9; 2018, About

us, Kewpee Homepage, www.kewpeehamburgers.com, March 9; 2018, Our story,

Smashburger Homepage, www.smashburger.com, March 9; M. Rosenberg, 2018,

Number of McDonald's restaurants worldwide, ThoughtCo., www.thoughtco.com,

February 11.

leadership or the differentiation strategy on an industry-wide basis to sell hamburgers. As this Strategic Focus demonstrates, firms can use any of these four generic business-level strategies to achieve success when making and selling hamburgers.

Competitive Risks of Focus Strategies With either focus strategy, the firm faces the same set of general risks the company using the cost leadership or the differentiation strategy on an industry-wide basis faces. However, because of a narrow target market, focus strategies have three additional risks.

First, a competitor may be able to focus on a more narrowly defined competitive seg­ ment and thereby "out-focus" the focuser. This could be a competitive challenge for IKEA if another firm found a way to offer IKEA's customers (young buyers interested in stylish furniture at a low cost) additional sources of differentiation while charging the same price or to provide the same service with the same sources of differentiation at a lower price. Harley Davidson's recent decision to produce electric motorcycles may challenge Zero Motorcycles, a much smaller company producing only electric motorcycles.109 Potentially enhancing the significance of this competitive challenge for Zero Motorcycles is Harley's decision to invest in Alta Motors, an electric bike start-up. Harley made this investment to "accelerate its electrification effort:' 110

A second risk is that a company competing on an industry-wide basis may decide that the market segment served by the firm using a focus strategy is attractive and wor­ thy of competitive pursuit.111 For example, a major restaurant in Los Angeles that serves multiple types of offerings to a range of customers might decide that serving organic foods through its own food truck is an attractive market. With capabilities to prepare a larger set of food items compared to the food offerings provided by a firm such as Green Truck (located in Los Angeles and mentioned earlier), the major restaurant might be able to prepare and sell organic foods that exceed the combination of quality and price that Green Truck is able to offer.

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130

The integrated cost

leadership/differentiation

strategy finds a firm

engaging simultaneously in

primary value-chain activities

and support functions

to achieve a low cost

position with some product

differentiation.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

The third risk associated with using a focus strategy is that the needs of customers within a narrow competitive segment may become more similar to those of industry -wide customers as a whole over time. When this happens, the firm implementing a focus strategy no longer provides unique value to its target customers. This may be what hap­ pened to RadioShack in that the unique demand of do-it-yourself electronic dabblers that RadioShack traditionally focused on dissipated over time. Big-box-retailers such as Best Buy started carrying a number of the "specialty" items RadioShack stocked historically. In response, RadioShack executives struggled over many years to find the right focus and made too many strategic changes over time, which ultimately led to the firm's bankruptcy.

4-4d Integrated Cost Leadership/Differentiation Strategy Most consumers have high expectations when purchasing products. In general, it seems that most consumers want to pay a low price for products that possess somewhat highly differentiated features. Because of these expectations, a number of firms engage in pri­ mary value-chain activities and support functions that allow them to pursue low cost and differentiation simultaneously.

The integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy finds a firm engaging simul­ taneously in primary value-chain activities and support functions to achieve a low cost position with some product differentiation. When using this strategy, firms seek to pro­ duce products at a relatively low cost that have some differentiated features that their customers value. Efficient production is the source of maintaining low costs, while dif­ ferentiation is the source of creating unique value. Firms that use the integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy successfully usually adapt quickly to new technologies and rapid changes in their external environments. Concentrating jointly on developing two sources of competitive advantage (cost and differentiation) increases the number of primary value-chain activities and support functions in which the firm becomes compe­ tent. In these cases, firms often have strong networks with external parties that perform some of the value-chain activities and/or support functions.112 In turn, having skills in a larger number of activities and functions increases a firm's flexibility and its adaptability.

Concentrating on the needs of its core customer group (e.g., higher-income, fashion­ conscious discount shoppers), Target implements an integrated cost leadership/ differentiation strategy. The firm informs customers of this strategy through its "Expect More. Pay Less:' brand promise. The firm essentially describes this strategy with the following statement: "Target Corporation is an upscale discount retailer that provides high-quality, on-trend merchandise at attractive prices in clean, spacious and guest­ friendly stores:'113 In addition to a relatively low price for its somewhat differentiated products, Target creates some differentiation for customers by providing them with a quick check-out experience and a dedicated team providing more personalized service.

Historically, most firms competing in emerging markets chose the cost leadership strategy to guide their actions. Influencing this strategy choice are the relatively low labor costs and other supply costs firms competing in emerging economies experience (com­ pared to the labor and supply costs for firms competing in developed economies). The choice of strategy for emerging economy firms may soon change however, given their interest in producing capabilities through which they can develop innovations. In the short run, the newly developed innovation capabilities in emerging economy firms will likely lag innovation capabilities in developed economy firms. Combining newly devel­ oped innovation capabilities with the ability to deliver products at a lower cost may soon find a number of emerging economy firms implementing the integrated cost leadership/ differentiation strategy.114

Flexibility is required for firms to complete primary value-chain activities and support functions in ways that allow them to use the integrated cost leadership/ differentiation

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

strategy successfully. A number of Chinese firms, including some in the automobile man­ ufacturing sector, have developed a flexible architecture system through which they pro­ duce differentiated car designs at relatively low costs. 115 For firms seeking to balance cost reductions with sources of differentiation, flexible manufacturing systems, information networks, and total quality management systems are three sources of flexibility that help them implement the integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy successfully.

Flexible Manufacturing Systems Using a flexible manufacturing system (FMS), firms integrate human, physical, and information resources to create somewhat differentiated products and to sell them to consumers at a relatively low price. A significant technological advance, an FMS is a computer-controlled process that firms use to produce a variety of products in moderate, flexible quantities with a minimum of manual intervention.116 ''A flexible manufacturing system gives manufacturing firms an advantage to quickly change a manufacturing envi­ ronment to improve process efficiency and thus lower production cost:' 117

Automobile manufacturing processes that take place in the Ford-Changan joint ven­ ture located in Chongqing, China show the clear benefits of flexible production. This joint venture, with each firm owning 50 percent of it, manufactures Ford brand passenger cars for the Chinese market.118 Comments from Yuan Fleng Xin, the manufacturing engineering manager for the Ford-Changan partnership, highlight the benefits of using an FMS: "We can introduce new models within hours, simply by configuring the line for production of the next model, while still being able to produce the existing models during the introduc­ tion of new models . . . This allows the phasing-in of new models, and the phasing-out of old models, directly driven by market demand and not by production capacity, lead time nor a need to wait for infrastructure build-up:' 119 An FMS may also affect the success of another joint venture Ford sought to form with China's Anhui Zotye Automobile Co. If approved through required regulatory processes, the two firms intend to produce electric vehicles in China in the form of a brand that would be unique to the Chinese market.120

The goal of an FMS is to eliminate the "low cost versus product variety" trade-off that is inherent in traditional manufacturing technologies. Firms use an FMS to change quickly and easily from making one product to making another. Used properly, an FMS allows the firm to increase its effectiveness in responding to changes in its customers' needs, while retaining low-cost advantages and consistent product quality. Because an FMS also enables the firm to reduce the lot size needed to manufacture a product efficiently, the firm has a greater capacity to serve the unique needs of a narrow competitive scope. In industries of all types, effective combinations of the firm's tangible assets ( e.g., machines) and intangible assets ( e.g., employees' skills) facilitate implementation of complex competitive strate­ gies, especially the integrated cost leadership/ differentiation strategy.

Information Networks By linking companies with their suppliers, distributors, and customers, information net­ works provide another source of flexibility. These networks, when used effectively, help the firm satisfy customer expectations in terms of product quality and delivery speed. 121

This photo illustrates the flexibility of computer aided manufac­

turing lines as two different vehicle bodies ore pieced together

on the some line.

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131

132

Total quality management

(TQM) involves the

implementation of

appropriate tools/techniques

to provide products and

services to customers with

best quality.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Earlier, we discussed the importance of managing the firm's relationships with its customers to understand their needs. Customer relationship management ( CRM) is one form of an information-based network process firms use for this purpose.122 An effective CRM system provides a 360-degree view of the company's relationship with customers, encompassing all contact points, business processes, and communication media and sales channels.

With more than 150,000 customers, Salesforce.com is the world's largest provider of customer-relationship management services.123 The firm is moving to the cloud,124

allowing large database storage and access from multiple devices including smartphones. Noting that cloud computing has been around for over two decades, Salesforce.com indi­ cated recently that over 69 percent of businesses already use cloud technology in one capacity or another. Highlighting the advantages of cloud computing when it comes to managing relationships with customers, Salesforce.com believes that there are at least 12 benefits that accrue to firms when they use this technology. Cost savings, security, flexibility, mobility, and insights are examples of these benefits.125 Firms use information about their customers to which they gain access to determine the trade-offs they are willing to make between differentiated features and low cost-an assessment that is vital for companies using the integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy. Firms also use information networks to manage their supply chains.126 Through these networks, firms use their supply chain to manage the flow of somewhat differentiated inputs as they pro­ ceed through the manufacturing process in a way that lowers costs.

Total Quality Management Systems Total quality management (TQM) "involves the implementation of appropriate tools/ techniques to provide products and services to customers with best qualitY:' 127 Firms develop and use TQM systems to

1. increase customer satisfaction, 2. cut costs, and 3. reduce the amount of time required to introduce innovative products to the

marketplace.128

Firms able to reduce costs while enhancing their ability to develop innovative products increase their flexibility, an outcome that is particularly helpful to companies implementing the integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy. Exceeding custom­ ers' expectations regarding quality is a differentiating feature and eliminating process inefficiencies to cut costs allows the firm to offer that quality to customers at a relatively low price. Thus, an effective TQM system helps the firm develop the flexibility needed to identify opportunities to increase its product's differentiated features and to reduce costs simultaneously.

Today, many firms have robust knowledge about how to establish and use a TQM system effectively. Because of this, it is typical for a firm's TQM system to yield compet­ itive parity (see Chapter 3) rather than competitive advantage.129 Nonetheless, because an effective TQM system helps firms increase product quality and reduce its costs, it is particularly valuable for companies implementing the integrated cost leadership/ differentiation strategy.

Competitive Risks of the Integrated Cost Leadership/Differentiation Strategy The potential to earn above-average returns by using the integrated cost leadership/ differentiation strategy successfully appeals to some leaders and their firms. However, it is a risky strategy in that firms find it difficult to perform primary value-chain

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy

activities and support functions in ways that allow them to produce relatively inex­ pensive products with levels of differentiation that create value for the target cus­ tomer. Moreover, to use this strategy effectively across time, it is necessary for firms to reduce costs incurred to produce products (as required by the cost leadership strategy) and to increase product differentiation (as required by the differentiation strategy) simultaneously.

Firms failing to perform the value-chain activities and support functions in an opti­ mum manner when implementing the integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy become "stuck in the middle:'130 Stuck in the middle means that the cost structure of a firm prevents it from offering its products to customers at a low enough price and that its products lack sufficient differentiation to create value for those customers.

This appears to be what happened to JCPenney in recent years. A key decision made during Ron Johnson's tenure as the firm's CEO (from November of 2011 until April of 2013) was to replace the firm's historic pricing strategy with a new one. Instead of offering sales to customers, often through coupons, Johnson decided that the firm should engage in an "everyday low prices" pricing strategy that he used with Apple Stores when he was an executive with that firm. In addition to eliminating coupon-based sales, Johnson changed the firm's floor merchandise and added boutiques/streets within the stores.131

Because of these actions, JCPenney become "stuck in the middle" in that its prices were no longer low enough to attract the firm's historic customers and its merchandise failed to create sufficient differentiation to attract new customers. Firms that are "stuck in the middle" fail to earn above-average returns and earn average returns only when the struc­ ture of the industry in which they compete is highly favorable.132

Failing to implement either the cost leadership or the differentiation strategy in ways that create value for customers also finds frrms stuck in the middle. In other words, industry­ wide competitors too can become stuck in the middle.

In spite of the risks, the integrated strategy is becoming more common and perhaps necessary in many industries because of technological advances and global competition. This strategy often necessitates a long-term perspective to make it work effectively, and therefore requires dedicated owners that support implementation of a long-term strategy that may require several years to generate positive returns.133

SUMMARY

A business model, which describes what a firm does to cre-

ate, deliver, and capture value for stakeholders, is part of a

firm's business-level strategy. In essence, a business model

133

A business-level strategy is an integrated and coordinated set

of commitments and actions the firm uses to gain a compet­

itive advantage by exploiting core competencies in specific

product markets. We examine five business-level strategies

(cost leadership, differentiation, focused cost leadership,

focused differentiation, and integrated cost leadership/

differentiation) in the chapter.

Customers are the foundation of successful business-level

strategies. When considering customers, a firm simultaneously

examines three issues: who, what, and how. These issues,

respectively, refer to the customer groups the firm intends

to serve, the needs those customers have that the firm seeks

is a framework for how the firm will use processes to create,

deliver, and capture value, while a business-level strategy is the

path the firm will follow to gain a competitive advantage by

exploiting its core competencies in a specific product market.

There are many types of business models including the fran­

chise, freemium, subscription, and peer-to-peer models. Firms

may pair each type of business model with any one of the five

generic business-level strategies as the firm seeks to compete

successfully against rivals.

to satisfy, and the core competencies the firm will use to sat­

isfy customers' needs. Increasing segmentation of markets

throughout the global economy creates opportunities for firms

to identify more distinctive customer needs that they can serve

by implementing their chosen business-level strategy.

Firms seeking competitive advantage through the cost lead­

ership strategy produce no-frills, standardized products for an

industry's typical customer. Firms must offer these low-cost

products to customers with competitive levels of differenti­

ation. Firms using this strategy earn above-average returns

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134

when they learn how to emphasize efficiency such that their

costs are lower than the costs of their competitors, while pro­

viding products to customers that have levels of differentiated

features that are acceptable to them.

Competitive risks associated with the cost leadership strategy

include (1) a loss of competitive advantage to newer technolo­

gies, (2) a failure to detect changes in customers' needs, and

(3) the ability of competitors to imitate the cost leader's com­

petitive advantage through their own distinct strategic actions.

Through the differentiation strategy, firms provide customers with

products that have different (and valued) features. Customers pay

a price for differentiated products that they believe is competitive

relative to the product's features as compared to the cost/feature

combinations available from competitors' products. Because of

their distinctiveness, differentiated products carry a premium

price. Firms differentiate products on any dimension that some

customer group values. Firms using this strategy seek to differenti­

ate their products from competitors' products on as many dimen­

sions as possible. The less similarity to competitors' offerings, the

more buffered a firm is from competition with its rivals.

Risks associated with the differentiation strategy include

(1) a customer group's decision that the unique features pro­

vided by the differentiated product over the cost leader's prod­

uct are no longer worth a premium price, (2) the inability of

a differentiated product to create the type of value for which

customers are willing to pay a premium price, (3) the ability

of competitors to provide customers with products that have

features similar to those of the differentiated product, but at a

lower cost, (4) the threat of counterfeiting, whereby firms

produce a cheap imitation of a differentiated product, and

(5) failing to implement the differentiation strategy in ways

that create value for which customers are willing to pay.

KEY TERMS

business-level strategy 1 06

business model 113

cost leadership strategy 116

differentiation strategy 120

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a business-level strategy?

2. What is the relationship between a firm's customers and its

business-level strategy in terms of who, what, and how? Why is

this relationship important?

3. What is a business model and how do business models differ

from business-level strategies?

4. What are the differences among the cost leadership, differ­

entiation, focused cost leadership, focused differentiation,

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Through the cost leadership and the differentiated focus strat­

egies, firms serve the needs of a narrow market segment (e.g.,

a buyer group, product segment, or geographic area). This

strategy is successful when firms have the core competencies

required to provide value to a specialized market segment

that exceeds the value available from firms serving customers

across the total market (industry).

The competitive risks of focus strategies include (1) a compet­

itor's ability to use its core competencies to "out focus" the

focuser by serving an even more narrowly defined market

segment, (2) decisions by industry-wide competitors to focus

on a customer group's specialized needs, and (3) a reduction in

differences of the needs between customers in a narrow mar­

ket segment and the industry-wide market.

Firms using the integrated cost leadership/differentiation

strategy strive to provide customers with relatively low-

cost products that also have valued differentiated features.

Flexibility is required for firms to learn how to use primary

value-chain activities and support functions in ways that

allow them to produce differentiated products at relatively

low costs. Flexible manufacturing systems, improvements to

them, and interconnectedness in information systems within

and between firms (buyers and suppliers) facilitate the flexi­

bility that supports use of the integrated strategy. Continuous

improvements to a firm's work processes as brought about by

a total quality management (TQM) system also facilitate use

of the integrated strategy. The primary risk of this strategy is

that a firm might produce products that do not offer sufficient

value in terms of either low cost or differentiation. In such

cases, the company becomes "stuck in the middle:' Firms stuck

in the middle compete at a disadvantage and are unable to

earn more than average returns.

focus strategy 124

integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy 130

market segmentation 110

total quality management (TQM) 132

and integrated cost leadership/differentiation business-level

strategies?

5. How can firms use each of the business-level strategies to

position themselves favorably relative to the five forces of

competition?

6. What are the specific risks associated with using each business­

level strategy?

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Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy 135

Mini-Case

Hain Celestial Group: A Firm Focused on "Organic" Differentiation

Business-level strategy, this chapter's focus, details actions a firm takes to compete successfully in a partic­ ular industry or industry segment by using its resources, capabilities, and core competencies to create a competitive advantage. Hain Celestial Group uses a differentiation strategy to compete against its rivals. As explained in this chapter, the differentiation strategy is one through which the firm seeks to differentiate itself from competitors in ways that create value for which target customers are willing to pay. By developing and using capabilities and competencies to produce and distribute unique types of natural and organic foods, Hain differentiates itself from competitors. Hain's strategy takes advantage of a newly evolving preference among some consumers in terms of the types of food products they buy. This consumer preference change, which in essence is a preference for food that is healthier and in some cases more responsive to environmental challenges, affects a number of firms including those growing food products, grocery stores that sell those products, and restaurants in which people consume the products.

Irwin Simon is Hain Celestial's founder and CEO. At the time of founding, Simon said that he "knew that the choice to eat more wholesome foods and live a healthier lifestyle wasn't a fad or a trend. It's a transformation peo­ ple want to make for the long term:' The company grew through a series of acquisitions of small organic and natural foods' producers. These acquisitions, as Simon puts it, are "not GE or Heinz or Campbell's ... . Growth is coming from companies like Ell's and BluePrint­ entrepreneurial start-ups:' The largest acquisition to date was Celestial Seasonings, a supplier of teas and juices. The firm's successful acquisition strategy has focused on "buying brands started by someone else" and then "figuring out how to grow them from there:'

Through these acquisitions and the products asso­ ciated with them and because of effective marketing programs, Hain is the largest supplier to natural food retailer W hole Foods Markets (now owned by Amazon). BluePrint, the company mentioned above, focuses on natural juices marketed to consumers to 'cleanse' their bodies. Brands such as Terra vegetable chips, Dream non-dairy milk, and Celestial Seasonings tea are

household names for the health-oriented shopper. Sales of Hain's portfolio of products result in Hain Celestial being the world's largest natural foods company.

The demand for natural food in general and for Hain's products in particular finds Hain selling its branded products to traditional grocery store chains; these sales account for about 60 percent of the firm's U.S. sales. In 2014, sales outside the United States accounted for the remaining 40 percent of Hain's revenue.

Meanwhile, large branded food firms without as intense of a focus on natural food products are experi­ encing revenue and earnings' challenges. Kraft Foods, Campbell Soup Company, and J.M. Smucker Company are examples of these firms. For these and similar firms, earnings have stalled in part because their brands do not focus on the natural and organic items that appeal to some of today customers, at least not to the degree that is the case for Hain Celestial. Partially because of this, Hain's earnings and stock price have climbed much higher on a relative basis.

To deal with the slump in revenue and earnings, large branded firm companies are implementing dif­ ferent strategies. Smucker's, for example, acquired Big Heart Pet Foods (maker of Milk-Bone dog treats and Meow Mix cat food) as a means of entering the pet food market quickly. Others, such as Nestle (maker of Crunch and Butterfinger candy bars and other chocolates), are removing artificial ingredients such as colors and dyes from candy and chocolate. Hershey Company and Mars, Inc., which collectively account for approximately 65 percent of the global market share in packaged candy, are reducing the amount of high fructose corn syrup in their food items. Mondelez is seeking to reduce saturated fats and sodium in its snacks by 10 percent. However, these changes do not allow these firms to overcome the problem of rapidly changing consumer tastes toward organic and natural foods.

