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Winston, M., & Edelbach, R. (2014). Society, Ethics, & Technology (5th Ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. ISBN-13: 9781133943556

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6(I)mplementation—Execution

Fancy Collection/SuperStock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Carry out beta and pilot testing of training.

• Describe the desired skill set of a trainer.

• Manage the barriers to implementing training.

• Evaluate the cost benefit of outsourcing training.

There are two types of speakers: those who get nervous and those who are liars. —Mark Twain

Beta and Pilot Testing of Training Chapter 6

Pretest 1. In a beta test of training material, a few select trainees undergo the training and pro-

vide feedback on it. a. true b. false

2. Human beings tend to think at a rate about 3 to 6 times faster than we speak. a. true b. false

3. A trainer’s vocal inflections and rate of speech can affect trainees’ learning. a. true b. false

4. Because e-learning programs save money, it is recommended that most organizations implement them as quickly as possible. a. true b. false

5. Though cost savings is a major reason companies outsource trainings, outsourcing can end up being quite expensive. a. true b. false

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction Whereas the development phase focused on the creation and preparation of the training materials, instructional methods, and media, the implementation phase centers on roll- ing out and beginning the training itself. Especially when the training is organization wide, training programs may be rolled out first on a provisional basis through beta and/or pilot testing before full-scale implementation (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Vijayasa- mundeeswari, 2013). During the implementation phase, we ensure that our trainers—both classroom and on-the-job trainers—have the requisite skill sets to deliver the training com- petently, including managing potential trainee resistance to the new learning. It is during the implementation phase, too, that we evaluate whether the training should be implemented via internal personnel or through an outside vendor.

6.1 Beta and Pilot Testing of Training During the development phase, we performed a technical review of the training material and the edited content; in the implementation phase, after we have made decisions about whether the trainers come from an in-house team or from an outside provider, we can now begin rolling out the training. This often starts with a beta test and a pilot test (Shaw, 2011;

Beta and Pilot Testing of Training Chapter 6

Wan, 2013; Welty, 2013). Pilot tests and beta tests confirm the usability of the training; they also determine how effective the training materials are and how well activities are designed. Pilot and beta tests also examine the trainees’ reactions to the training, including the extent to which trainees have learned from their participation in the program (Preskill & Russ-Eft, 2005; Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2009). Table 6.1 reviews the differences between beta and pilot tests.

Specifically, with a pilot test, we “prerelease” the training to selected trainees and subject mat- ter experts for testing under normal, everyday conditions so we can pinpoint any remaining flaws and get feedback on particular training modules, as well as the training as a whole. Beta testing is testing where the training takes place in the real-time trainee environment (Chan, 2009; Morrison, Ross, & Kalman, 2012; Piskurich, 2010). In the beta testing, all intended users participate (Morrison et al., 2012).

Beta and pilot testing are part of what is known as a formative evaluation. A formative evalu- ation is a method for judging the worth of a program while the program activities are form- ing (in progress); in sum, we are evaluating the training processes (Morrison et al., 2012). In Chapter 7, we will discuss the other type of evaluation, summative evaluation, which evalu- ates outcomes of the training itself.

Table 6.1: Differences between beta and pilot tests

Test Audience and participants When How

Pilot Some subjects close to trainee level

Before beta 1. Prepare trainees. 2. Observe and ask questions. 3. Debrief extensively.

Beta The real audience in the real environment

After pilot 1. Conduct exactly as the training will be used. 2. Observe, if possible, but do not interrupt. 3. Debrief with planned questions and goals.

Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Outcomes of Testing

Testing of the training enables you to fine-tune the training design itself as well as the usabil- ity of the program. By testing the training prior to implementation, trainers can better ensure that the end users’ needs are being met and that the objectives of the training program are being fulfilled per the organizational goals. Specifically, testing accomplishes the following:

• It enables you to gauge your target population’s reaction to the training program by selecting a pilot group that is demographically similar to your program’s specific target population.

• It helps you make better decisions about how to allocate time and resources. Specifi- cally, pilot testing the training program can help determine if you need to spend more time or resources on particular aspects of the program. For example, you might learn that the training program shows a need for changes to your recruitment strategy based on the entry-level behaviors; that is, the necessary requirements of the job (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Shaw, 2011; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2013).

Beta and Pilot Testing of Training Chapter 6

• It can reveal unanticipated issues that might arise, such as matters of setting, logistics, and particular lessons or activities for which more staff training or attention may be necessary, and it can ensure that staff members are well prepared to handle issues that come up during the full-scale implementation.

HRD in Practice: Evanston Northwestern Healthcare

Jane Dowd is the chief learning officer at Evanston Northwestern Healthcare (ENH) in Evanston, Illinois. ENH is an integrated, academic healthcare system composed of 3 hospitals, 851 beds, and 65 group practices housed in more than 50 different locations. Dowd and her staff ramped up, simultaneously hiring staff, performing needs analyses, determining facilities, and creating training. Dowd describes using the five-phase ADDIE model and specifically addresses the testing during phase 4, implementation:

Finally, it was time to move … the first few weeks feel like a test. Before going live with training, we performed a test run. You can beta test with a few real trainees, some experts, and other instructional designers. We performed pilot testing (a dress rehearsal) with real trainees as the audience, and a reviewer test, where participants look at the courses through the eyes of the end-user. Use feedback to tweak classes. Doing this, you’ll save time, money, and energy down the road.

So, before training officially began, trainers ran pilots, gathering immediate feedback. Classes were tweaked accordingly, and tracking was critical. We became a massive reporting house. Because of the vast number of scheduling options, courses, people, and rolling go-live dates, registration, and tracking software proved critical. ENH used more than 200 training coordinators to register staff and track scores.

We got the job done. With full support from hospital administration, my team and I implemented an award-winning software education and communications training initiative. It included eight modules, 51 courses, 12,382 training encounters, and 7,886 learners, including 1,287 physicians. The initiative played a key role in ENH’s successful implementation of the ambitious Electronic Health Records (EHR) system.

Source: From Duggan, Christina Mayer. “Designing Effective Training.” Journal of AHIMA 76, no.6 (June 2005): 28-32. Reprinted with permission from the American Health Information Management Association. Copyright c 2014 by the American Health Information Management Association. All rights reserved. No part of this may be reproduced, reprinted, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the association.

Consider This 1. In which areas would budgetary constraints have impacted the implementation of the

software education and training initiative? 2. How does Dowd differentiate between a beta test and pilot test? 3. What message is the organization sending to stakeholders regarding its commitment to

the training and development function by having a chief learning officer position?

Trainer KSAs Chapter 6

6.2 Trainer KSAs An important truism in human resource development (HRD) is that—irrespective of well- designed and developed training—if training delivery is inferior, the desired outcomes from the training will not be realized. This consideration becomes especially important in a train- the-trainer scenario, in which you train someone to deliver the training in the most effective way. Simply put, although a good trainer does not guarantee that the trainees will learn, a poor trainer almost always guarantees they will not!

The Anatomy of the Excellent Trainer

Remember, the ultimate goal following the training is for trainees to apply the training to the workplace, and the first step toward successfully transferring the training to the workplace begins with the trainer. Here are some pointers to becoming an excellent trainer:

1. Gain a familiarity with adult learner expectations. Previously, we discussed the assumptions an expert trainer should consider for guiding his or her adult learn- ers through the SVVE (success, volition, value, and enjoyment) (Wlodkowski, 2008) framework. Although lacking one of more of these areas