Grocery stores, such as Kroger, Safeway, and Walmart, are also seeking to enter the natural or organic segment. Given its commitment to using the cost leadership strategy, Walmart's decision to introduce low-priced organic foods is not surprising. Walmart is joining W ild Oats Marketplace (an independent producer in the

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136

natural food segment) "to place about 100 organic prod­ ucts into its store" and the "Wild Oats line will be priced 25 percent lower than competing national organic brands:' Competition from a firm with success using the cost lead­ ership strategy (such as Walmart) will challenge Hain Celestial to emphasize the value of differentiated products to customers wanting to purchase natural or organic.

The trend toward organic foods is occurring in restau­ rants as well. Chipotle Mexican Grill, Inc., for example, commits to providing customers with "Food with Integrity:' For Chipotle, this means serving foods made with local, sustainably produced organic products and using meats from naturally raised-not factory farm-animals.

To address what had become somewhat unimpres­ sive sales growth beginning in 2016, Hain Celestial contemplated the possibility of selling its organic meat businesses in mid-2018. Instead of meats, executives

Case Discussion Questions

1. We note in the Mini-Case that Hain Celestial is implementing

the differentiation strategy. Provide examples of the competi­

tive dimensions on which this firm focuses while implementing

its differentiation strategy.

2 On what environmental trends did Hain Celestial base its

business-level strategy? What environmental trends could

have a negative effect on this firm's strategy in the future?

Why?

NOTES

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

evaluated the possibility of expanding the firm's efforts to provide protein options to customers through some of its other products such as an array of organic nuts.

Sources: 2018, Founder's message, Hain Celestial Homepage, www.hain .com, February 28; 2018, Hain Celestial reports second quarter fiscal year 2018 financial results, Hain Celestial Homepage, www.hain.com, February 7; A. Gasparro & A. Hufford, 2018, Hain looks to sell meat business as U.S. sales fall, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, February 7; J. Bacon, 2015, Brands capitalize on health-driven resolutions, Marketing Week, www.marketingweek.com, January 29; A. Chen & A. Gasparro, 2015, Smucker's latest food firm hurt by changing tastes, Wall Street Journal, February 14-15, B4; A. Gasparro, 2015, Indigestion hits food giants, Wall Street Journal, February 13, Bl; A. Gasparro, 2015, Nestle bars artificial color, flavors, Wall Street Journal, February 18, B6; M. Esterl, 2015, PepsiCo earnings, revenue drop on foreign-exchange impact, Wall Street Journal,www.wsj.com, February 12; L. Light, 2015, How to revive McDonald's, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, February 11; M. Alva, 2014, Organic growth comes naturally to Hain Celestial Group, Investor's Business Daily, July 24, AS; A. Kingston, 2014, Juice junkies, Maclean's, June 30, 64-66; SCTWeek, 2014, Walmart to sell low-price organic food, 2014, SCTWeek, April II, 4.

3. In years to come, should Hain try to grow primarily organi­

cally, through collaborative strategies such as joint ventures

and strategic alliances, or through mergers and acquisitions?

Explain your answer. (Glance ahead to Chapter 7 to learn about

mergers and acquisitions and to Chapter 9 to learn about joint

ventures and strategic alliances.)

4. What are the most serious competitive challenges you antic­

ipate Hain Celestial will face over the next ten years? How

should the firm respond to these challenges?

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 4: Business-Level Strategy 139

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22: 3-15. 94. C. W. Craighead, D. J. Ketchen, Jr., M. T. 110. F. Lambert, 2018, Harley-Davidson invests

84. M. J. Donate & J. D. Sanchez de Pablo, 2015, Jenkins, & T. R. Holcomb, 2017, A supply in electric motorcycle startup Alta Motors

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in knowledge management practices and moves in emerging markets, Journal of Electrek, www.electrek.com, March 1.

innovation, Journal of Business Research, 68: Supply Chain Management, 53: 3 -12; J. W. 111. A. De Massis, D. Audretsch, L. Uhlaner, &

360-370. Upson, D. J. Ketchen, Jr., B. L. Connelly, & N. Kammerlander, 2018, Innovation with

85. R. Bunduchi, 2017, Legitimacy-seeking A. L. Ranft, 2012, Competitor analysis and limited resources: Management lessons

mechanisms in product innovation: foothold moves, Academy of Management from the German Mittelstand, Journal of

A qualitative study, Journal of Product Journal, 55: 93-110. Product Innovation Management, 35:

Innovation Management, 34: 315-342. 95. A. Capaldo, D. Lavie, & A. M. Petruzzelli, 125-146; C. E. Armstrong, 2012, Small

86. D. Alfakhir, D. Haress, J. Nicholson, & T. 2017, Knowledge maturity and the retailer strategies for battling the big

Harness, 2018, The role of aesthetics and scientific value of innovations, Journal boxes: A "Goliath" victory?, Journal

design in hotelscape: A phenomenological of Management, 43: 503-533; J. Harvey, of Strategy and Management, 4: 41-56.

investigation of cosmopolitan consumers, P. Cohendet, L. Simon, & S. Borzillo, 112. R. P. Lee & X. Tang, 2018, Dos it pay to

Journal of Business Research, 85: 523-531; H. 2015, Knowing communities in the front be innovation and imitation oriented?

(Meg) Meng, C. Zamudio, & R. D. Jewell, end of innovation, Research-Technology An examination of the antecedents

2018, Unlocking competitiveness through Management, 58: 46-54. and consequences of innovation and

scent names: A data-driven approach, 96. C. Castaldi, 2018, To trademark or not to imitation orientations, Journal of Product

Business Horizons, 61: 385-395. trademark: The case of the creative and Innovation Management, 35: 11-26; C.

87. B. J. Allen, D. Chandrasekaran, & S. Basuroy, cultural industries, Research Policy, 47: Cennamo & J. Santalo, 2013, Platform

2018, Design crowdsourcing: The impact 606-616; J. West & M. Bogers, 2014, competition: Strategic trade-offs in

on new product performance of sourcing Leveraging external sources of innovation: platform markets, Strategic Management

design solutions from the "crowd;' Journal A review of research on open innovation, Journal, 34: 1331-1350.

of Marketing, 82: 106-123; R. Simons, 2014, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 113. 2018, Corporate fact sheet, Target

Choosing the right customer, Harvard 31: 814-831. Homepage, www.target.com, March 5.

Business Review, 92(3): 48-55. 97. F. Marticotte & M. Arcand, 2017, 114. 5. Awate, M. M. Larsen, & R. Mudambi,

88. 2018, About us, Halliburton Homepage, Schadenfreude, attitude and the purchase 2015, Accessing vs. sourcing knowl edge:

www.halliburton.com, March 3. intentions of a counterfeit luxury brand, A comparative study of R&D

89. C. Dawson, 2018, Subaru's plan to woo Journal of Business Research, 77: 175-183; internationalization between emerging

Americans: A roomy SUV with 19 cup J. Chen, L. Teng, L. 5. Liu, & H. Zhu, 2015, and advanced economy firms, Journal

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90. C. Giachelli, J. Lampel, & 5. L. Pira, 2017, products, Journal of Business Research, A process model of dynamic capability

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U.K. mobile phone industry, Academy 98. M. H. Meyer, 0. Osiyevskyy, D. Libaers, Manufacturing sector, Management and

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The path dependence of organizational Innovation Management, 35: 66-87; 5. Chen, through product architecture: Lessons

reputation: How social judgment influences Y. Kim, & C. Kohli, 2017, A Korean, a Chinese, from China, Journal of Business Strategy,

assessments of capability and character, and an Indian walk into an American bar: 31(3): 12-20.

Strategic Management Journal, 33: 459-477. Tapping the Asian-American goldmine, 116. R. J. Schonberger & K. A. Brown, 2017,

91. D. E. D' Souza, P. Sigdyal, & E. Struckell, Business Horizons, 60: 91-100. Missing link in competitive manufacturing

2017, Relative ambidexterity: A measure 99. 2018, Our company, Goya Foods Homepage, research and practice: Customer-responsive

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Management Perspectives, 31: 124-136; D. 100. Porter, Competitive Advantage, 15. Management, 49-51: 83-87; 2016,

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& M. Zollo, 2015, Understanding the Successfully Launching New Ventures, 6th ed. manufacturing system, CPV Manufacturing,

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study of attention control and decision- Homepage, www.ikea.com, March 3. 117. 2018, Flexible Manufacturing System-FMS,

making performance, Strategic Management 103. J. R. Hagerty, 2018, lngvar Kamp rad made lnvestopedia, www.investipodia.com,

Journal, 36: 319-338. IKEA a global retailer by keeping it simple, March 8.

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140 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

118. Reuters staff, 2018, Factbox: Chinese 123. 2018, Thanks to our trailblazing 128. H.-H. Lee & C. Li, 2018, Supplier quality

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deal for Chinese electric cars in time for 125. 2018, 12 benefits of cloud computing case study of sustaining quality as

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November 8. .com, March 5. of Operations Management, 32: 429--445.

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575-601. and practice, Journal of Business Logistics, 130. Porter, Competitive Advantage, 16.

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in social media analytics, Journal of Implementation in the automotive sector, entrepreneurial orientation and

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697-702. Excellence, 29: 524-545. performance, 2017.

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5

Studying this chapter should provide

you with the strategic management knowledge needed to:

L5 1 Define competitors, competitive rivalry, competitive behavior, and competitive dynamics.

5-2 Describe market commonality and resource similarity as the building blocks of a competitor analysis.

5-3 Explain awareness, motivation, and ability as drivers of competitive behavior.

5-4 Describe how strategic actions and tactical actions drive competitive rivalry between firms.

5-5 Discuss factors affecting the likelihood a firm will take actions to attack its competitors.

5-6 Explain factors affecting the likelihood a firm will respond to actions its competitors take.

5-7 Explain competitive dynamics in slow-cycle, fast-cycle, and standard- cycle markets.

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. "ii '

C yright 2020 Ccngagc Learni All Rights Reserved.

Editoria view has deemed tha1 any s rcssed content does

THE GROCERY INDUSTRY: WELCOME TO A NEW COMPETITIVE

LANDSCAPE

Saying that his firm is "incredibly focused on the customer of the future;' Kroger Co:s CEO noted recently that investments in on line ordering and the ability to stock new products in its stores were vital to the firm's desire to increase its profitability in 2020 and the years beyond. Kroger is ex­ periencing intense competition from an array of competitors including storefront operators such as Aldi (you will learn more about Aldi in this chapter's Mini-Case), Wal mart, and Safeway. Kroger now faces additional competition from on line competitor Amazon through this firm's purchase of Whole Foods and from Wal mart because of its efforts to enhance its on line grocery-selling capability. Amazon paid approximately $13.7 billion to buy Whole Foods in 2017. (In the Opening Case for Chapter 6, we offer this acquisition as an example of Amazon's corporate-level strategy of related diversification.) Simultaneously, Walmart was allocating additional resources to enhance its on line capabilities. The additional competition from Amazon, Walmart, and others influences and stimulates Kroger's intention to enhance its online capabilities as part of a robust effort to focus with greater clarity and effectiveness on custom­ ers and their needs.

Amazon's purchase of Whole Foods is a f strategic action. Defined } and discussed later in this � chapter, strategic actions find firms allocating resources to execute significant market-based actions with the potential

-

B\ SAV

With rising competition from Amazon and Walmart, Kroger's online

capabilities are vital to increasing its profitability in the future .

to affect competition among rivals within an industry. Speaking about the acquisition of Whole Foods, some analysts suggested that "the impact of this in the grocery industry is going to be huge:'Typically, strategic actions, such as Amazon's purchase of Whole Foods, elicit strategic responses. Explored in this chapter, strategic responses, which also are resource-intense, are actions competitors take to respond in the marketplace to a rival's strategic action(s). Given Amazon's strategic action, what is an appropriate strategic response for Kroger to take?

Kroger is the largest supermarket chain in the United States, with roughly 2,800 stores in 35 U.S. states in 2018. The firm has a well-known brand name, a historic ability to satisfy stakeholders through its performance, and a vision of"imagining a world with Zero hunger and Zero waste as we transform communities and improve health for millions of Americans:' Because of this, Kroger appears to have the potential required to achieve its objective of serving the customer of tomorrow effectively and efficiently and to respond successfully to Amazon's strategic action in the process of doing so.

In contemplating the strategic and tactical responses (tactical actions and responses are described in this chapter) it will take regarding Amazon's purchase of Whole Foods, Kroger and other traditional grocery storefront operators such as Safeway must recognize the significance of the challenge they face. Some believe, for example, that "the shift to e-commerce is not like the other marketplace ebbs and flows Kroger has weathered over the years. It is a dramatically different business model, with a new set of competitors, logistical hurdles and profitability impediments:' Recognizing this reality, Kroger's CEO observed that "investments in online ordering were critical to Kroger's future and would take two or three

144

Competitors are firms

operating in the same market, offering similar products, and

targeting similar customers.

Competitive rivalry is the

ongoing set of competitive

actions and competitive

responses that occur among

firms as they maneuver for

an advantageous market

position.

years to build:' Examples of the strategic response Kroger is taking relative to Amazon's

strategic action-and those of other competitors as well-include the following: (1) building

fewer physical storefronts as a means of generating financial capital to develop e-commerce

options; (2) increasing the number of its storefront locations where customers can collect

groceries they ordered on line; (3) working with suppliers to reduce its freight costs, with

generated savings going to e-commerce investments; (4) re-engineering its supply chain

to become "more omnichannel, allowing (its) customers to order via desktop or mobile, in­

store, or by phone"; (5) investing in technology and infrastructure to support its emerging

e-commerce operations and (6) evaluating acquisitions and partnerships as a way of expand­

ing its reach with U.S. customers and potentially to establish international operations as well.

The reality of competitive rivalry and competitive dynamics, though, is that competitors

engage continuously in a series of actions and responses. Thus, while Kroger is responding

to actions launched by rivals such as Amazon and Walmart, those firms will in turn respond

to Kroger's responses. For example, almost immediately after acquiring Whole Foods, Amazon assessed ways to offer Whole Foods' products to its Prime customers. This is one

example of Amazon's apparent intention of using Whole Foods' physical locations to expand

its grocery delivery services. Over time, we can expect to see continuing efforts (in the form of strategic and tactical actions and strategic and tactical responses) between Amazon and

Kroger (and between these firms and other grocery industry competitors) for the express

purpose of establishing a favorable position in the marketplace.

Sources: H. Haddon, 2018, Kroger shares drop as battle with Amazon cuts into profits, Wal/ Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 8; H. Haddon, 2018, Kroger earnings: What to watch for, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 2; E. Harper, 2018, What to expect from Amazon in 2018, Techspot, www.techspot.com, January 11; G. Bruno, 2017, Why Amazon really bought Whole Foods, The Street, www.thestreet.com, October 11; T. Kim, 2017, Amazon's booming online sales and Whole Foods acquisition make it a buy: Analysts, CNBC, www.cnbc.com, October 24; S. Halzack, 2017, Kroger must admit its Amazon problem, Bloomberg, www.blomberg.com, October 11; G. Petro, 2017, Amazon's acquisition of Whole Foods is about two things: Data and product, Forbes, www.forbes.com, August 2; N. Walters, 2017, 3 things Kroger must do to compete with Amazon's Whole Foods, The Motley Fool, www.thefool.com, November 8, 2017, What industry analysts and insiders are saying about Amazon buying Whole Foods, Reuters, www.reuters.com, June 16.

F irms operating in the same market, offering similar products, and targeting similar customers are competitors.' Thus, in the grocery business, Amazon ( through Whole

Foods) and Kroger engage in competitive behavior (defined fully below, competitive behavior is essentially the set of actions and responses a firm takes as it competes against its rivals). Of course, Whole Foods and Kroger also compete against many other rivals including Safeway, Costco, Walmart, and Aldi.

Firms interact with competitors as part of the broad context within which they oper­ ate while attempting to earn above-average returns.2 Another way to consider this is to note that firms do not compete in a vacuum; rather, each firm's actions are part of a mosaic of competitive actions and responses taking place among a host of companies seeking the same objective-establishing a desirable position in the market as a means of having superior performance relative to competitors. Evidence shows that the deci­ sions firms make about their interactions with competitors affect their ability to earn above-average returns.3 Because of this, firms seek to reach optimal decisions when considering how to compete against their rivals.4

Competitive rivalry is the ongoing set of competitive actions and competitive responses that occur among firms as they maneuver for an advantageous market posi­ tion.5 Especially in highly competitive industries, firms jockey constantly for advantage as they launch strategic actions and respond or react to rivals' moves.6 It is important for those leading organizations to understand competitive rivalry because the real­ ity is that some firms learn how to outperform their competitors, meaning that com­ petitive rivalry influences an individual firm's ability to gain and sustain competitive

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

advantages.7 Rivalry results from firms initiating their own competitive actions and then responding to actions taken by competitors.8

In the Strategic Focus, we discuss competitive rivalry that is emerging among firms seeking the most advantageous market position in the energy-storage battery market. As you will see, rivalry is becoming more intense in this market as firms seek to serve customers' needs to store energy they can use later. In the Strategic Focus, we examine competitive rivalry among firms competing to establish the most attractive position in the market to provide large-scale storage capabilities to customers.

Competitive behavior is the set of competitive actions and responses a firm takes to build or defend its competitive advantages and to improve its market position.9

As explained in the Opening Case, it appears that a desire to expand the channels through which it can deliver groceries is one reason Amazon acquired Whole Foods. In this sense, Amazon's interest in Whole Foods as a distribution channel may exceed its interest in Whole Foods' physical storefronts.10 Also helping Amazon to improve its market position and ability to earn above-average returns by selling groceries is the expectation that in the longer term, Amazon may leverage the "Whole Foods Market brand and supply chain to source high-quality food and build demand for it, but ulti­ mately leverage Amazon's expertise to drive efficiency in the logistics efforts, fulfilling orders outside of the Whole Foods Market store footprint."" In response to Amazon's competitive behavior, Kroger and other competitors are taking actions to defend their current market positions (e.g., Kroger's storefront operations) while trying to enhance their competitive ability in related market positions (e.g., Kroger's actions to improve its e-commerce operations).

Increasingly, competitors engage in competitive actions and responses in more than one market.12 United and Delta, Google and Apple, and oil field services compa­ nies Halliburton and Schlumberger are examples of firms for whom this is the case. Firms competing against each other in several product or geographic markets engage in multimarket competition.13 Competitive dynamics is the total set of competi­ tive actions and responses taken by all firms competing within a market.14 We show the relationships among all of these key concepts in Figure 5.1.

In this chapter, we focus on competitive rivalry and competitive dynamics. A firm's strategies are dynamic in nature in that actions taken by one firm elicit responses from competitors that typically result in responses from the firm that took the initial action.'s Dynamism describes the competition occurring among four technology giants to have the leadership position in voice recognition. In the early stages of competition today, Amazon's Alexa is the market leader. However, the competition for the leadership position in voice recognition is intense as Amazon battles with Apple's Siri, Microsoft's Cortana, and Google's Assistant.16

Gaining the leadership position in the voice recognition market is critical in that voice recognition has the potential to be a disruptive technology. Makers of household items such as Unilever, Procter & Gamble, and Nestle SA recognize this reality and are engaging in competitive actions as a result. Unilever, for example, which owns Hellmann's mayonnaise and Domestos toilet cleaner among many prod­ ucts, "has developed Alexa apps that give free recipes and cleaning tips that may or may not incorporate Unilever brands." In spite of this, Unilever sees this app as a new and hopefully effective way to make consumers aware of their products as a foundation for purchasing them in the future if not today.17 In 2018, analysts felt that "the winning virtual assistant (would) be the one that first achieves ubiquity. It's about doing everything, and being everywhere. Once people pick an assistant and start using it in their lives, they're not likely to switch. The stakes are high, and immediate:' 18

145

Competitive behavior

is the set of competitive

actions and responses a firm

takes to build or defend its

competitive advantages

and to improve its market

position.

Multimarket competition

occurs when firms compete

against each other in several

product or geographic

markets.

Competitive dynamics is

the total set of competitive

actions and responses taken

by all firms competing within

a market.

Copyright 2020 Cengagc Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied. scanned, or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to clcc1ronic rights. some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

146 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

The Emergence of Competitive Rivalry among Battery Manufacturers:

Who Will Establish the Most Attractive Market Position?

Although small in size today, the growth potential of the

battery-storage market is substantial. "Utilities looking for less

expensive alternatives to power plants that fire up during peak

hours to meet power demands" are a key customer for the

manufacturers of large-scale battery-storage products. Utility

companies encounter the challenge of having sufficient capac­

ity to meet peak demand for energy consumption. Commonly,

mornings and evenings are the times when customers use the

greatest amounts of the product utilities provide. At non-peak

times though, utilities have idle capacity. Examining today's

competitive scene finds IHS Markit predicting that the global

market for batteries in the power sector will expand annually

by 14 percent through at least 202S. Thus, energy storage on a

large-scale basis is an attractive market.

Increasing levels of power generation from renewable

energy sources such as wind and power and the need

to store that energy influence the growth in large-scale

battery-storage units. The challenge with wind and solar as

energy sources is that they are intermittent energy sources.

In this sense, power companies do not know exactly when

the wind will blow (and for how long and at what velocity)

and exactly when the sun will shine (and for how long and

with what degree of intensity). Large-scale storage batteries

address this issue by allowing the capture of wind- and

solar-generated power when created and then storing it

until needed to meet consumer demand. In the words of

an industry expert: "With large grid systems, batteries can

be attached directly to generation sources such as wind

turbines and solar panels to store and release excess elec­

tricity that the grid can't absorb in that moment, or even

be used in hybridizing conventional power generation (gas

engines or turbines) in order to enhance the flexibility of

and speed of response to grid intermittencY:'The decreas­

ing cost of lithium-ion batteries is increasing the attractive­

ness of large-scale, battery-storage systems. (Small versions

of lithium-ion batteries power our cell phones and a host of

other products.)

Tesla, Siemens AG, and General Electric (GE) are primary

competitors in the large-scale, battery-storage system

market. The commercial attractiveness of this market elicits

competition among these competitors as they jockey to

establish the most attractive market position. In mid-2017, for

example, Tesla announced that in partnership with Neoen, a

French renewable energy provider, it would build, deliver, and

install the world's largest lithium battery to a location north

of Jamestown, South Australia in 100 days. Tesla fulfilled this

promise and delivered a battery-storage product that runs

constantly and provides stability services for renewable energy

sources and is available for emergency backup power in case

of an energy shortfall. Early operational results from using this

product were positive.

Recognizing the importance of battery-storage size in

what is an attractive market and to compete against Tesla,

Siemens and AES combined their efforts to form an energy

storage start-up called Fluence Energy. This partnership com­

menced operations on January 1, 2018; the firm immediately

became the "supplier of AES' Alamitos power center energy

storage project in Long Beach, California serving Southern

California Edison and the Western Los Angeles area:· Fluence's

battery-storage project was to be the largest in the world,

exceeding the size ofTesla's project in Southern Australia.

Trying to catch up to rivals Tesla and Siemens, GE

announced in early 2018 that it would establish a giant

energy-storage platform called GE Reservoir. This platform "is

expected to store electricity generated by wind turbines and

solar panels for later use:·

How do GE's, Tesla's, and Siemens' products differ? What

position will each firm's product allow it to establish in the

large-scale battery-storage market7 With respect to GE, some

analysts observe that "one of GE's biggest challenges will

Copyright 2020 Cengagc Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied. scanned, or duplicated. in whole or in part. Due to clcc1ronic rights. some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).

Editorial review has deemed thar any suppressed content docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngage Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional contcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

be differentiating its battery products from those offered by

competitors such as Fluence:' Early responses to this challenge

suggest that GE's Reservoir platform lasts approximately

15 percent longer than competitors' products; faster installa­

tion of the platform is a second differentiator. Thus, product

longevity and installation ease may be the foundation for GE's

effort to "stake out" a viable market position. For Tesla, being a

first mover ( this concept is discussed later in the chapter) and

being very willing to collaborate with governmental agencies

to install products may be sources of differentiation (Tesla and

Neoen partnered with the South Australian government to

establish their battery-storage system). Siemens uses a "holistic

approach" to serve battery-storage customers. In this sense, the

firm notes that it offers "customers in the battery industry

solutions comprising software, automation and drives spanning

the entire value chain:'Thus, integrated technology solutions

may be a marketplace differentiator for Siemens and for

Fluence, the start-up formed by Siemens and AES.

Going forward, these three major competitors will encoun­

ter competition from additional entrants to a very attractive

Figure 5.1 From Competition to Competitive Dynamics

Compet Competitive

itors Engage in

Rivalry

u,

u,

•-.)

• Competitive Dynamics

147

market. Overall, "competition in the energy storage market will

only improve the industry, forcing companies like Tesla and the

newly-established Fluence (and GE) to continue being innova­

tive:'Thus, energy customers throughout the world will benefit

from the competitive rivalry occurring among firms seeking to

establish the most attractive market position.

Sources: 2018, Siemens backs efficient digitalized large-scale production of

batteries, Siemens Homepage, www.siemens.co, February 22; E. Ailworth, 2018,

GE Power, in need of a lift, chases Tesla and Siemens in batteries, Waif Street Journal,

www.wsj.com, March 7; J. Cropley, 2018, GE rolls out battery-based energy storage

product, Daily Gazette, www.dailygazette.com, March 7;T. Kellner, 2018, Making

waves: GE unveils plans to build an offshore wind turbine the size of a skyscraper,

the world's most powerful, Renewables, www.ge.com, Mary 1; F. Lambert, 2018,

AES and Siemens launch new energy storage startup to compete with Tesla

Energy, will supply new world's biggest battery project, Efectrek, www.electrek.

com, January 11; C. Mimms, 2018, The battery boost we've been waiting for is only

a few years out, Waif Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 18; S. Patterson & R. Gold,

2018, There's a global race to control batteries-and China is winning, Waif Street

Journal, www.wsj.com, February 11; 8. Spaen, 2018, New 'Fluence Energy' builds

world's biggest storage system in Californ ia, GreenMarrers, www.greenmatters.com,

January 12; 8. Fung, 2017, Tesla's enormous battery in Australia, just weeks old, is

already responding to outages in 'record' time, Washington Post, www.washingtonpost

.com, December 26; I. Slav, 2017, Tesla is facing stiff competition in the energy

storage war, Oil Price.com, www.oilprice.com, July 17.

Why? • To gain an advantageous market position

,___

How? _

• Through Competitive Behavior • Competitive actions • Competitive responses

What results? I +

• Competitive actions and responses taken by all firms competing in a market

Source: Adapted from M. J. Chen, 1996, Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry: Toward a theoretical integration, Academy of Management Review, 21: 100-134.

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148 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Competitive rivalries such as those among Amazon, Google, Apple, and Microsoft in the voice recognition market affect a firm's strategies. This is because a strategy's success is a function of the firm's initial competitive actions, how well it anticipates competitors' responses to them, and how well the firm anticipates and responds to its competitors' initial actions. ("Attacks" is another term for a firm's initial competitive actions.)19 Competitive rivalry affects all types of strategies (e.g., corporate-level, merger and acquisition, inter­ national, and cooperative). However, its dominant influence is on business-level strategy. Indeed, firms' actions and responses to those of their rivals are part of the basic building blocks of business-level strategies.

Recall from Chapter 4 that business-level strategy is concerned with what the firm does to use its core competencies in specific product markets in ways that yield com­ petitive success. In the global economy, competitive rivalry is intensifying, meaning that its effect on firms' strategies is increasing. However, firms that develop and use effective business-level strategies tend to outperform competitors in individual product markets, even when experiencing intense competitive rivalry.20

5-1 A Model of Competitive Rivalry Competitive rivalry evolves from the pattern of actions and responses as one firm's com­ petitive actions have noticeable effects on competitors, eliciting competitive responses from them.21 This pattern suggests that firms are mutually interdependent, that competi­ tors' actions and responses affect them, and that marketplace success is a function of both individual strategies and the consequences of their use. 22

Increasingly, executives recognize that competitive rivalry can have a major effect on the firm's financial performance and market position. 23 For example, research shows that intensified rivalry within an industry results in decreased average profitability for the competing firms.24 For example, at least in the short run, increased rivalry for Kroger, Safeway, Aldi, and others from Amazon and Walmart may reduce the profitability for all firms competing to sell and delivery grocery items.

Figure 5.2 presents a straightforward model of competitive rivalry at the firm level; this type of rivalry is usually dynamic and complex. The competitive actions and responses the firm takes are the foundation for successfully building and using its capabilities and core competencies to gain an advantageous market position.25

Figure 5.2 A Model of Competitive Reality

Competitive Rival ry • Likelihood of Attack

• First-mover benefits

Competitor Analysis Drivers of Competitive

• Organizational size Outcomes Behavior

• Quality • Market position• Market commonality f-+. • Awareness - � • Likelihood of Response • Financial• Resource similarity • Motivation

• Ability • Type of competitive performance

• action I I • Actor's reputation I I • Market dependence I I I

Feedback

Source: Adapted from M. J. Chen, 1996, Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry: Toward a theoretical integration, Academy of Management Review, 21: 100-134.

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

The model in Figure 5.2 presents the sequence of activities occurring as competitors compete against each other. Companies use this model to understand how to predict a competitor's behavior and reduce the uncertainty associated with it.26 Being able to predict competitors' actions and responses has a positive effect on the firm's market position and its subsequent financial performance. 27 The total of all the individual rivalries shown in Figure 5.2 that occur in a particular market reflects the competitive dynamics in that market.

The remainder of the chapter explains components of the model shown in Figure 5.2. We first describe market commonality and resource similarity as the building blocks of a competitor analysis. Next, we discuss the effects of three organizational characteristics­ awareness, motivation, and ability-on the firm's competitive behavior. We then examine competitive rivalry between firms (interfirm rivalry). To do this, we explain the factors that affect the likelihood a firm will take a competitive action and the factors that affect the likelihood a firm will respond to a competitor's action. In the chapter's final section, we turn our attention to competitive dynamics to describe how market characteristics affect competitive rivalry in slow-, fast-, and standard-cycle markets.

5-2 Competitor Analysis As noted previously, a competitor analysis is the first step the firm takes to predict the extent and nature of its rivalry with each competitor. Competitor analyses are also import­ ant when entering a foreign market because firms doing so need to understand the local competition and foreign competitors operating in that market.28 Without such analyses, they are less likely to be successful.

Market commonality refers to the number of markets in which firms compete against each other, while resource similarity refers to the similarity in competing firms' resource portfolios (we discuss both terms fully later in the chapter). These two dimensions of competition determine the extent to which firms are competitors. Firms with high mar­ ket commonality and highly similar resources are direct and mutually acknowledged competitors. The drivers of competitive behavior-as well as factors influencing the like­ lihood that a competitor will initiate competitive actions and will respond to its compet­ itors' actions-influence the intensity of rivalry.

In Chapter 2, we discussed competitor analysis as a technique firms use to under­ stand their competitive environment. Together, the general, industry, and competitive environments comprise the firm's external environment. We also described how firms use competitor analysis to help them understand their competitors. This understanding results from studying competitors' future objectives, current strategies, assumptions, and capabilities (see Figure 2.3 in Chapter 2).

In this chapter, we extend the discussion of competitor analysis to describe what firms study to be able to predict competitors' behavior in the form of their competitive actions and responses. The discussions of competitor analysis in Chapter 2 and in this chapter are complementary in that firms must first understand competitors (Chapter 2) before their competitive actions and responses can be predicted (this chapter).

Being able to predict rivals' likely competitive actions and responses accurately helps a firm avoid situations in which it is unaware of competitors' objectives, strat­ egies, assumptions, and capabilities. Lacking the information needed to predict these conditions for competitors creates competitive blind spots. Typically, competitive blind spots find a firm caught off guard by a competitor's actions, potentially resulting in negative outcomes.29 Members of a firm's board of directors are a source of knowledge and expertise about other businesses and industry environments that can help a firm avoid competitive blind spots.

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149

150 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Market commonality is

concerned with the number

of markets with which the

firm and a competitor are

jointly involved and the

degree of importance of the

individual markets to each.

5-2a Market Commonality Every industry is composed of various markets. The financial services industry has mar­ kets for insurance, brokerage services, banks, and so forth. To concentrate on the needs of different, unique customer groups, firms may further subdivide the markets they intend to serve. The insurance market could be broken into market segments (such as commer­ cial and consumer), product segments (such as health insurance and life insurance), and geographic markets (such as Southeast Asia and Western Europe). In general, the capa­ bilities that Internet technologies generate help to shape the nature of industries' markets along with patterns of competition within those industries.

Companies want to be vigilant about identifying new market segments that they may be able to serve with their product. Recently, for example, business software companies turned their attention to the blue-collar workforce to sell their product. "Knowledge workers" was the market segment these firms served historically. In the United States alone, there are over 113 million plumbers, contractors, garage-door specialists, and so forth that business software companies believe can benefit from their products and ser­ vices. These workers can use the sophisticated, yet intuitive software on tablets that soft­ ware companies such as UpKeep Technologies are developing to exchange data with their home office while on the job and to show customers what the cost of repairs would be as well as the appearance of the finished project. The growth potential of this market seg­ ment for business software companies is significant.30

Competitors such as rivals in the business software market tend to agree about the different characteristics of individual markets that form an industry. For example, in the transportation industry, the commercial air travel market differs from the ground trans­ portation market, which is served by such firms as YRC Worldwide ( one of the largest, less-than-truckload-LTL-carriers in North America with awards including selection as Walmart's LTL Carrier of the Year) and its major competitors Arkansas Best, Con-way, Inc., and FedEx Freight.31 Although differences exist, many industries' markets share some similarities in terms of technologies used or core competencies needed to develop a competitive advantage. For example, although railroads and truck ground transport compete in different segments and can be substitutes, different types of transportation companies all need to provide reliable and timely service. Commercial air carriers such as Southwest, United, and JetBlue must therefore develop service competencies to satisfy their passengers, while ground transport companies such as YRC, railroads, and their major competitors must develop such competencies to satisfy the needs of those using their services to ship goods.

Firms sometimes compete against each other in several markets, a condition called market commonality. More formally, market commonality is concerned with the number of markets with which the firm and a competitor are involved jointly and the degree of importance of the individual markets to each.32 Firms competing against one another in several markets engage in multimarket competition.33 Coca-Cola and PepsiCo compete across a number of product markets (e.g., soft drinks, bottled water) as well as geographic markets (throughout North America and in many other countries throughout the world). Airlines, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and consumer foods are examples of other indus­ tries with firms often competing against each other in multiple markets.

Firms competing in several of the same markets have the potential to respond to a competitor's actions within the market in which the competitor took an action as well as in other markets where they compete with the rival. This potential creates a complicated mosaic in which the firm may decide to initiate competitive actions or responses in one market with the desire to affect the outcome of its rivalry with a particular competitor in a second market.34 This potential complicates the rivalry between competitors. In fact,

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

research suggests that a firm with greater multimarket contact is less likely to initiate an attack, but more likely to respond aggressively when attacked. For instance, research in the computer industry found that "firms respond to competitive attacks by introducing new products but do not use price as a retaliatory weapon:' 35 Thus, in general, multimar­ ket competition reduces competitive rivalry, but some firms will still compete when the potential rewards (e.g., potential market share gain) are high.36

5-2b Resource Similarity Resource similarity is the extent to which the firm's tangible and intangible resources compare favorably to a competitor's in terms of type and amount.37 Firms with similar types and amounts of resources tend to have similar strengths and weaknesses and use similar strategies in light of their strengths to pursue what may be similar opportunities in the external environment.

"Resource similarity" describes part of the competitive relationship between FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS). These companies compete in many of the same mar­ kets, meaning that both market commonality and resource similarity describe their relationship. For example, these firms have similar types of truck and airplane fleets, similar levels of financial capital, and rely on equally talented reservoirs of human cap­ ital along with sophisticated information technology systems (resources). In addition to competing aggressively against each other in North America, the firms share many other markets in common in various countries and regions. Thus, the rivalry between FedEx and UPS is intense.

When performing a competitor analysis, a firm analyzes each of its competitors with respect to market commonality and resource similarity. It then maps the results of its analyses for visual comparisons. In Figure 5.3, we show different hypothetical intersec­ tions between the firm and individual competitors in terms of market commonality and resource similarity. These intersections indicate the extent to which the firm and those with which it compares itself are competitors. For example, the firm and its competitor displayed in quadrant I have similar types and amounts of resources (i.e., the two firms

Figure 5.3 A Framework of Competitor Analysis

High

Market Commonality

Low QJ Low

II

Ill IV

Resource Similarity

L]

High

The shaded area represents the degree of market commonality between two firms.

D Portfolio of resources A <:J Portfolio of resources B

Source: Adapted from M. J. Chen, 1996, Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalr y: Toward a theoretical integration,

Academy of Management Review, 21: 100-134.

151

Resource similarity is the extent to which the firm's tangible and intangible resources compare favorably to a competitor's in terms of type and amount.

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152 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

have a similar portfolio of resources). The firm and its competitor in quadrant I would use their similar resource portfolios to compete against each other in many markets that are important to each. These conditions lead to the conclusion that the firms modeled in quadrant I are direct and mutually acknowledged competitors.

In contrast, the firm and its competitor shown in quadrant III share few markets and have little similarity in their resources, indicating that they are not direct and mutually acknowledged competitors. Thus, a small, local, family-owned restaurant concentrating on selling "gourmet" hamburgers is not in direct competition with McDonald's. (We described this competitive situation in a Strategic Focus dealing with hamburgers in Chapter 4.) The mapping of competitive relationships is fluid as companies enter and exit markets and as rivals' resources change in type and amount, meaning that the companies with which a given firm competes change over time.

The type of relationship competitors have with each other may change over time as well. Some firms will engage each other more directly as competitors, while changes to the products they emphasize may cause some firms to become less direct competitors. Historically, General Mills and Kellogg competed against each other directly and aggres­ sively to sell their cereal products. As a consumer, think of the competition between General Mills' cereals such as Honey Nut Cheerios, Cinnamon Toast Crunch, Lucky Charms, and Rice Chex versus those of Kellogg including Corn Flakes, Frosted Flakes, Special K, and Fruit Loops. Given the declining popularity of cereals, the competition between these firms may become less direct. General Mills, for example, recently acquired pet food company Blue Buffalo Pet Products Inc. for $8 billion. One reason for this acqui­ sition is that the pet food business is "one of the largest center-of-the-store categories in the U.S. food and beverage market:' 38 Moving into pet foods finds General Mills com­ peting more directly with J.M. Smucker Co., in that Smucker paid $3 billion to buy Milk­ Bone owner Big Heart. Similarly, Kellogg, whose CEO noted that "cereal doesn't have to be the growth engine of Kellogg;'39 is emphasizing other products such as Pringles chips, Cheez-It crackers, Pop-Tarts, and frozen Eggo waffles to stimulate firm growth. Emphasizing snack products could find Kellogg competing more directly with PepsiCo, the owner of snack-giant Frito Lay.

5-3 Drivers of Competitive Behavior Market commonality and resource similarity influence the drivers (awareness, motiva­ tion, and ability) of competitive behavior (see Figure 5.2). In turn, the drivers influence the firm's actual competitive behavior, as revealed by the actions and responses it takes while engaged in competitive rivalry.40

Awareness, which is a prerequisite to any competitive action or response taken by a firm, refers to the extent to which competitors recognize the degree of their mutual inter­ dependence that results from market commonality and resource similarity.41 Awareness affects the extent to which the firm understands the consequences of its competitive actions and responses. A lack of awareness can lead to excessive competition, resulting in a negative effect on all competitors' performance.42

Awareness tends to be greatest when firms have highly similar resources (in terms of types and amounts) to use while competing against each other in multiple markets. Coca-Cola and PepsiCo are certainly aware of each other as they compete in multi­ ple markets to satisfy consumers' beverage tastes. Because of evolving tastes and the installation of taxes on sugary drinks some governmental agencies are levying, the companies are investing in healthier alternatives. 43 However, developing new soda products to meet consumers' interests is more critical for Coca-Cola compared to

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

PepsiCo. The reason for this is that PepsiCo's ownership of food products such as Frito-Lay, Quaker Oats, and so forth means that it sells a number of items to consum­ ers in addition to sodas.

To appeal to millennials, Coca-Cola recently launched new flavors of Diet Coke including Ginger Lime and Zesty Blood Orange. These beverages are in a sleek can the firm believes millennials will value. Coca-Cola also continues to move beyond soda. The firm is one of the largest makers of bottled water in the form of its Dasani brand.44

Aware of Coca-Cola's competitive actions, Pepsi-Co seeks to shake up competition among firms competing in the sparkling water market segment. To do this, the firm launched "bublY:' a new flavored sparkling water that the firm says "has an upbeat and playful sense of humor to shake up the sparkling water category while not including artificial flavors, sweeteners or calories:' 45 Initial versions of bubly included flavors like lemonbubly, orangebubly, applebubly, and mangobubly. Because of their awareness of each other and their motivation to compete against each other aggressively, rivals Coca­ Cola and PepsiCo will continue to engage in direct competition to win customers when they choose a beverage.

Motivation, which concerns the firm's incentive to take action or to respond to a competitor's attack, relates to perceived gains and losses. Thus, a firm may be aware of competitors but may not be motivated to engage in rivalry with them if it perceives that its market position will neither improve nor suffer if it does not respond.46 A benefit of lacking the motivation to engage in rivalry at a point in time with a competitor is the abil­ ity to retain resources for other purposes, including competing against a different rival.

Market commonality affects the firm's perceptions and resulting motivation. For example, a firm is generally more likely to attack the rival with whom it has low market commonality than the one with whom it competes in multiple markets. The primary reason for this is the high stakes involved in trying to gain a more advantageous position over a rival with whom the firm shares many markets. As mentioned earlier, multimarket competition can result in a competitor responding to the firm's action in a market dif­ ferent from the one in which the initial action occurred. Actions and responses of this type can cause both firms to lose focus on core markets and to battle each other with resources they allocated for other purposes. Because of the high competitive stakes under the condition of market commonality, the probability is high that the attacked firm will feel motivated to respond to its competitor's action in an effort to protect its position in one or more markets.47

In some instances, the firm may be aware of the markets it shares with a competitor and be motivated to respond to an attack by that competitor, but lack the ability to do so. Ability relates to each firm's resources and the flexibility they provide. Without available resources (such as financial capital and people), the firm is not able to attack a competitor or respond to its actions. For example, smaller and newer firms tend to be more innova­ tive but generally have fewer resources to attack larger and established competitors. Local firms' social capital (relationships) with stakeholders including consumers, suppliers, and government officials create a disadvantage for foreign firms lacking the social capital of local companies.48 However, possessing similar resources such as is the case with Coca­ Cola and PepsiCo suggests similar abilities to attack and respond. When a firm faces a competitor with similar resources, careful study of a possible attack before initiating it is essential because the similarly resourced competitor is likely to respond to that action.49

Resource dissimilarity also influences the competitive actions and responses firms choose to take. The reason is that the more significant is the difference between resources owned by the acting firm and those against whom it has taken action, the longer is the delay by the firm with a resource disadvantage.5° For example, Walmart initially used a focused cost leadership strategy to compete only in small communities ( those with a population

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153

154 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Small competitors, such as A& T Grocery, find it difficult to respond to

the competitive threat that exists with Walmart. Yet, they must find a

way to respond, perhaps by offering personalized services, in order to

survive such a threat.

of 25,000 or less). Using sophisticated logis­ tics systems and efficient purchasing prac­ tices, among other methods to gain compet­ itive advantages, Walmart created a new type of value (primarily in the form of wide selec­ tions of products at the lowest competitive prices) for customers in small retail markets. Local competitors lacked the ability to mar­ shal needed resources at the pace required to respond to Walmart's actions quickly and effectively. However, even when facing competitors with greater resources (greater ability) or more attractive market positions, firms should eventually respond, no matter how daunting the task seems. Choosing not to respond can ultimately result in failure, as happened with at least some local retailers who did not respond to Walmart's competitive actions. Today, with Walmart as the world's largest retailer, it is indeed difficult for smaller competitors to have the resources required to respond effectively to its competitive actions or competitive responses.51

A competitive action is a

strategic or tactical action the

firm takes to build or defend

its competitive advantages or

improve its market position.

A competitive response is a strategic or tactical action

the firm takes to counter

the effects of a competitor's

competitive action.

A strategic action or

a strategic response

is a market-based move

that involves a significant

commitment of organizational

resources and is difficult to

implement and reverse.

A tactical action or a

tactical response is a

market-based move that firms

take to fine-tune a strategy; these actions and responses

involve fewer resources

and are relatively easy to

implement and reverse.

5-4 Competitive Rivalry The ongoing competitive action/response sequence between a firm and a competitor affects the performance of both companies. Because of this, it is important for companies to carefully analyze and understand the competitive rivalry present in the markets in which they compete.52

As we described earlier, market commonality and resource similarity are the foun­ dation for the predictions drawn from studying competitors in terms of awareness, motivation, and ability. Studying the "Likelihood of Attack" factors (such as first-mover benefits and organizational size) and the "Likelihood of Response" factors (such as the actor's reputation) (see Figure 5.2) increases the value of the predictions the firm devel­ ops about each of its competitors' competitive actions. Evaluating and understanding these factors allow the firm to refine its predictions about competitors' actions and responses.

5-4a Strategic and Tactical Actions

Firms use both strategic and tactical actions when forming their competitive actions and competitive responses in the course of engaging in competitive rivalry.53 A competitive action is a strategic or tactical action the firm takes to build or defend its competitive advantages or improve its market position. A competitive response is a strategic or tac­ tical action the firm takes to counter the effects of a competitor's competitive action. A strategic action or a strategic response is a market-based move that involves a signifi­ cant commitment of organizational resources and is difficult to implement and reverse. A tactical action or a tactical response is a market-based move that firms take to fine-tune a strategy; these actions and responses involve fewer resources and are relatively easy to implement and reverse. W hen engaging rivals in competition, firms must recognize the

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

differences between strategic and tactical actions and responses and develop an effective balance between them.

In mid-2018, Cigna Corp. announced that it intended to pay $54 billion to acquire Express Scripts Holding Co. This was a strategic response to a strategic action taken previously by competitors. For example, roughly at the same time, CVS planned to pay $70 billion to acquire Aetna, Inc. Both of these strategic actions are examples of "the emerging model of companies that bring together health and pharmacy benefits:'54 Today, health insurers such as Cigna believe that they must control additional parts of the value chain if they are to earn above-average returns. The vertical integration within the value chain that results by combining health insurers such as Cigna and Aetna with pharmacy benefit managers such as CVS and Express Scripts increases the opportunities for the involved companies to operate more profitably.55

Walmart prices aggressively as a means of increasing revenues and gaining market share at the expense of competitors. In this regard, the firm engages in a continuous stream of tactical actions to attack rivals by changing some of its products' prices and tac­ tical responses to price changes taken by competitor Costco. Similarly, to compete against grocery retailers such as Kroger and online competitor Walmart, Amazon reduced prices for some of W hole Foods' products by as much as 43 percent almost immediately after completing the acquisition of the upper-scale grocery retailer.56

5-5 Likelihood of Attack

In addition to market commonality, resource similarity, and the drivers of awareness, motivation, and ability, other factors affect the likelihood a competitor will use strategic actions and tactical actions to attack its competitors. We discuss three of these factors­ first-mover benefits, organizational size, and quality-next. In this discussion, we con­ sider first movers, second movers, and late movers.

5-Sa First-Mover Benefits

A first mover is a firm that takes an initial competitive action to build or defend its competitive advantages or to improve its market position. Work by the famous econ­ omist Joseph Schumpeter is the basis for the first-mover concept. Schumpeter argued that firms achieve competitive advantage by taking innovative actions57 (we define and discuss innovation in Chapter 13). In general, first movers emphasize research and development (R&D) as a path to developing innovative products that customers will value.58 Amazon was a first-mover as an online bookstore while eBay was the first major online auction site.59

First-mover benefits can be substantial.60 This is especially true in fast-cycle markets ( discussed later in the chapter) where changes occur rapidly, and where it is virtually impossible to sustain a competitive advantage for any length of time. A first mover in a fast-cycle market can experience many times the revenue and valuation of a second mover.61 This evidence suggests that although first-mover benefits are never absolute, they are often critical to a firm's success in industries experiencing rapid technologi­ cal developments and with relatively short product life cycles.62 In addition to earning above-average returns until its competitors respond to its successful competitive action, the first mover can gain

■ the loyalty of customers who may become committed to the products of the firm that first made them available

■ market share that can be difficult for competitors to take when engaging in com­ petitive rivalry63

155

A first mover is a firm that

takes an initial competitive

action to build or defend its

competitive advantages or to

improve its market position.

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156

A second mover is a firm

that responds to the first

mover's competitive action,

typically through imitation.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

The general evidence that first movers have greater survival rates than later market entrants is perhaps the culmination of first-mover benefits.64

The firm trying to predict its rivals' competitive actions might conclude that they will take aggressive strategic actions to gain first movers' benefits. However, even though a firm's competitors might be motivated to be first movers, they may lack the ability to do so. First movers tend to be aggressive and willing to experiment with innovation and take higher yet reasonable levels of risk, and their long-term success depends on retaining the ability to do so.65

To be a first mover, the firm must have the readily available resources to invest sig­ nificantly in R&D as well as to rapidly and successfully produce and market a stream of innovative products.66 Organizational slack makes it possible for firms to have the ability (as measured by available resources) to be first movers. Slack is the buffer provided by actual or obtainable resources not in use currently and that exceed the minimum resources needed to produce a given level of organizational output.67 As a liquid resource, slack is available to allocate quickly to support competitive actions, such as R&D investments and aggressive marketing campaigns that lead to first-mover advantages. This relationship between slack and the ability to be a first mover allows the firm to predict that a first-mover competitor likely has available slack and will probably take aggressive competitive actions as a means of introducing innovative products continuously. Furthermore, the firm can predict that as a first mover, a competitor will try to gain market share and customer loyalty rapidly to earn above-average returns until its competitors are able to respond effectively to its first move.

Firms evaluating their competitors should realize that being a first mover carries risk. For example, it is difficult to estimate accurately the returns that a firm might earn by introducing product innovations to the marketplace.68 Additionally, the first mover's cost to develop a product innovation can be substantial, reducing the slack available to support further innovation. Thus, the firm should carefully study the results a competitor achieves as a first mover. Continuous success by the competitor suggests additional product innova­ tions, while lack of product acceptance over the course of the competitor's innovations may indicate less willingness in the future to accept the risks of being a first mover.69

A second mover is a firm that responds to the first mover's competitive action, typically through imitation. Although its successful iPhone changed consumers' and companies' perceptions about the potential of cell phones, Apple is a well-known second mover with many of its product introductions. In fact, 'J\.pple has been second at most stuff. They're not a true innovator in the definition of the word. They weren't the first into object-oriented computing (the mouse), they weren't the first mp3 player, they weren't the first mobile phone:' 70 What Apple does extremely well though is to study products as a means of deter­ mining how to improve them by making them more user friendly for consumers.

More cautious than the first mover, the second mover such as Apple studies customers' reactions to product innovations. In the course of doing so, the second mover also tries to find any mistakes the first mover made so that it can avoid them and the problems they created. Often, successful imitation of the first mover's innovations allows the second mover to avoid the mistakes and the major investments required of the pioneering first movers.71

Second movers have the time needed to develop processes and technologies that are more efficient than those the first mover used or that create additional value for consum­ ers.72 The most successful second movers rarely act too fast (so they can study the first mover's actions carefully) nor too slow (so they do not give the first mover time to correct its mistakes and "lock in" customer loyalty). Overall, the outcomes of the first mover's competitive actions may provide a blueprint for second and even late movers as they determine the nature and timing of their competitive responses.73

Determining whether a competitor is effective as a second mover (based on its actions in the past) allows a first-mover firm to predict when or if the competitor

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

will respond quickly to successful, innova­ tion-based market entries. The first mover can expect a successful second-mover competitor to study its market entries and to respond with a new entry into the mar­ ket within a short time period. As a second mover, the competitor will try to respond with a product that provides greater cus­ tomer value than does the first mover's product. The most successful second movers are able to interpret market feed­ back with precision as a foundation for responding quickly yet successfully to the first mover's successful innovations.

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Y�urwa//et W1thoutth�

Wallet.

157

A late mover is a firm that responds to a competitive action a significant amount of time after the first mover's action and the second mover's response. General Motors introduced the Hummer late into

Apple, a well-known second mover, studies customers' reactions to

product innovations, in order to avoid the mistakes of first movers.

the sport utility vehicle (SUV) market; the product failed to appeal strongly to a sufficient number of customers. Although still available, the product struggles to find a target market of sufficient size to support GM's ambitions for it.

Typically, a late response is better than no response at all, although any success achieved from the late competitive response tends to be considerably less than that achieved by first and second movers. However, on occasion, late movers can be successful if they develop a unique way to enter the market and compete. For firms from emerging economies, this often means a niche strategy with lower-cost production and manufacturing. It can also mean that they need to learn from the competitors or others in the market in order to market products that allow them to compete.74

The firm competing against a late mover can predict that the competitor will likely enter a particular market only after both the first and second movers have achieved suc­ cess in that market. Moreover, on a relative basis, the firm can predict that the late mover's competitive action will allow it to earn average returns only after the considerable time required for it to understand how to create at least as much customer value as that offered by the first and second movers' products.

5-Sb Organizational Size

An organization's size affects the likelihood it will take competitive actions as well as the types and timing of those actions.75 In general, small firms are more likely than large companies to launch competitive actions and tend to do so more quickly. Because of this tendency, smaller firms have the capacity to be nimble and flexible competitors. These firms rely on speed and surprise to defend their competitive advantages or to develop new ones while engaged in competitive rivalry, especially with large companies, to gain an advantageous market position.76 Small firms' flexibility and nimbleness allow them to develop variety in their competitive actions; large firms tend to limit the types of com­ petitive actions used.77

Large firms, however, are likely to initiate a larger total number of competitive actions and strategic actions during a given period. Thus, when studying its competitors in terms of organizational size the firm should use a measurement such as total sales revenue or total number of employees. The competitive actions the firm likely will encounter from

A late mover is a firm that

responds to a competitive

action a significant amount

of time after the first mover's

action and the second

mover's response.

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158

Quality exists when

the firm's products meet

or exceed customers'

expectations.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

competitors larger than it is will be different from the competitive actions it will encoun­ ter from smaller competitors.

The organizational size factor adds another layer of complexity. When engaging in competitive rivalry, firms prefer to be able to have the capabilities required to take a large number of unique competitive actions. For this to be the case, a firm needs to have the amount of slack resources that a large, successful company typically holds if it is to be able to launch a greater number of competitive actions. Simultaneously though, the firm needs to be flexible when considering competitive actions and responses it might take if it is to be able to launch a greater variety of competitive actions. Collectively, a firm's effectiveness increases when its size permits it to take an appropriate number of unique or diverse competitive actions and responses.

5-Sc Quality Quality has many definitions, including well-established ones relating it to producing products with zero defects and as a cycle of continuous improvement.78 From a strategic perspective, we consider quality to be the outcome of how a firm competes through its value chain activities and support functions (see Chapter 3). Thus, quality exists when the firm's products meet or exceed customers' expectations. Evidence suggests that quality is often among the most critical components in satisfying the firm's customers.79

In the eyes of customers, quality is about doing the right things relative to perfor­ mance measures that are important to them.8° Customers may be interested in measuring the quality of a firm's products against a broad range of dimensions. We show quality dimensions in which customers commonly express an interest in Table 5.1. Quality is

Table 5.1 Quality Dimensions of Products and Services

Product Quality Dimensions

1. Performance-Operating characteristics

2. Features-Important special characteristics

3. Flexibility-Meeting operating specifications over some period of time

4. Durability-Amount of use before performance deteriorates

5. Conformance-Match with pre-established standards

6. Serviceability-Ease and speed of repair

7. Aesthetics-How a product looks and feels

8. Perceived quality-Subjective assessment of characteristics (product image)

Service Quality Dimensions

1. Timeliness-Performed in the promised period of time

2. Courtesy-Performed cheerfully

3. Consistency-Giving all customers similar experiences each time

4. Convenience-Accessibility to customers

5. Completeness-Fully serviced, as required

6. Accuracy-Performed correctly each time

Source: Adapted from J. Evans, 2008, Managing for Quality and Performance, 7th Ed., Mason, OH: Thomson Publishing.

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

possible only when top-level managers support it and when the organization validates its importance throughout all of its operations.81 When all employees and managers accept its importance, they become vigilant in their efforts to improve a product's quality on a continuous basis.

Quality is a universal theme in the global economy and is a necessary but insuffi­ cient condition for competitive success.82 Without quality, a firm's products lack cred­ ibility, meaning that customers do not think of them as viable options. Indeed, cus­ tomers will not consider buying a product or using a service until they believe that it can satisfy at least their base-level expectations in terms of quality dimensions that are important to them.83

Quality affects competitive rivalry. The firm evaluating a competitor whose products suffer from poor quality can predict declines in the competitor's sales revenue until the quality issues are resolved. In addition, the firm can predict that the competitor likely will not be aggressive in its competitive actions until it is able to correct the quality problems as a path to gaining credibility with customers. 84 However, after correcting the problems, that competitor is likely to take aggressive competitive actions.

5-6 Likelihood of Response The success of a firm's competitive action is a function of the likelihood that a competitor will respond to it as well as by the type of action (strategic or tactical) and the effectiveness of that response. As noted earlier, a competitive response is a strategic or tactical action the firm takes to counter the effects of a competitor's competitive action. In general, a firm is likely to respond to a competitor's action when either

■ the action leads to better use of the competitor's capabilities to develop a stronger competitive advantage or an improvement in its market position,

■ the action damages the firm's ability to use its core competencies to create or maintain an advantage, or

■ the firm's market position becomes harder to defend.85

In addition to market commonality and resource similarity, and awareness, motiva­ tion, and ability, firms evaluate three other factors-type of competitive action, actor's reputation, and market dependence-to predict how a competitor is likely to respond to competitive actions (see Figure 5.2).

5-6a Type of Competitive Action Competitive responses to strategic actions differ from responses to tactical actions. These differences allow the firm to predict a competitor's likely response to a competitive action that a firm took against it. Strategic actions commonly receive strategic responses and tactical actions receive tactical responses. In general, strategic actions elicit fewer total competitive responses because strategic responses, such as market-based moves, involve a significant commitment of resources and are difficult to implement and reverse.86

Another reason that strategic actions elicit fewer responses than do tactical actions is that the time needed to implement a strategic action and to assess its effectiveness can delay the competitor's response to that action. In contrast, a competitor likely will respond quickly to a tactical action, such as when an airline company almost immediately matches a competitor's tactical action of reducing prices in certain markets. Either stra­ tegic actions or tactical actions that target a large number of a rival's customers are likely to elicit strong responses.87 In fact, if the effects of a competitor's strategic action on the focal firm are significant (e.g., loss of market share, loss of major resources such as critical employees), a response is likely to be swift and strong.88

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159

160 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

IBM Software Services

The IBM brand has had a very strong positive reputation for many years.

5-6b Actor's Reputation

In the context of competitive rivalry, an actor is the firm taking an action or a response, while reputation is "the positive or negative attribute ascribed by one rival to another based on past competitive behavior:' 89 A positive reputation may be a source of above-average returns, especially for consumer goods producers.90 T hus, a positive corporate reputation is of strategic value91 and affects competitive rivalry. To predict the likelihood of a competitor's response to a current or planned action, firms evaluate the responses that the competitor took previously when attacked. In this way, firms assume that past behavior predicts future behavior.

Competitors are more likely to respond to strategic or tactical actions when market leaders take them.92 In particular, evidence suggests that successful actions, especially strategic actions, are ones competitors will choose to imitate quickly. For example, although a second mover, IBM committed significant resources to enter the informa­ tion service market. Competitors such as Hewlett-Packard (HP), Dell Inc., and others responded with strategic actions to enter this market also.93 IBM has invested heavily to build its capabilities in service-related software as well. As explained in the Opening Case, Kroger and others responded quickly to market leader Amazon's acquisition of Whole Foods.

In contrast to a firm with a strong reputation, competitors are less likely to respond to actions taken by a company with a reputation for risky, complex, and unpredictable com­ petitive behavior. For example, the firm with a reputation as a price predator (an actor that frequently reduces prices to gain or maintain market share) generates few responses to its pricing tactical actions because price predators, which typically increase prices once they reach their desired market share, lack credibility with their competitors. 94

5-6c Market Dependence

Market dependence denotes the extent to which a firm derives its revenues or profits from a particular market.95 In general, competitors with high market dependence are likely to respond strongly to attacks threatening their market position.96 However, the threatened firm in these instances may not always respond quickly, even though an effective response to an attack on the firm's position in a critical market is important.

Target generates approximately 19 percent of its revenue from apparel sales. T hus, the firm is somewhat dependent on the apparel market as a generator of revenue. Because of this, the firm pays attention to Amazon's efforts to increase its sales of apparel items, particularly given that these two firms are battling each other for the position as the "second-most-popular clothing and footwear retailer in the US as mea­ sured by number of shoppers:' 97

Overall, Amazon is highly dependent on the e-commerce market for its sales. While the firm is experimenting with establishing physical bookstores and purchased Whole Foods, e-commerce sales account for the vast majority of its revenue. Amazon's compet­ itor Walmart is less dependent on e-commerce; nonetheless, Walmart is enhancing its

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

e-commerce skills. Because of its dependence on the e-commerce market, Amazon pays close attention to Walmart's efforts to enhance its e-commerce presence and capabilities. Recent Walmart actions dealing with its e-commerce business include seeking additional traffic to its website by emphasizing paid search functions98 and a commitment to acquir­ ing boutique firms as a means of being able to offer differentiated products to online shoppers. Modcloth.com (a women's vintage-inspired retailer) and Moosejaw (an outdoor retailer that adds popular brands such as Patagonia and North Face to Walmart's prod­ uct line) are examples of firms Walmart acquired to offer differentiated products to its e-commerce customers.99 According to the executive in charge of Walmart's e-commerce activities, the firm "remains in buying mode as it looks to differentiate its online inven­ tory to compete with Amazon.com:'100 Given its dependence on the e-commerce market, expecting a strong response from Amazon to Walmart's actions is reasonable.

5-7 Competitive Dynamics W hereas competitive rivalry concerns the ongoing actions and responses between a firm and its direct competitors for an advantageous market position, competitive dynamics concerns the ongoing actions and responses among all firms competing within a market for advantageous positions. Thus, United and Delta engage in competitive rivalry while the competitive actions and responses taken by United, Delta, American, Southwest, British Airways, Lufthansa, and Emirates Airways (and many others) form the competi­ tive dynamics of the airline passenger industry.

To explain competitive dynamics, we explore the effects of varying rates of com­ petitive speed in different markets ( called slow-cycle, fast-cycle, and standard-cycle markets) on the behavior (actions and responses) of all competitors within a given market. Competitive behaviors, as well as the reasons for taking them, are similar within each market type, but differ across types of markets. Thus, competitive dynam­ ics differ in slow-, fast-, and standard-cycle markets.

As noted in Chapter l, firms want to sustain their competitive advantages for as long as possible, although no advantage is sustainable permanently. However, as we discuss next, the sustainability of the firm's competitive advantages differs by market type. How quickly competitors can imitate a rival's competitive advantage and the cost to do so influences the sustainability of a focal firm's competitive advantage.

5-7a Slow-Cycle Markets Slow-cycle markets are markets in which competitors lack the ability to imitate the focal firm's competitive advantages that commonly last for long periods, and where imitation would be costly.101 Thus, firms may be able to sustain a competitive advantage over longer periods in slow-cycle markets. However, because no competitive advantage is sustain­ able permanently, firms competing in slow-cycle markets can expect eventually to see a decline in the value their competitive advantage creates for target customers.

As we explain in the Strategic Focus, this was the case for Swiss watchmakers for decades. Relying largely on the competitive advantage of exclusivity that was a function of extreme precision in the manufacture of watches, these companies lacked effective competitors for many years. However, technological innovations such as smartwatches and changes in consumers' interests (e.g., for "memorable experiences" rather than for valuable "things") are creating serious competitive challenges for Swiss watchmakers. As you will see, the strategic actions taken by Swiss manufacturers making high-end, high-quality watches to address the competitive challenges they face today may extend their historical competitive advantage.

161

Slow-cycle markets are

markets in which competitors

lack the ability to imitate

the focal firm's competitive

advantages that commonly

last for long periods, and

where imitation would be

costly.

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162 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Swiss Watchmakers: The Eroding of a Long-Lasting Competitive Advantage

While Competing in a Slow-Cycle Market?

Long committed to competitive dominance in the watch

market, and certainly in upper-end watches, the Swiss watch

industry held roughly 50 percent of the global watch market

prior to the 1970s and held a virtual monopoly position in

the luxury watch segment Truly a global market, Swiss firms

export almost 95 percent of their upper-end watches to

countries throughout the world. Impeccable quality, aesthetic

prowess, technical innovation, sophisticated manufacturing of

mechanical watches as completed by craftsman, and careful

branding of the watches as "Swiss Made" led to the ultimate

source of differentiation and competitive advantage for high­

end Swiss watches-exclusivity. Because it is seen as a status

symbol, successful people wishing to convey an image of their

success might choose to purchase an expensive Swiss watch.

Frequently targeting individuals initially achieving notable

levels of career and financial success (commonly, these individ­

uals are in their early to mid-thirties), upper-end Swiss watches

were long the foundation of strategic competitiveness for

many firms such as Breguet, Richemont, TAG Heuer, Piaget SA,

Patek Philippe & Co., and Parmigiani Fleurier.

Now though, Swiss watchmakers' competitive advantage

of exclusivity and the cachet of the term "Swiss Made" face

challenges. For a number of young, successful people today,

the exclusivity of a watch does not create value. Instead, these

individuals, who tend to value "experiences" over "things;' might

choose to book a getaway to Costa Rica and document the

trip extensively on lnstagram rather than buy an expensive

watch with the Swiss Made label. What are Swiss watchmakers

doing in response to today's competitive realities that histori­

cally took place in a slow-cycle market7

First, in collaboration with their home nation and the

Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry group, Swiss watch­

makers strongly support efforts to control counterfeiting of

their products. A long-term challenge for Swiss watchmakers,

counterfeiters sell tens of millions of their products annually on

a global basis. In the Federation's words: "Essentially the theft

of an intellectual property right, the problem of counterfeiting

today has reached global proportions'.'Today, fake watches

account for approximately 9 percent of customs' seizures.

This makes watches the second most counterfeited product

behind textiles. Working with the Swiss government that is in

turn working with countries throughout the world, importing

a counterfeit watch is now against the law in many nations,

"even in the case of one-off pieces bought in good faith for

private use'.' Reducing counterfeiting protects the exclusivity

competitive advantage on which the makers of high-end Swiss

watches rely for success.

Targeting younger customers, "even at the expense of

traditions that have long endeared Swiss watches to older

generations," is a strategic action exercised today by some

Swiss watchmakers. To support their sales, TAG Heuer and

Hu blot (LVMH Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton owns these

brands), now use artists such as Jay-Z to design watches

and signed models in their twenties (e.g., Cara Delevingne)

as product brand ambassadors. Basketball stars Kobe Bryant

and Dwayne Wade also are ambassadors, while street artists

Alec Monopoly and Mr. Brainwash and renowned tattoo

artist Maxi me Buchi are others whom TAG Heuer and Hu blot

employ as designers. These efforts seek to present expensive

Swiss watches to today's young consumers in ways that

appeal to them. The "Shawn Carter by Hublo t " is one of the

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 163

watches designed in collaboration with Jay-Z. There are

two version of this watch: "one in black for $17,900 and

the other in yellow gold for $33,900:' Both watches feature

a transparent back displaying their complicated internal

working mechanisms. Limited in quantity to only 350 to

reinforce the image of exclusivity, the watches sold out

quickly. In this sense, Swiss watchmakers were able to

extend the "exclusivity" competitive advantage in ways that

appeal to the target audience.

$15,000-and-up new cost:'The hope is that once they become

customers, individuals will later choose to purchase a "new"

Audemars Piguet watch.

Audemars Piguet is taking an additional competitive action

to protect the firm's advantage while competing in a histor­

ical slow-cycle market. In this instance, the firm is seeking to

expand the target customer segment to whom it can sell its

products. To do this, Audemars Piguet is reselling its own prod­

uct so customers can buy a used version "at a fraction of the

Overall, manufacturers of high-end, high-quality Swiss

watches seek to find novel ways of executing on their historic

competitive advantage of exclusivity. In this sense, the firms

want to create value in the form of their watches for which

individuals across the globe are willing to pay.

Sources: 2018, Stop the Fakes! Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH, www

.fhs.swiss.com, March 28; 2018, Swiss made: The only true reference, Federation of

the Swiss Watch Industry FH, www.fhs.swiss.com, March 28; M. Clerizo, 2018, The

world's weirdest watches: Good luck telling the time, Wall Street Journal, www

.wsj.com, January 17; M. Dalton, 2018, Is time running out for the Swiss watch

industry? Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 12; T. Mu lier, 2018, Swiss

watchmakers' new pitch: $10,000 timepiece can be a bargain, Bloomberg, www

.bloom berg.com, January 26.

Building a unique and proprietary capability produces a competitive advantage and success in a slow-cycle market. This type of advantage is difficult for competitors to understand. As discussed in Chapter 3, a difficult-to-understand and costly-to-imitate capability usually results from unique historical conditions, causal ambiguity, and/or social complexity. Copyrights and patents are examples of these types of capabilities. After a firm develops a proprietary advantage by using its capabilities, the competitive actions and responses it takes in a slow-cycle market are oriented to protecting, main­ taining, and extending that advantage. Major strategic actions in these markets, such as acquisitions, usually carry less risk than in faster-cycle markets.102 Clearly, firms that gain an advantage can grow more and earn higher returns than those who simply track with the industry, especially in mature and declining industries.103

The Walt Disney Company continues to extend its proprietary characters, such as Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, and Goofy, to enhance the value its characters as a com­ petitive advantage create for target customers. These characters have a unique historical development because of Walt and Roy Disney's creativity and vision for entertaining people. Products based on the characters seen in Disney's animated films are available to customers to buy through Disney's theme park shops as well as freestanding retail out­ lets called Disney Stores. Because copyrights shield it, the proprietary nature of Disney's competitive advantage in terms of animated character trademarks continues to protect the firm from imitation by competitors.

Consistent with another attribute of competition in a slow-cycle market, Disney pro­ tects its exclusive rights to its characters and their use. As with all firms competing in slow-cycle markets, Disney's competitive actions (such as building theme parks in France, Japan, and China) and responses (such as lawsuits to protect its right to fully control use of its animated characters) maintain and extend its proprietary competitive advantage while protecting it.

Patent laws and regulatory requirements in the United States requiring FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approval to launch new products shield pharmaceutical com­ panies' positions. Competitors in this market try to extend patents on their drugs to maintain advantageous positions that patents provide. However, after a patent expires, the firm's product faces a different situation in that generic imitations become available to customers. These imitations may lead to reduced sales and profits for the firm losing a

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164

Fast-cycle markets are markets in which competitors

can imitate the focal firm's

capabilities that contribute to

its competitive advantages

and where that imitation is

often rapid and inexpensive.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Figure 5.4 Gradual Erosion of a Sustained Competitive Advantage

Returns from a Sustained

Competitive Advantage

0

Exploitation

5

Time (years)

Counterattack

10

Source: Adapted from I. C. MacMillan, 1988, Controlling competitive dynamics by taking str ategic ini tiative, Academy of Management Executive, 11(2): 111-118.

patent on its product. This was the case for Pfizer when Lipitor (which is the best-selling drug in history) went off patent in the fall of 2011. The firm's profits declined 19 percent in the first quarter after that event. A number of prominent drugs went off patent in 2017 including Eli Lilly's Cialis and Alimta, Pfizer's Viagra, Johnson & Johnson's Prezista, and Takeda's Velcade. These drugs generated significant revenue for the firms owning them. In 2016, for example, sales revenue for Viagra was $1.2 billion.104

We show the competitive dynamics generated by firms competing in slow-cycle markets in Figure 5.4. In slow-cycle markets, the firm launches a product (e.g., a new drug) it developed through a proprietary advantage (e.g., R&D) and then exploits that advantage for as long as possible while the product's uniqueness shields it from compe­ tition. Eventually, competitors respond to the action with a counterattack. In markets for drugs, this counterattack commonly occurs as patents expire or are broken through legal means, creating the need for another product launch by the firm seeking a pro­ tected market position.

5-7b Fast-Cycle Markets Fast-cycle markets are markets in which competitors can imitate the focal firm's capabil­ ities that contribute to its competitive advantages and where that imitation is often rapid and inexpensive.105 Thus, competitive advantages are not sustainable in fast-cycle markets. Firms competing in fast-cycle markets recognize the importance of speed; these compa­ nies appreciate that "time is as precious a business resource as money or head count-and that the costs of hesitation and delay are just as steep as going over budget or missing a financial forecast:' 106 The velocity of change in fast-cycle markets places considerable pressure on top-level managers to help their firm make strategic decisions quickly that are effective. This is a challenging task for managers and the organizations they lead.107

Reverse engineering and the rate of technology diffusion facilitate the rapid imitation that takes place in fast-cycle markets. A competitor uses reverse engineering to gain quick access to the knowledge required to imitate or improve the firm's products. Technology diffuses rapidly in fast-cycle markets, making it available to competitors in a short period. The technology firms competing in fast-cycle markets use often is not proprietary, nor is it protected by patents as is the technology used by firms competing in slow-cycle

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics

markets. For example, only a few hundred parts, which are readily available on the open market, are required to build a PC. Patents protect only a few of these parts, such as microprocessor chips. However, potential entrants may hesitate to enter even a fast-cycle market when it knows that the success of one or more firms competing in the market is a function of the ability to develop valuable patents.108

Fast-cycle markets are more volatile than slow- and standard-cycle markets. Indeed, the pace of competition in fast-cycle markets is almost frenzied, as companies rely on innovations as growth engines. Because prices often decline quickly in these markets, companies need to profit rapidly from their product innovations.

Recognizing this reality, firms avoid "loyalty" to any of their products, preferring to cannibalize their own products before competitors learn how to do so through success­ ful imitation. This emphasis creates competitive dynamics that differ substantially from those found in slow-cycle markets. Instead of concentrating on protecting, maintaining, and extending competitive advantages, as in slow-cycle markets, companies competing in fast-cycle markets focus on forming the capabilities and core competencies that will allow them to develop new competitive advantages continuously and rapidly. In some indus­ tries, cooperative strategies such as strategic alliances and joint ventures (see Chapter 9) are a path to firms gaining access to new technologies that lead to introducing innovative products to the market. 109 In recent years, many of these alliances have been offshore ( with partners in foreign countries); gaining access to a partner's capabilities at a lower cost is a key driver in such instances. However, finding the balance between sharing knowledge and skills with a foreign partner and preventing that partner from appropriating value from the focal firm's contributions to the alliance is challenging."0

We show the competitive behavior of firms competing in fast-cycle markets in Figure 5.5. Competitive dynamics in this market type entail actions and responses firms take to introduce products rapidly and continuously into the market. Flowing from an ability to do this is a stream of ever-changing competitive advantages for the firm. In this sense, the firm launches a product to achieve a competitive advantage and then exploits the advantage for as long as possible. However, the firm also tries to develop another competitive advantage before competitors can respond to the first one. Thus, competitive dynamics in fast-cycle markets often result in rapid product upgrades as well as quick product innovations.111

Figure S.S Developing Temporary Advantages to Create Sustained Advantage

Returns from a Series of Replicable Actions

Firm Has Already Advanced to

Launch Advantage No. 2

Exploitation /

f / / Co,ote,atta<k

5 10 15

Time (years) 20

Source: Adapted from I. C. MacMillan, 1988, Controlling competitive dynamics by taking strategic initiative, Academy of Management Executive, 11(2): 111-118.

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165

166

Standard-cycle markets

are markets in which some

competitors may be able

to imitate the focal firm's

competitive advantages

and where that imitation is

moderately costly.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Tech giants Alibaba Group Holding and Tencent Holdings compete against each other in a range of mobile Internet businesses. As competitors in this fast-cycle market, these direct competitors are aware of each other and have the motivation and ability to engage in aggressive competition. Some analysts believe that the competition between these giants today "is likely to reshape the landscape of China's business world and affect the lives of Chinese and the destinies of smaller companies:' 112 Initially, Alibaba and Tencent dominated separate Internet spheres: messaging and games for Tencent and e-commerce for Alibaba. Largely because of a reduction in the growth in online users, the rivalry between these firms is now more direct and intense as each firm seeks control over the convergence of online and offline services. While competing aggressively with each other, Alibaba and Tencent will try to find innovative ways to serve customers.

As our discussion suggests, innovation plays a critical role in the competitive dynam­ ics in fast-cycle markets. For individual firms, innovation is a key source of competitive advantage. Through continuous and effective innovation, firms can cannibalize their own products before competitors successfully imitate them and still maintain an advantage through next-generation products.

5-7c Standard-Cycle Markets Standard-cycle markets are markets in which some competitors may be able to imitate the focal firm's competitive advantages and where that imitation is moderately costly. Competitive advantages are partially sustainable in standard-cycle markets. However, this is the case only when the firm can upgrade the quality of its capabilities contin­ uously as a foundation for being able to remain ahead of competitors. Firms initiate competitive actions and responses in standard-cycle markets to seek large market shares, to gain customer loyalty through brand names, and to control a firm's oper­ ations carefully. When successful with these efforts, a firm consistently provides the same positive experience to customers.113 This is how the retail food industry operated for many years. As explained in this chapter's Mini-Case, changes are occurring with this pattern of competition as discount competitors such as Aldi become more com­ petitive on a global basis.

Companies competing in standard-cycle markets tend to serve many customers in what are typically highly competitive markets. Because the capabilities and core com - petencies on which firms competing in standard-cycle markets base their competitive advantages are less specialized, imitation is faster and less costly for standard-cycle firms than for those competing in slow-cycle markets. However, imitation is slower and more expensive in these markets than in fast-cycle markets. Thus, competitive dynamics in standard-cycle markets rest midway between the characteristics of dynamics in slow- and fast-cycle markets. Imitation comes less quickly and is more expensive for firms compet­ ing in a standard-cycle market when a competitor is able to develop economies of scale by combining coordinated and integrated design and manufacturing processes with a large sales volume for its products.

Because of large volumes, the size of mass markets, and the need to develop scale economies, the competition for market share is intense in standard-cycle markets. This form of competition is readily evident in the battles among consumer foods' produc­ ers, such as candy makers and major competitors Hershey Co., Nestle, SA, Mondelez International, Inc. (the name for the former Kraft Foods Inc.), and Mars. The dimensions on which these competitors compete as a means of increasing their share of the candy market include taste and the ingredients used to develop it, advertising campaigns, pack­ age designs, and product availability through different distribution channels.'14 Recent years found candy manufacturers contending with criticism from health professionals about the sugar, saturated fats, and calories their products provide. These criticisms

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 167

revolve around the negative effects on individuals' health caused by the ingredients used to manufacture candy products.

Innovation can also drive competitive actions and responses in standard-cycle mar­ kets, especially when rivalry is intense. As explained in the Opening Case, we can anticipate innovation in distribution channels and in the use of data analytics to take place in the retail grocery industry as Amazon, Walmart, and others engage in com­ petitive battles with traditional storefront operators such as Kroger and Safeway. Some innovations in standard-cycle markets are incremental rather than radical in nature. (We discuss incremental and radical innovations in Chapter 13.) Both types of inno­ vation, though, are critical to firms' efforts to achieve strategic competitiveness when competing in standard-cycle markets.

Overall, innovation has a substantial influence on competitive dynamics as it affects the actions and responses of all companies competing within a slow-, fast-, or standard­ cycle market. In previous chapters, we emphasized the importance of innovation to the firm's strategic competitiveness. In Chapter 13's discussion of strategic entrepreneurship, we emphasize this relationship and its importance again. These discussions highlight the critical role innovation plays for firms regardless of the type of competitive rivalry and competitive dynamics they encounter while competing.

SUMMARY

Competitors are firms competing in the same market,

offering similar products, and targeting similar customers.

Competitive rivalry is the ongoing set of competitive actions

and responses occurring between competitors as they com­

pete against each other for an advantageous market position.

The outcomes of competitive rivalry influence the firm's abil­

ity to develop and then sustain its competitive advantages as

well as the level (average, below average, or above average)

of its financial returns.

Competitive behavior is the set of competitive actions and

responses an individual firm takes while engaged in compet­

itive rivalry. Competitive dynamics is the set of actions and

responses taken by all firms that are competitors within a

particular market.

Firms study competitive rivalry in order to predict the com­

petitive actions and responses each of their competitors

is likely to take. Competitive actions are either strategic

or tactical in nature. The firm takes competitive actions to

defend or build its competitive advantages or to improve its

market position. Firms take competitive responses to counter

the effects of a competitor's competitive action. A strategic

action or a strategic response requires a significant commit­

ment of organizational resources, is difficult to implement

successfully, and is difficult to reverse. In contrast, a tactical

action or a tactical response requires fewer organizational

resources and is easier to implement and reverse. For exam­

ple, for an airline company, entering major new markets

is an example of a strategic action or a strategic response;

changing ticket prices in a particular market is an example of

a tactical action or a tactical response.

A competitor analysis is the first step the firm takes to be able

to predict its competitors' actions and responses. In Chapter 2,

we discussed what firms do to understand competitors. We

extended this discussion in this chapter to describe what the

firm does to predict competitors' market-based actions. Thus,

understanding precedes prediction. Firms study market com­

monality (the number of markets with which competitors are

involved jointly and their importance to each) and resource

similarity (how comparable competitors' resources are in terms

of type and amount) to complete a competitor analysis. In

general, the greater the market commonality and resource

similarity, the more firms acknowledge that they are direct

competitors.

Market commonality and resource similarity shape the firm's

awareness (the degree to which it and its competitors under­

stand their mutual interdependence), motivation (the firm's

incentive to attack or respond), and ability (the quality of the

resources available to the firm to attack and respond). Having

knowledge of these characteristics of a competitor increases

the quality of the firm's predictions about that competitor's

actions and responses.

In addition to market commonality, resource similarity, aware­

ness, motivation, and ability, three more specific factors affect

the likelihood a competitor will take competitive actions. The

first of these is first-mover benefits. First movers, those taking

an initial competitive action, often gain loyal customers and

earn above-average returns until competitors can respond

successfully to their action. Not all firms can be first movers

because they may lack the awareness, motivation, or ability

required to engage in this type of competitive behavior.

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168

Moreover, some firms prefer to be a second mover (the firm

responding to the first mover's action). By evaluating the first

mover's product, customers' reactions to it, and the responses

of other competitors to the first mover, the second mover may

be able to avoid the early entrant's mistakes and find ways

to improve upon the value created for customers by the first

mover's product. Late movers (those that respond a long time

after the original action was taken) commonly are lower per­

formers and less competitive.

Organizational size tends to reduce the variety of competitive

actions that large firms launch, while it increases the variety of

actions smaller competitors undertake. Ideally, a firm prefers

to initiate a large number of diverse actions when engaging in

competitive rivalry. Another factor, quality, is a base denomina­

tor for competing successfully in the global economy and for

achieving competitive parity, at a minimum. However, quality

is a necessary but insufficient condition for establishing an

advantage.

To predict a competitor's response to its actions, a firm

examines the type of action (strategic or tactical) it took,

the competitor's reputation for the nature of its competitive

behavior, and that competitor's dependence on the market

in which the focal firm took action. In general, the number of

tactical responses firms take exceeds the number of strategic

responses they take. Competitors respond more frequently to

the actions taken by the firm with a reputation for predictable

and understandable competitive behavior, especially if that

KEY TERMS

competitive action 154

competitive behavior 145

competitive dynamics 145

competitive response 1 54

competitive rivalry 144

competitors 144

fast-cycle markets 164

first mover 155

late mover 157

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Who are competitors? How are competitive rivalry, competitive

behavior, and competitive dynamics defined in the chapter?

2. What is market commonality? What is resource similarity?

In what way are these concepts the building blocks for a

competitor analysis?

3. How do awareness, motivation, and ability affect the firm's

competitive behavior?

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

firm is a market leader. In general, the firm can predict that

when its competitor is highly dependent on its revenue and

profitability in the market in which the firm took a competitive

action, that competitor is likely to launch a strong response.

However, firms with greater diversification across markets are

less likely to respond to a particular action that affects only

one of the markets in which they compete.

In slow-cycle markets, firms generally can maintain competi­

tive advantages for some amount of time. Competitive dynam­

ics in slow-cycle markets often include actions and responses

intended to protect, maintain, and extend the firm's propri­

etary advantages. In fast-cycle markets, competition is substan­

tial as firms concentrate on developing a series of temporary

competitive advantages. This emphasis is necessary because

firms' advantages in fast-cycle markets are not proprietary;

as such, they are subject to rapid and relatively inexpensive

imitation. Standard-cycle markets have a level of competition

between that in slow- and fast-cycle markets; firms often (but

not always) have a moderate amount of protection from com­

petition in standard-cycle markets as they use competencies

that produce competitive advantages with some sustainability.

Competitors in standard-cycle markets serve mass markets

and try to develop economies of scale to enhance their prof­

itability. Innovation is vital to competitive success in each of

the three types of markets. Companies should recognize that

the set of competitive actions and responses taken by all firms

differs by type of market.

market commonality 150

multimarket competition 145

quality 158

resource similarity 151

second mover 156

slow-cycle markets 161

standard-cycle markets 166

strategic action or strategic response 154

tactical action or tactical response 154

4. What factors affect the likelihood a firm will take a competitive

action?

S. What factors affect the likelihood a firm will initiate a

competitive response to a competitor's action(s)?

6. What competitive dynamics can firms expect to experience

when competing in slow-cycle markets? In fast-cycle markets?

In standard-cycle markets?

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 169

Mini-Case

The Ripple Effect of Supermarket Wars: Aldi Is Changing the Markets in Many Countries

Aldi started as a small, family-owned grocery store located in Essen, Germany, in 1913. Two sons, Karl and Theo, took over the store from their mother in 1946; soon after doing so, they began expanding the business. They emphasized low costs from the very beginning, allowing them to offer their products to customers at low prices relative to competitors. Over time, Aldi expanded to other European countries, and it entered the United States market in 1976. Currently, there are roughly 11,000 Aldi stores located in 20 countries; 1,750 of these units are in 35 states in the United States. In the United States alone, the firm serves 40 million custom­ ers on a monthly basis.

Aldi holds its costs down in a variety of ways. It largely sells its own brand-label products in "no frill" stores. The company limits the number of external brands it sells (usually one or two per product), and it has low packaging, transportation, and employee costs. To sell products in its stores, Aldi positions them in ways that are similar to the approach warehouse stores use, for example, placing products on pallets and in cut-away cardboard boxes. In Germany, Aldi advertises very little, but it does advertise in the United States. It produces its own ads in-house (no external agency) and advertises mostly through newspaper inserts and a few television commercials.

Aldi and another discount store, Lid!, have hurt the largest four supermarkets in the U.K. market­ Tesco, Walmart's Asda, J Sainsbury, and Wm. Morrison Supermarkets. Aldi and Lid! have captured market share from these retailers, especially Tesco and Morrison, and held approximately 8.6 percent of the U.K. market in 2016. Aldi plans call for it to reach about 17 percent share of the market by 2021. Tesco has controlled about 30 percent of the discount supermarket market, but it has been declining. Morrison's recent poor performance has precipitated turnover in most of the firm's top exec­ utives. In addition, the new CEO, David Potts, has been making major changes-largely cutting costs in order to compete on prices. Because of reduced costs, Morrison cut its prices on 130 staple items such as milk and eggs. Likewise, Tesco reduced prices of 380 of its brand

products by about 25 percent. Yet, because of gains in its market share, Aldi plans to invest about $900 million to open 550 new stores in Britain by 2022.

Aldi is having similar effects on the Australian market. It has gained market share from the two largest supermarkets in Australia-Coles and Woolworths. In response, Woolworths indicated that it plans to reduce its prices to avoid a perception among customers as the "expensive option." This action does not seem to con - cern Aldi in that the firm intends to spend $700 million to add 120- 130 stores by 2020 to its current number of 300 stores in Australia.

Aldi appears to be harming some competitors in the United States as well. For example, a rival discount food retailer, Bottom Dollar owned by Delhaize from Belgium, closed all of its stores (located in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio) and sold the locations and leases to Aldi. Aldi does have stiffer competition in the United States from Walmart, Sam's (Walmart's ware­ house stores), and Costco, among other discount food retailers. Yet, Aldi is not only surviving, but also flour­ ishing and growing in the U.S. market as well. In early 2018, Aldi announced that it would spend $1.6 billion to remodel and expand 1,300 U.S. stores by 2020. Desiring to have 2,500 stores in the United States by 2022, the firm announced in 2018 that it would spend up to $3 billion to open new stores to reach this target. If reached, a total number of 2,500 stores would result in Aldi being the third largest supermarket chain in the United States.

In addition to affecting grocery store competitive rivalry across country boundaries, Aldi's actions (and those of others as well) have an effect on wholesalers and other suppliers. For example, wholesale prices have been declining, and some of the major supermarket chains, such as Tesco and Morrison, have been reduc­ ing the number of brands on their shelves. Interestingly, manufacturers of popular products, such as Mr. Kipling cakes and Bistro gravy, stand to gain shelf space and increase sales because of stores' decisions to take some rivals' products off their shelves. Of course, the sup­ pliers whose products lose their positions on stores' shelves will likely suffer.

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

170 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

The bottom line is that Aldi is having a major effect on rivals in multiple countries and on many other com­ panies that supply products to the industry. As a result, the grocery industry's competitive dynamics are differ­ ent today than they were before.

T. Hua, 2015, Tesco's overhaul points to a price war, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, January 5; L. Northrup, 2015, Bottom dollar food to close stores, sell chain to Aldi, Consumerist, www.consumerist.com, January 5; 2015, Mr. Kipling Maker Premier Foods sees positives in supermarket wars, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, January 23; 2015, Morrisons cuts prices on 130 grocery staples like milk, eggs, New York Times, www .nytimes.com, February 15; 2015, British shop price decline steepens in February-BRC, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, March 3; K. Ross, 2015, Supermarket wars: Aldi takes on market share as Woolworths drops prices, Smart Company, www.smartcompany.com.au, March 9;

Sources: 2018, Aldi unveils $1.6 billion nationwide store remodel plan to enhance customer shopping experience, Aldi Homepage, www.aldi .com, February 8; 2017, Motley Fool staff, Setting the stage for grocery industry competition in 2018, Motley Fool Homepage, www.fool.com, December 24; 2014, Aldi targets doubling of UK stores with 600 million pound investment, New York Times, www.nytimes.com, November 10;

A. Felsted, 2015, Morrison chiefs take express checkout from struggling supermarket, Financial Times, www.ft.com, March 24; 2015, Aldi Foods, www.grocery.com, accessed March 25.

Case Discussion Questions

1. Using materials in the case and items to which you gain access

through a search, describe how Aldi is creating competitive

rivalry in the retail grocers' industry.

2 As explained in this chapter's Opening Case, Amazon pur­

chased Whole Foods. How will this transaction affect Aldi as

it seeks to expand its presence in the United States? What

competitive actions might Aldi take in response to Amazon's

purchase of Whole Foods?

3. Using concepts and actions explained in this chapter, decide if

Aldi is more likely to respond to any strategic actions Amazon

might initiate through Whole Foods or if Amazon through

Whole Foods is more likely to respond to any strategic actions

Aldi takes. Be prepared to justify your decision.

4. In a competitive rivalry sense, explain the actions (strategic

and/or tactical) you believe Wal mart and Costco will take to

respond to Aldi's intentions to have 2,500 U.S. stores by 2020.

NOTES

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves 1he right to remove additional con1en1 at any time if subsequent rights res1rictions require it.

Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 171

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172 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

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Chapter 5: Competitive Rivalry and Competitive Dynamics 173

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Editorial review has deemed thm any suppressed comcm docs not materially affect the overall learning experience. Ccngagc Leaming reserves 1hc right to remove additional comcm at any time if subsequent rights rcs1rictions require it.

174 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

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6

Studying this chapter should provide

you with the strategic management knowledge needed to:

6-1 Define corporate-level strategy and discuss its purpose.

6-2 Describe different levels of diversification achieved using different corporate-level strategies.

6-3 Explain three primary reasons firms diversify.

6-4 Describe how firms can create value by using a related diversification strategy.

6-5 Explain the two ways value can be created with an unrelated diversification strategy.

6-6

6-7

Discuss the incentives and resources that encourage diversification.

Describe motives that can encourage managers to over diversify a firm.

L

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C yright 2020 Ccngagc

Editoria view has deemed thar

AMAZON'S SUCCESSFUL GROWTH THROUGH

ITS CORPORATE DIVERSIFICATION STRATEGY

Amazon has grown from its original offering in 1997 as an on line book distributor to a vast array of services and products mostly through related diversification and more recently ver­ tical integration. Once it originally established its success exclusively as an online book seller, it was able to expand its on line sales to CDs and DVDs. Relatedly, it next added toys, games, electronics, and video games to its product offerings. Following this success, it opened its site to third party sellers and labeled this business "Marketplace" similar to eBay's on line product market.

Because of its requirement for data services, it had many computers and servers for backing up its product preference and customer taste information. From this, it vertically integrated into Amazon Web Services and began selling these services to other cloud computing clients. It next started to sell clothing products in a related move and expanded its ability to provide the necessary sizing information and efficient returns.

In 2005, it offered Prime shipping member­ ship at $79 per year and promised unlimited two­ day shipping for no additional charge. In 2007, it produced its � first Kindle reader, orig- 'i, inally priced at $399. As ! competition emerged, <( this price decreased and new products such as Kindle Fire were later introduced. In 2009, Amazon began selling

Due to the exceptional demand of its products, Amazon created

a partnership with an airline leasing company to expand its

ability to lower shipping costs, and to have more control over

its delivery service.

private label goods, including blank DVDs and USB cables. It also introduced its streaming video service. Amazon Studios was created in 2010, and in 2011 Prime membership included instant video streaming services.

In 2014, it offered a $99 Fire TV set-top box for streaming video as well as a smart phone, which was later discontinued due to poor sales. It also began selling its Echo speaker with voice recognition and later Alexa. Because of the exceptional demand for its products, Amazon needed to expand and vertically integrate into shipping and began its Flex delivery services. Later this included creating a partnership with an airline leasing company to expand its ability to lower shipping costs, having more control over its delivery service.

In its evolutionary process, Amazon has pursued a logical strategy of related diversification. Beginning with its original goal of selling books online, Amazon has diversified throughout to become an online retailer and provider of services, entertainment, and goods, including now even furniture and large appliances. In 2017, it acquired Whole Foods Market, an organic food retailer, giving it a large brick and mortar presence throughout the United States and else­ where. This sent shockwaves through the retail food industry because of the disruptive effect Amazon has had on other retailers throughout its history, in particular, large department stores such as Macy's, JCPenney's, and Best Buy.

Because of the "Amazon effect;' other giant retailers have beefed up their on line abilities to sell products. In particular, Wal mart has acquired Jet.com, and all other retailers have sought to build up their online selling presence through their websites. Amazon has signaled it is joining Berkshire Hathaway and JPMorgan Chase to create an independent health care organization that will serve their employees. This venture may disrupt drug distributors and

178

A corporate-level strategy

specifies actions a firm

takes to gain a competitive

advantage by selecting and

managing a group of different

businesses competing in

different product markets.

health insurance companies as they have other companies. Because of Amazon's success,

it now competes with a variety of retailers, media companies like Nettlix, hardware compa­

nies like Apple, advertising companies like Google, and even a lot of its own transportation

delivery suppliers such as FedEx and UPS, including the United States Postal Service. It is also

looking into its own checking account-like payment system. As it has with retail shopping, in

the future Amazon may do the same with payments, banking, and the way pharmaceuticals

and healthcare are delivered.

Sources: D. Cameron & J. Smith, 2018, Air-Cargo space is tight as even spaghetti sauce is in an ASAP rush, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, January 24; B. Evans, 2018, Amazon to become #1 in cloud computing revenue by beating IBM's $17 Billion, Forbes, www.forbes.com, January 26; E. Glazer, L. Hoffman, & L. Steven, 2018, Next Up for Amazon: Checking Accounts, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 5; C. Johnston, 2018, Amazon opens a supermarket with no checkouts, BBC News, www.bbc.com, January 22; B. C. Koons, & R. Langreth, 2018, What stands between Bezos, Buffett, and Dimon and a health-care fix, Bloomberg Businessweek, www.bloomberg.com, February 14; Kowitt, 2017, The deal that made an industry shudder, Fortune, July 1, 7; C. Mims, 2018, The limits of Amazon, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, January 1; P. Schoerdt, 2018, How Amazon will drastically change health care, according to futurists, Money, www.time.com/money, February 1; E. Winkler, 2018, Can Amazon do with clothes what it did with books?, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, January 3.

O ur discussions of business-level strategies (Chapter 4) and the competitive rivalry and competitive dynamics associated with them (Chapter 5) have concentrated on

firms competing in a single industry or product market.' In this chapter, we introduce you to corporate-level strategies, which are strategies firms use to diversify their operations from a single business competing in a single market into several product markets-most commonly, into several businesses. Thus, a corporate-level strategy specifies actions a firm takes to gain a competitive advantage by selecting and managing a group of different businesses competing in different product markets. Corporate-level strategies help com­ panies to select new strategic positions-positions that are expected to increase the firm's value. 2 As explained in the Opening Case, Amazon competes in a number of related retail, hardware, entertainment, and delivery industries.3

As is the case with Amazon, firms use corporate-level strategies as a means to grow revenues and profits, but there can be additional strategic intents to growth. Firms can pursue defensive or offensive strategies that realize growth but have different strategic intents. Firms can also pursue market development by entering different geographic mar­ kets (this approach is discussed in Chapter 8). Firms can acquire competitors (horizontal integration) or buy a supplier or customer (vertical integration).As we see in the Opening Case, Amazon has acquired Whole Foods Market, thereby increasing its horizontal inte­ gration in the retail food product and distribution business. Such acquisition strategies are discussed in Chapter 7. The basic corporate strategy, the topic of this chapter, focuses on diversification.

The decision to pursue growth is not a risk-free choice for firms. Indeed, General Electric (GE) experienced difficulty in its oil and gas service, and power equipment busi­ nesses. GE also suffered significant revenue declines in its financial services businesses and thus sold its assets in that area, choosing to seek growth in other industrial and equip­ ment businesses and to better integrate its digitalization strategy through the Internet.4

Effective firms carefully evaluate their growth options (including the different corporate­ level strategies) before committing firm resources to any of them.

Because the diversified firm operates in several different and unique product markets and likely in several businesses, it forms two types of strategies: corporate-level (company­ wide) and business-level (competitive).5 Corporate-level strategy is concerned with two

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

key issues: in what product markets and businesses the firm should compete and how corporate headquarters should manage those businesses.6 For the diversified company, a business-level strategy (see Chapter 4) must be selected for each of the businesses in which the firm has decided to compete.

As is the case with a business-level strategy, a corporate-level strategy is expected to help the firm earn above-average returns by creating value.7 Some suggest that few corporate­ level strategies actually create value.8 As the Opening Case indicates, realizing value through a corporate strategy can be achieved, but it is challenging to do so. Evidence suggests that a corporate-level strategy's value is ultimately determined by the degree to which "the businesses in the portfolio are worth more under the management of the com­ pany than they would be under any other ownership:'9 Thus, an effective corporate-level strategy creates, across all of a firm's businesses, aggregate returns that exceed what those returns would be without the strategy10 and contributes to the firm's strategic competitive­ ness and its ability to earn above-average returns.11

Product diversification, a primary form of corporate-level strategies, concerns the scope of the markets and industries in which the firm competes as well as "how man­ agers buy, create, and sell different businesses to match skills and strengths with oppor­ tunities presented to the firm:' 12 Successful diversification is expected to reduce vari­ ability in the firm's profitability as earnings are generated from different businesses.13 Diversification can also provide firms with the flexibility to shift their investments to markets where the greatest returns are possible rather than being dependent on only one or a few markets.14 Because firms incur development and monitoring costs when diversifying, the ideal portfolio of businesses balances diversification's costs and ben­ efits. CEOs and their top-management teams are responsible for determining the best portfolio for their company.15

We begin this chapter by examining different levels of diversification (from low to high). After describing the different reasons firms diversify their operations, we focus on two types of related diversification (related diversification signifies a moderate to high level of diversification for the firm). W hen properly used, these strategies help create value in the diversified firm, either through the sharing of resources (the related con­ strained strategy) or the transferring of core competencies across the firm's different busi­ nesses (the related linked strategy). We then examine unrelated diversification, which is another corporate-level strategy that can create value. Thereafter, the chapter shifts to the incentives and resources that can stimulate diversification that is value neutral. However, managerial motives to diversify, the final topic in the chapter, can actually destroy some of the firm's value.

6-1 Levels of Diversification

Diversified firms vary according to their level of diversification and the connections between and among their businesses. Figure 6.1 lists and defines five categories of busi­ nesses according to increasing levels of diversification. The single- and dominant-business categories denote no or relatively low levels of diversification; more fully diversified firms are classified into related and unrelated categories. A firm is related through its diversifi­ cation when its businesses share several links. For example, businesses may share product markets (goods or services), technologies, or distribution channels. The more links among businesses, the more "constrained" is the level of diversification. "Unrelated" refers to the absence of direct links between businesses.

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179

180 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

I

Figure 6.1 Levels and Types of Diversification

Low Levels of Diversification

Single business:

Dominant business:

95% or more of revenue comes from a single business.

Between 70% and 95% of revenue comes from a single business.

Moderate to High Levels of Diversification

Related constrained:

Related linked (mixed related and unrelated):

Very High Levels of Diversification

Unrelated:

Less than 70% of revenue comes from the dominant business, and all businesses share product, technological, and distribution linkages.

Less than 70% of revenue comes from the dominant business, and there are only limited links between businesses.

Less than 70% of revenue comes from the dominant business, and there are no common links between businesses.

0

cf

0 ©©

Source: Adapted from R. P. Ru melt, 1974, Strategy, Structure and Economic Performance, Boston: Harvard Business School.

6-1 a Low Levels of Diversification

A firm pursuing a low level of diversification uses either a single- or a dominant-business, corporate-level diversification strategy. A single-business diversification strategy is a corporate-level strategy wherein the firm generates 95 percent or more of its sales reve­ nue from its core business area. 16 For example, Mcllhenny Company, headquartered on Avery Island in Louisiana and producer of Tabasco brand, has maintained its focus on its family 's hot sauce products for seven generations. On its website, the following quote is provided about its products: "Back in 1868, Edmund Mcllhenny experimented with pepper seeds from Mexico (or somewhere in Central A merica) to create his own style of Louisiana hot sauce-our Original Red Sauce. Since then we've continued this tradition of exploration and experimentation, and today Mcllhenny Company crafts seven unique and distinct flavors of sauce, each with its own variety of deliciousness. From mild to wild, there's something for everyone!"17 Historically Mcllhenny has used a single-business strat­ egy while operating in relatively few product markets. Recently, it has begun to partner with other firms so that the Tabasco taste can be found in a variety of food products such as jelly bean candies (Tabasco Jelly Belly), crackers (Hot N' Spicy Cheez-It), and ice cream (Chocolate Chipotle Rocky Road).18

With the dominant-business diversification strategy, the firm generates between 70 and 95 percent of its total revenue within a single business area. United Parcel Service (UPS) uses this strategy. Recently UPS generated 63 percent of its revenue from its U.S. package delivery business and 20 percent from its international package business, with the remaining 17 percent coming from the firm's nonpackage business.19 T hough the U.S. package delivery business currently generates the largest percentage of UPS's sales

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

revenue, the firm anticipates that in the future its other two businesses will account for the majority of revenue growth. This expectation suggests that UPS may become more diversified, both in terms of its goods and services and in the number of countries in which those goods and services are offered.

Firms that focus on one or very few businesses and markets can earn positive returns, because they develop capabilities useful for these markets and can provide superior service to their customers. Additionally, there are fewer challenges in man­ aging one or a very small set of businesses, allowing them to gain economies of scale and efficiently use their resources.2° Famil y -owned and controlled businesses, such as Mcllhenny Company's Tabasco sauce business, are commonly less diversified. They prefer the narrower focus because the family's reputation is related closely to that of the business. Thus, family members prefer to provide quality goods and services, which a focused strategy better allows. 21

Thus, some might considered this a strategy of moderate diversification in the form of highly related constrained diversification, which is discussed next.

6-1 b Moderate and High Levels of Diversification A firm generating more than 30 percent of its revenue outside a dominant business and whose businesses are related to each other in some manner uses a related diversification corporate-level strategy. When the links between the diversified firm's businesses are rather direct-meaning they use similar sourcing, throughput, and outbound processes­ it is a related constrained diversification strategy. Campbell Soup, Proctor & Gamble, and Merck & Co. use a related constrained strategy. With a related constrained strategy, a firm shares resources and activities across its businesses.

As noted in the Strategic Focus, Caterpillar is the largest global producer of heavy equipment. Caterpillar's construction, resource (e.g., mining), energy and transportation equipment, and machinery businesses made up about 60 percent of sales in 2016.22 While each segment is distinct, many similar technologies and inputs are used in the produc­ tion of its equipment. Furthermore, related technologies allow similarities in production processes and main equipment parts, allowing a transfer of knowledge across these businesses. In addition, customers and markets share some similarities because most relate to some form of construction, mining, and extraction industries. It also uses an R&D approach focused on product and system updates through a series of differentiated products and thus follows a product proliferation strategy. A product proliferation strat­ egy represents a form of within-industry diversification.23 Yet, as noted, Caterpillar also has four divisions, including a financial products segment that supports financing of its equipment and machinery sales.

The diversified company with a portfolio of businesses that have only a few links between them is called a mixed related and unrelated firm and is using the related linked diversification strategy (see Figure 6.1). Until recently (see Strategic Focus in Chapter 11), GE has used a related-linked corporate-level diversification strategy. Compared with related constrained firms, related linked firms share fewer resources and assets between their businesses, concentrating instead on transferring knowledge and core competen­ cies between the businesses. GE has four strategic business units (see Chapter 11 for a definition of SBUs) it calls "divisions;' each composed of related businesses. There are few relationships across the strategic business units, but many among the subsidiaries or divisions within them. As with firms using each type of diversification strategy, compa­ nies implementing the related linked strategy constantly adjust the mix in their portfolio of businesses as well as make decisions about how to manage these businesses.24 GE's recent decline suggests that such business can be challenging to run and at times may be excessively complicated. 25

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181

182 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Caterpillar Uses the Related Constrained Diversification Strategy

Caterpillar is the largest global producer of heavy equip­

ment focused on the construction, resource extraction

(e.g. mining), oil and gas, and energy and transportation

industries. Besides its traditional earth moving equipment it

also produces diesel and natural gas engines, industrial gas

turbines, and diesel-electric locomotives. It classifies these

businesses into the following four main business segments

(with associated 2017 revenues): Construction Industries

($19, 133 billion); Energy & Transportation ($15,964 billion);

Resource Industries ($7,504 billion); and Financial Products

($2,786 billion). It has over 98,000 employees and almost

60 percent of its sales revenue is derived from outside of

the United States. Caterpillar made a horizontal acquisition

of large mining equipment producer Bucyrus International

in 201 1.

One of its strong competitive advantages is its global

dealer network; there are 171 dealers serving 192 countries.

This network provides efficient and effective parts distribution

with easy-to-use eCommerce platforms throughout the world.

Fast delivery of parts is important when an expensive, essential

piece of equipment is down.

In 2014, 2015, and 2016, a downturn in the energy and

commodity industries significantly reduced Caterpillar's reve­

nue and profits. However, it continued to try to meet its cus­

tomers' needs, while restructuring to meet the lower demand

characteristics. For example, in 2016, Caterpillar's mining truck

sales were down 95 percent from the peak numbers achieved

in 2012. In 2017 and 2018, outlook improved and its profits and

stock price likewise increased.

Caterpillar spends about 5.1 percent of its sales on R&D,

focused on continually improving its products and manu­

facturing processes. Its product innovations, largely driven

by paying attention to customer needs, has allowed the

company to be competitive in developed as well as devel­

oping markets. Research suggests that such client-focused

diversification comes from deep knowledge about custom­

ers. For example, Caterpillar has pursued technology that has

allowed it to be a leader in autonomous trucks in the mining

sector. Its technology will allow it to retrofit a competitor's

truck to make it autonomous or semi-autonomous through

innovations to its MineStar system. During the downturn,

other competitors did not fare so well; for example, in 2017

U.S.-based competitor Joy Global was purchased by Komatsu,

a global Japanese equipment producer.

Caterpillar's interrelated set of businesses are also sup­

ported by a financial products division, which facilitates sales

finance and leasing and likewise helps to generate profits. In

support of its business segments, it also provides servicing

by remanufacturing of Caterpillar product engines and com­

ponents and providing remanufacturing services for other

companies with related products. Its R&D program is utilized

across many of its business segments. Although its global

R&D center is located near its corporate headquarters in

Peoria, Illinois, it has other regional facilities in North America,

Europe, and Asia-Pacific to provide technical expertise to

support its manufacturing and sales opportunities around

the world.

Sources: 2018 Caterpillar fact sheet, www.caterpillar.com, Accessed March 6; 2018,

Caterpillar forges new value parts brand for legacy engines, machines, Concrete

Products, 71 (1): 8; J. K. Mawdsley & D. Somaya, 2018, Demand-side strategy, rela­

tional advantage and partner-driven corporate scope: The case for client-led

diversification, Strategic Management Journal, 39: 1834- 1859; M. Shunko, T Yunes,

G. Fenu, A. Scheller-Wolf, V. Tardif. & S. Tayur, 2018, Product portfolio restructuring:

Methodology and application at Caterpillar, Production & Operations Management,

27: 100-120; 2017, Caterpillar and FTP Solutions partner to boost mine network

performance, Coal International, 265(6): 20; A. Hiyate, 2017, CAT brings partnerships

to the fore, Canadian Mining Journal, 138(10): 23-25; A. Tangel & J. Zumbrun, J.

2017, Caterpillar boosts outlook, signaling cautious optimism in recovery, Wall

Street Journal, www.wsj.com, July 26.

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

A highly diversified firm that has no relationships between its businesses follows an unrelated diversification strategy. United Technologies Corporation, Textron, Samsung, and Newell Brand Corporation are examples of firms using this type of corporate-level strategy. Commonly, firms using this strategy are called conglomerates.26 Newell Brand Corporation has a number of consumer businesses that are not related to each other, and the firm makes no efforts to share activities or to transfer core competencies between or among them. It has a range of businesses such as Rubbermaid household products, K2 skis, and Coleman camping equipment, which are independently run with decentralized operating divisions. 27 Successfully managing the unrelated diversification strategy can be difficult, and Newell has been recently challenged by Starboard, an activist investor, to improve its performance.28 Another form of unrelated diversifica­ tion strategy is pursued by private equity firms such Carlyle Group, Blackstone, and KKR.29 They often have an unrelated set of portfolio firms.

6-2 Reasons for Diversification

A firm uses a corporate-level diversification strategy for a variety of reasons (see Table 6.1). Typically, a diversification strategy is used to increase the firm's value by improving its overall performance. Value is created-either through related diversification or through unrelated diversification-when the strategy allows a company 's businesses to increase revenues or reduce costs while implementing their business-level strategies.30

Other reasons for using a diversification strategy may have nothing to do with increasing the firm's value; in fact, diversification can have neutral effects or even reduce a firm's value.

Table 6.1 Reasons for Diversification

Value-Creating Diversification

Economies of scope (related diversification)

• Sharing activities

• Transferring core competencies

Market power (related diversification)

• Blocking competitors through multipoint competition

• Vertical integration

Financial economies (unrelated diversification)

Efficient internal capital allocation

• Business restructuring

Value-Neutral Diversification

Antitrust regulation

Tax laws

Low performance

Uncertain future cash flows

Risk reduction for firm

Tangible resources

Intangible resources

Diversifying managerial employment risk

Increasing managerial compensation

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183

184 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Value-neutral reasons for diversification include a desire to match and thereby neutralize a competitor's market power (e.g., to neutralize another firm's advantage by acquiring a similar distribution outlet). Decisions to expand a firm's portfolio of businesses to reduce managerial risk or increase top managers' pay can have a negative effect on the firm's value. Greater amounts of diversification reduce managerial risk in that if one of the businesses in a diversified firm fails, the top executive of that business does not risk total failure by the corporation. As such, this reduces the top executives' employment risk. In addition, because diversification can increase a firm's size and thus managerial com­ pensation, managers have motives to diversify a firm to a level that reduces its value.31

Diversification rationales that may have a neutral or negative effect on the firm's value are discussed later in the chapter.

Operational relatedness and corporate relatedness are two diversification strategies that can create value (see Figure 6.2). Studies of these independent relatedness dimensions show the importance of resources and key competencies.32 The figure's vertical dimen­ sion depicts opportunities to share operational activities between businesses ( operational relatedness), while the horizontal dimension suggests opportunities for transferring cor­ porate-level core competencies (corporate relatedness). The firm with a strong capability in managing operational synergy, especially in sharing assets between its businesses, falls in the upper left quadrant, which also represents vertical sharing of assets through vertical integration. The lower right quadrant represents a highly developed corporate capability for transferring one or more core competencies across businesses.

This capability is located primarily in the corporate headquarters office. Unrelated diversification is also illustrated in Figure 6.2 in the lower left quadrant. Financial econ­ omies (discussed later), rather than either operational or corporate relatedness, are the source of value creation for firms using the unrelated diversification strategy.

Figure 6.2 Value-Creating Diversification Strategies: Operational and Corporate Relatedness

Related Constrained Both Operational and High Diversification Corporate Relatedness

Operational Relatedness:

Sharing Activities between

Businesses

Unrelated Related Linked Low Diversification Diversification

Low High

Corporate Relatedness: Transferring Core Competencies into Businesses

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

6-3 Value-Creating Diversification: Related Constrained and Related Linked Diversification

With the related diversification corporate-level strategy, the firm builds upon or extends its resources and capabilities to build a competitive advantage by creating value for customers.33 The company using the related diversification strategy wants to develop and exploit economies of scope between its businesses.34 In fact, even nonprofit organizations have found that carefully planned and implemented related diversification can create value.35

Economies of scope are cost savings a firm creates by successfully sharing resources and capabilities or transferring one or more corporate-level core competencies that were developed in one of its businesses to another of its businesses.36

As illustrated in Figure 6.2, firms seek to create value from economies of scope through two basic kinds of operational economies: sharing activities (operational relat­ edness) and transferring corporate-level core competencies (corporate relatedness). The difference between sharing activities and transferring competencies is based on how sep­ arate resources are jointly used to create economies of scope. To create economies of scope, tangible resources such as plant and equipment or other business-unit physical assets often must be shared. Less tangible resources such as manufacturing know-how and technological capabilities can also be shared. However, know-how transferred between separate activities with no physical or tangible resource involved is a transfer of a corporate-level core competence, not an operational sharing of activities.37

6-3a Operational Relatedness: Sharing Activities

Firms can create operational relatedness by sharing either a primary activity (e.g., inven­ tory delivery systems) or a support activity (e.g., purchasing practices)-see Chapter 3's discussion of the value chain. Firms using the related constrained diversification strat­ egy share activities in order to create value. Proctor & Gamble uses this corporate-level strategy. Caterpillar, described in the Strategic Focus on page 182, also shares activities. For example, Caterpillar's various businesses share marketing activities because all of their equipment is sold to firms in the construction and mineral extraction industries.

Activity sharing is also risky because ties among a firm's businesses create links between lg, outcomes. For instance, if demand for one i iE' business's product is reduced, it may not gener- � ate sufficient revenues to cover the fixed costs �grequired to operate the shared facilities. These

I types of organizational difficulties can reduce i§ f

Economies of scope are

cost savings a firm creates

by successfully sharing

resources and capabilities

or transferring one or

185

more corporate-level core

competencies that were

developed in one of its

businesses to another of its

businesses.

.. activity-sharing success. Additionally, activity j sharing requires careful coordination between the businesses involved. The coordination challenges must be managed effectively for the appropriate sharing of activities (see Chapter 11

Procter & Gamble (P&G) is a consumer products firm that shares a

lot of activities among its divisions; for example, most of its prod-

ucts are sold through retail outlets and those sales activities can be

for further discussion).38 shared among its divisions.

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186 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Although activity sharing across businesses is not risk-free, research shows that it can create value. For example, studies of acquisitions of firms in the same industry (horizontal acquisitions), such as the banking and software industries, found that sharing resources and activities and thereby creating economies of scope contrib­ uted to post-acquisition increases in performance and higher returns to shareholders. Additionally, firms that sold off related units in which resource sharing was a pos­ sible source of economies of scope have been found to produce lower returns than those that sold off businesses unrelated to the firm's core business. Still other research discovered that firms with closely related businesses have lower risk. These results suggest that gaining economies of scope by sharing activities across a firm's busi­ nesses may be important in reducing risk and in creating value. More attractive results are obtained through activity sharing when a strong corporate headquarters office facilitates it. 39

6-3b Corporate Relatedness: Transferring of Core Competencies

Over time, the firm's intangible resources, such as its know-how, become the foundation of core competencies. Corporate-level core competencies are complex sets of resources and capabilities that link different businesses, primarily through managerial and tech­ nological knowledge, experience, and expertise.4° Firms seeking to create value through corporate relatedness use the related linked diversification strategy as exemplified by Sony Corporation (see Chapter 11).

In at least two ways, the related linked diversification strategy helps firms to create value. First, because the expense of developing a core competence has already been incurred in one of the firm's businesses, transferring this competence to a second business elim­ inates the need for that business to allocate

j resources to develop it. Resource intangibility

i is a second source of value creation through ;.:: corporate relatedness. Intangible resources � i are difficult for competitors to understand � and imitate. Because of this difficulty, the � i unit receiving a transferred corporate-level :c competence often gains an immediate com- � f petitive advantage over its rivals.41

Virgin Group, known for its airline, has also transferred its brand

A number of firms have successfully transferred one or more corporate-level core competencies across their businesses. Virgin Group Ltd. transfers its marketing core competence across airlines, cosmetics,

through its marketing competence to other product areas such as

cosmetics, music, drinks, mobile phones, health clubs, and a number

of other businesses. music, drinks, mobile phones, health clubs, and a number of other businesses.42 Honda

Corporate-level core

competencies are complex

sets of resources and

capabilities that link different

businesses, primarily through

managerial and technological

knowledge, experience, and

expertise.

has developed and transferred its competence in engine design and manufacturing among its businesses making products such as motorcycles, lawnmowers, and cars and trucks. Company officials state that Honda is a major manufacturer of engines focused on providing products for all forms of human mobility.43

One way managers facilitate the transfer of corporate-level core competencies is by moving key people into new management positions.44 However, the manager of an older business may be reluctant to transfer key people who have accumulated knowledge and

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

experience critical to the business's success. Thus, managers with the ability to facilitate the transfer of a core competence may come at a premium, or the key people involved may not want to transfer. Additionally, the top-level managers from the transferring business may not want the competencies transferred to a new business to fulfill the firm's diversi­ fication objectives.45 Research suggests that the nature of the top management team can influence the success of the knowledge and skill transfer process.46 Research also suggests too much dependence on outsourcing can lower the usefulness of core competencies, thereby reducing their useful transferability to other business units in the diversified firm. For example, Fiat has developed a novel organizational solution in how firms can organize R&D to protect against innovation competence loss in R&D outsourcing, by maintaining certain design capabilities in cooperation with the supplier. 47

6-3c Market Power

Firms using a related diversification strategy may gain market power when successfully using a related constrained or related linked strategy. Market power exists when a firm is able to sell its products above the existing competitive level or to reduce the costs of its primary and support activities below the competitive level, or both.48 Heinz was bought by a private equity firm in Brazil called 3G Capital Partners LP, which subsequently com­ bined Kraft Foods Group with Heinz to form Kraft-Heinz. These deals were supported by Warren Buffet's Berkshire Hathaway & Co., who teamed up with 3G to buy these food businesses. In a similar deal to build market power, 3G took private food restaurant Burger King Worldwide, Inc., and also bought Tim Hortons Inc. (a Canadian coffee and donut fast-food restaurant) through its Burger King holdings. Warren Buffet also contrib­ uted $11 million to help finance the latter deal. These deals obviously build market power for the combining firms in branded consumer foods and fast food restaurants.49

Ericsson for a long time had the largest share of the global market in telecommu­ nications equipment, and for many years its leadership position afforded it consider­ able market power. However, that market share has eroded, due primarily to Chinese rivals. "Since 2012, Ericsson has fallen from first to third place in the $126 billion market for telecommunications equipment and software . . . In 2016, Huawei led with a 20.4 percent market share. Nokia acquired competitor Alcatel-Lucent to leap into second place, with 14 percent. Ericsson had 12.5 percent, while China's fast-rising ZTE Corp. had 9.2 percent:' 50 As many customer firms move to the "cloud;' all of these firms are seeking acquisitions and contracts to maintain that market power.

In addition to efforts to gain scale as a means of increasing market power, firms can foster increased market power through multipoint competition and vertical integration. Multipoint competition exists when two or more diversified firms simultaneously compete in the same product areas or geographical markets.51 Through multi-point competition, rival firms often experience pressure to diversify because other firms in their dominant industry segment have made acquisitions to compete in a different market segment. The actions taken by UPS and FedEx in two markets, overnight delivery and ground shipping, illustrate multipoint competition. UPS moved into overnight delivery, FedEx's strong­ hold; in turn, FedEx bought trucking and ground shipping assets to move into ground shipping, UPS's stronghold. Similarly, J.M. Smucker Company, a snack food producer, in 2015 bought Big Heart Pet Brands, which specializes in snacks such as Milk-Bone dog bis­ cuits, treats, and chews and has over $2.2 billion in annual revenue. Smucker's competitor, Mars, had acquired a significant portion of Proctor & Gamble's dog and cat food division in 2014. Apparently, Smucker's was seeking to keep up its size and cross-industry posi­ tions relative to Mars by also diversifying into snacks for pets. In 2018 following these acquisitions, General Mills announced its intent to acquire Blue Buffalo Pet Products for about $8 billion to obtain "a piece of the rapidly expanding natural pet-food market:' 52

187

Market power exists

when a firm is able to sell its

products above the existing

competitive level or to reduce

the costs of its primary and

support activities below the

competitive level, or both.

Multipoint competition

exists when two or

more diversified firms

simultaneously compete in

the same product areas or

geographical markets.

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188 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Some firms using a related diversification strategy engage in vertical integration to gain market power. Vertical integration exists when a company produces its own inputs (backward integration) or owns its own source of output distribution (forward inte­ gration). In some instances, firms partially integrate their operations, producing and sell­ ing their products by using company-owned businesses as well as outside sources.53

� _;; Vertical integration is commonly used I in the firm's core business to gain market = power over rivals. Market power is gained � � as the firm develops the ability to save on its

When firm pursue vertical integration more information is processed

at headquarters and thus more knowledge processing is needed as

f operations, avoid sourcing and market costs, 0 improve product quality, possibly protect

its technology from imitation by rivals, and potentially exploit underlying capabilities in the marketplace. Vertically integrated firms are better able to improve product quality

illustrated by these servers. External relations with suppliers are also

supported by such information networks.

Vertical integration exists

when a company produces

its own inputs (backward

integration) or owns its own

source of output distribution

(forward integration).

and improve or create new technologies than specialized firms because they have access to

more information and knowledge that are complementary.54 Market power also is created when firms have strong ties between their productive assets for which no market prices exist. Establishing a market price would result in high search and transaction costs, so firms seek to vertically integrate rather than remain separate businesses.55

Vertical integration has its limitations. For example, an outside supplier may produce the product at a lower cost. As a result, internal transactions from vertical integration may be expensive and reduce profitability relative to competitors.56 Also, bureaucratic costs can be present with vertical integration.57 Because vertical integration can require sub­ stantial investments in specific technologies, it may reduce the firm's flexibility, especially when technology changes quickly. Finally, changes in demand create capacity balance and coordination problems. If one business is building a part for another internal business but achieving economies of scale requires the first division to manufacture quantities that are beyond the capacity of the internal buyer to absorb, it would be necessary to sell the parts outside the firm as well as to the internal business. Thus, although vertical integration can create value, especially through market power over competitors, it is not without risks and costs.58

Around the turn of the twenty-first century, manufacturing firms such as Intel and Dell began to reduce vertical integration by reducing ownership of self-manufactured parts and components. This trend also occurred in some large auto companies, such as Ford and General Motors, as they developed independent supplier networks. 59 Flex (formerly known as Flextronics), a large electronics contract manufacturer, helps to support this approach to supply-chain management. 60 Such firms often manage their customers' entire product lines and offer services ranging from inventory man­ agement to delivery and after-sales service. Interestingly, however, some firms are beginning to reintegrate in order to gain better control over the quality and timing of their supplies.61 Samsung has maintained control of its operations through a vertical integration strategy, while being a manufacturer for competitors such as Apple in consumer electronics.

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

6-3d Simultaneous Operational Relatedness and Corporate Relatedness

As Figure 6.2 suggests, some firms simultaneously seek operational and corporate relat­ edness to create economies of scope. 62 The ability to simultaneously create economies of scope by sharing activities (operational relatedness) and transferring core competencies (corporate relatedness) is difficult for competitors to understand and learn how to imi­ tate. However, if the cost of realizing both types of relatedness is not offset by the benefits created, the result is diseconomies because the cost of organization and incentive struc­ ture is very expensive.63

As noted in the Opening Case, Amazon uses a related diversification strategy to simultaneously create economies of scope through operational and corporate relatedness. This is illustrated in how its deep customer knowledge is integrated in the various retail and media businesses along with the cloud service and shipping businesses. Amazon has pursued a related business strategy primarily through its online retail portal. For example, Amazon is deriving value through its economies of scale in cloud computing and ware­ house and delivery logistics expertise. Through its purchase of Whole Foods Market, it now has other brick and mortal locations to pursue its online expertise in the grocery business. 64

In addition, Disney, as illustrated in the mini-case at the end of the chapter, also applies this strategy. Disney has five separate but related businesses: media networks, parks and resorts, studio entertainment, consumer products, and interactive media. Within the firm's Studio Entertainment business, for example, Disney can gain econo­ mies of scope by sharing activities among its different movie distribution companies, such as Marvel, Touchstone Pictures, Hollywood Pictures, and Dimension Films. Broad and deep knowledge about its customers is a capability on which Disney relies to develop corporate-level core competencies in terms of advertising and marketing. With these competencies, Disney is able to create economies of scope through corporate related­ ness as it cross-sells products that are highlighted in its movies through the distribution channels that are part of its parks and resorts and consumer products businesses. Thus, characters created in movies become figures that are marketed through Disney 's retail stores ( which are part of the consumer products business). In addition, themes established in movies become the source of new rides in the firm's theme parks, which are part of the parks and resorts business, and provide themes for clothing and other retail business products.65

Although The Walt Disney Company has been able to successfully use related diversification as a corporate-level strategy through which it creates economies of scope by sharing some activities and by transfer­ ring core competencies, it can be difficult for investors to identify the value created by a firm (e.g., The Walt Disney Company) as it shares activities and transfers core com - petencies. For this reason, the value of the assets of a firm using a diversification strat­ egy to create economies of scope often is discounted by investors.66

cc

Disney sells many products related to its movies in its own stores as

well as more broadly through other retail outlets.

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189

190

Financial economies are

cost savings realized through

improved allocations of

financial resources based on

investments inside or outside

the firm.

Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

6-4 Unrelated Diversification

Firms do not seek either operational relatedness or corporate relatedness when using the unrelated diversification corporate-level strategy. An unrelated diversification strategy (see Figure 6.2) can create value through two types of financial economies. Financial economies are cost savings realized through improved allocations of financial resources based on investments inside or outside the firm.67

Efficient internal capital allocations can lead to financial economies. Efficient internal capital allocations reduce risk among the firm's businesses-for example, by leading to the development of a portfolio of businesses with different risk profiles. The second type of financial economy concerns the restructuring of acquired assets. Here, the diversified firm buys another company, restructures that company's assets in ways that allow it to operate more profitably, and then sells the company for a profit in the external market.68

Next, we discuss the two types of financial economies in greater detail, efficient internal capital market allocation and asset restructuring.

6-4a Efficient Internal Capital Market Allocation In a market economy, capital markets are believed to efficiently allocate capital. Efficiency results as investors take equity positions (ownership) with high expected future cash-flow values. Capital is also allocated through debt as shareholders and debt holders try to improve the value of their investments by taking stakes in businesses with high growth and profitability prospects.

In large diversified firms, the corporate headquarters office distributes capital to its businesses to create value for the overall corporation. As highlighted in the Strategic Focus, Berkshire Hathaway and SoftBank have used both efficient internal capital market alloca­ tion and restructuring approaches in managing its unrelated business units. The nature of these distributions can generate gains from internal capital market allocations that exceed the gains that would accrue to shareholders as a result of capital being allocated by the external capital market.69 Because those in a firm's corporate headquarters generally have access to detailed and accurate information regarding the actual and potential future per­ formance of the company's portfolio of businesses, they have the best information to make capital distribution decisions.70

Compared with corporate office personnel, external investors have relatively limited access to internal information and can only estimate the performances of individual busi­ nesses as well as their future prospects. Moreover, although businesses seeking capital must provide information to potential suppliers (e.g., banks or insurance companies), firms with internal capital markets can have at least two informational advantages. First, information provided to capital markets through annual reports and other sources emphasizes positive prospects and outcomes. External sources of capital have a limited ability to understand the operational dynamics within large organizations. Even external shareholders who have access to information are unlikely to receive full and complete disclosure.71 Second, although a firm must disseminate information, that information also becomes simultane­ ously available to the firm's current and potential competitors. Competitors might attempt to duplicate a firm's value-creating strategy with insights gained by studying such informa­ tion. Thus, the ability to efficiently allocate capital through an internal market helps the firm protect the competitive advantages it develops while using its corporate-level strategy as well as its various business-unit-level strategies.

If intervention from outside the firm is required to make corrections to capital alloca­ tions, only significant changes are possible because the power to make changes by outsiders is often indirect (e.g., through members of the board of directors). External parties can try to make changes by forcing the firm into bankruptcy or changing the top management team.

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy 191

Berkshire Hathaway and SoftBank Use Similar Unrelated Strategies

This Strategic Focus will examine the unrelated diversified

strategies employed by Berkshire Hathaway and SoftBank.

Berkshire Hathaway uses a two pronged strategy, one focused

on dominant owned or wholly owned businesses as well as

large-although minority-ownership positions in a number

of other businesses. It has dominant or wholly owned posi­

tions in insurance, including National Fire and Marine, GEICO,

and Gen Re, offering reinsurance solutions that work behind

the scenes to share the risk among frontline carriers. Another

dominant position is focused on regulated and capital inten­

sive businesses, which include BNSF Railroad and Berkshire

Hathaway Energy (BHE), a 90% owned utility business. Another

group, Home Services, which came with the purchase of Mid

America (the energy utility that led to the formation of BHE in

1999), owns 38 realty companies with 29,000 agents operating

in 28 states.

Manufacturing service and retail operations is another

group, with 44 businesses that report directly to the Berkshire

Hathaway corporate headquarters. Included in this group is

Kraft Heinz, which has been restructured, and other businesses

such as Duracell, a battery business, purchased from Gillette.

Berkshire Hathaway also owns financing and financial

product businesses. Included in this group are rental and

leasing operations conducted by CORT Furniture (home and

office furniture rental), XTRA (truck semi-trailers), and MARMON

(primarily rail tank cars but also freight cars, intermodal tank

controllers, and cranes); each of these is a leader in its field.

Berkshire Hathaway also owns a manufactured home financing

business called Clayton Homes.

Besides this unrelated set of dominant ownership posi­

tion or wholly owned businesses, Berkshire Hathaway has

investments in a number of other well-known businesses

including: American Express Company, Apple Inc., Charter

Communications, Inc., Coca-Cola Company, Delta Airlines,

Goldman Sachs, Inc., International Business Machines Corp.

Moody's Corporation, Phillips 66, Sanofi, Southwest Airlines

Company, US Bank Corp, United Continental Holdings, Inc.

(United Airlines), USG Corp, and Wells Fargo Company. It

uses cash generated from the insurance business as well as

other assets and finance businesses to fund its investments

in these additional minority investments. It primarily invests

its money in long-term holdings where the business has a

strong competitive advantage relative to others in its indus­

trial segment.

To compare and contrast, SoftBank uses a similar strategy

as noted above. However, SoftBank, a large Japanese firm, has

minority investments primarily in the high-tech area rather

than in large dominant and well-known businesses as found

in Berkshire Hathaway. The dominant business that SoftBank

has used from which to expand is the telecommunications

business in Japan, which also includes Bright Start (mobile

phones and other accessory device distribution). Furthermore,

it has acquired Sprint, a mobile telecommunication carrier in

the United States, to expand and improve on its investments

in telecommunications. SoftBank also has an investment in

Vodafone in Europe.

It has largely sought to turn these struggling mobile phone

businesses back into money makers and use the cash fiow and

asset base to fund Internet and other technology-oriented

businesses in its broader minority ownership portfolio. For

example, DiDi is a ride-hailing giant in China (like Uber) whose

platform SoftBank will likely use to help develop its ride-hailing

business in Japan. Additionally, SoftBank has investments in

Yahoo! Japan, Alibaba Group, among a myriad of others. To

foster investments it has a number of financial companies to

facilitate its investment transactions as well as engineering

design companies including: Softbank Vision Fund (venture

capital), Arm Holdings (semiconductors and software design),

For tress Investment Group (private equity), and Boston

Dynamics (engineering and robotics). For example, the Vision

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192 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

Fund "strategy is to invest in the leading company in an array

of sectors, giving each company enough money to rise above

competitors'.' Softbank has invested more than $34 billion glob­

ally across more than 20 companies. Comparatively, this is a

sizable investment given that the U.S. venture-capital industry

raises about $40 billion annually.

Sources: A. Abkowitz, 2018, DiDi ties up with SoftBank to give a lift to Japanese

taxi companies, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, February 8; P. Alpeyev, 2018,

Masayoshi Son plans push to cut discount in Softbank's Stock, Bloomberg,

www.bloomberg.com, February 6; E. Brown, 2018, SoftBank bets big on food deliv­

ery, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, March 1; P. Dvorak & M. Negishi, 2018, How

SoftBank, world's biggest tech investor, throws around its cash, Wall Street Journal,

www.wsj.com, February 26; T. Lachapelle, 2018, Even Warren Buffett's magic can't

help Kraft Heinz, Bloomberg Businessweek, www.businessweek.com, February 16;

In summary, both these businesses employ an unrelated

strategy whereby they use the cash flow from large insurance

or utility type businesses to fund their partial investments in a

range of other investments. They both use holding company

structures, where most businesses are organized to report

their results independently to corporate headquarters and are

rewarded according to their individual business unit or subsid­

iary performance.

C. Leaf, 2018, Amazon-JP Morgan-Berkshire Hathaway; what their new health

venture really means, Fortune, www.fortune.com, January 31; R. L. Ensign, 2017,

It's official; Warren Buffett made about $13 billion on Bank of America deal, Wall

Street Journal, www.wsj.com, August 30; A. Gara, 2017, Another reason to buy

Berkshire Hathaway? Hedge funds can't beat Buffett on their own turf, Forbes,

www.forbes.com, July 11; S. Grocer, 2017 Berkshire hopes its second tango with

energy goes more smoothly, Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com, July 7; J. Pearce,

2017, SoftBank aligned with Uber investment, Global Telecoms Business, August 14,

20; P. Alpeyev & T. Amano, 2015, Softbank $3 billion startup incubator, Bloomberg,

www.bloomberg.com, November 30.

Alternatively, in an internal capital market, the corporate headquarters office can fine-tune its corrections, such as choosing to adjust business unit managerial incentives or encouraging strategic changes in one of the firm's businesses.72 Thus, capital can be allocated according to more specific criteria than is possible with external market allocations. Because it has less accurate information, the external capital market may fail to allocate resources adequately to high-potential investments. The corporate headquarters office of a diversified company can more effectively perform such tasks as disciplining underperforming management teams through resource allocations.73

In spite of the challenges associated with it, a number of corporations continue to use the unrelated diversification strategy, especially in emerging markets. As an example, Siemens is a large diversified German conglomerate that engages in substantial diversifi­ cation in order to balance its economic risk. In economic downturns, diversification can help some companies improve future performance.74

The Achilles' heel for firms using the unrelated diversification strategy in a devel­ oped economy is that competitors can imitate financial economies more easily than they can replicate the value gained from the economies of scope developed through opera­ tional relatedness and corporate relatedness. This issue is less of a problem in emerging economies, in which the absence of a "soft infrastructure" (including effective financial intermediaries, sound regulations, and contract laws) supports and encourages use of the unrelated diversification strategy.75 In fact, in emerging economies such as those in Taiwan, India, and Chile, research has shown that diversification increases the performance of firms affiliated within large diversified business groups such as the Tata group in India.76

6-4b Restructuring of Assets

Financial economies can also be created when firms learn how to create value by buying, restructuring, and then selling the restructured companies' assets in the external market.77 As in the real estate business, buying assets at low prices, restructuring them, and selling them at a price that exceeds their cost generates a positive return on the firm's invested capital. This is a strategy that has been taken up by private equity firms, who successfully buy, restructure, and then sell, often within a four-or five-year period.78

Unrelated diversified companies that pursue this strategy try to create financial econ­ omies by acquiring and restructuring other companies' assets, but it involves significant trade-offs. For example, both Berkshire Hathaway and Softbank as illustrated in the Strategic Focus have used this strategy. Likewise, Danaher Corp:s success requires a focus on mature

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Chapter 6: Corporate-Level Strategy

manufacturing businesses because of the uncertainty of demand for high-technology products. It has acquired hundreds of businesses since 1984 and applied the Danaher Business System to reduce costs and create a lean organization by finding firms with "secular growth drivers and opportunities for consolidation" during restructuring.79 Danaher as noted focused on mature, low-technology businesses because resource allocation decisions are highly complex in these businesses, often creating information-processing overload on the small corporate headquarters offices that are common in unrelated diversified firms. High­ technology and service businesses are often human-resource dependent; these people can leave or demand higher pay and thus appropriate or deplete the value of an acquired firm.Bo

Buying and then restructuring service-based assets so they can be profitably sold in the external market is also difficult. Thus, for both high-technology firms and service­ based companies, relatively few tangible assets can be restructured to create value and sell profitably, although this is the approach used by SoftBank (see the Strategic Focus). It is difficult to restructure intangible assets such as human capital and effective relationships that have evolved over time between buyers (customers) and sellers (firm personnel). Ideally, executives will follow a strategy of buying businesses when prices are lower, such as in the midst of a recession, and selling them at late stages in an expansion. This is certainly the approach that Warren Buffett has used at Berkshire Hathaway; for example, it bought a large position in GE, Wells Fargo, and IBM during the downturn and sold its positions once the stock price improved significantly. Because of the increases in global economic activity, including more cross-border acquisitions, there is also a growing number of foreign divestitures and restructuring in internal markets (e.g., partial or full privatization of state-owned enterprises). Foreign divestitures are even more complex than domestic ones and must be managed carefully.Bi

6-5 Value-Neutral Diversification:

Incentives and Resources

The objectives firms seek when using related diversification and unrelated diversification strategies all have the potential to help the firm create value through the corporate-level strategy. However, these strategies, as well as single- and dominant-business diversifi­ cation strategies, are sometimes used with objectives that are value-neutral. Different incentives to diversify sometimes exist, and the quality of the firm's resources may permit only diversification that is value neutral rather than value creating.

6-Sa Incentives to Diversify

Incentives to diversify come from both the external environment and a firm's internal environment. External incentives include antitrust regulations and tax laws. Internal incentives include low performance, uncertain future cash flows, the pursuit of synergy, and reduction of risk for the firm.

Antitrust Regulation and Tax Laws Government antitrust policies and tax laws provided incentives for U.S. firms to diversify in the 1960s and 1970s.B2 Antitrust laws prohibiting mergers that created increased mar­ ket power (via either vertical or horizontal integration) were stringently enforced during that period. Merger activity that produced conglomerate diversification was encouraged primarily by the Celler-Kefauver Antimerger Act (1950), which discouraged horizontal and vertical mergers. As a result, many of the mergers during the 1960s and 1970s were "conglomerate" in character, involving companies pursuing different lines of business. Between 1973 and 1977, 79.1 percent of all mergers were conglomerate in nature.B3

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193

194 Part 2: Strategic Actions: Strategy Formulation

During the 1980s, antitrust enforcement lessened, resulting in more and larger hori­ zontal mergers ( acquisitions of target firms in the same line of business, such as a merger between two oil companies).84 In addition, investment bankers became more open to the kinds of mergers facilitated by regulation changes; as a consequence, takeovers increased to unprecedented numbers.85 The conglomerates, or highly diversified firms, of the 1960s and 1970s became more "focused" in the 1980s and early 1990s as merger constraints were relaxed and restructuring was implemented.86

In the beginning of the twenty-first century, antitrust concerns emerged again with the large volume of mergers and acquisitions (see Chapter 7).87 Mergers are now receiving more scrutiny than they did in the 1980s, 1990s, and the first decade of the 2000s.88

The tax effects of diversification stem not only from corporate tax changes, but also from individual tax rates. Some companies (especially mature ones)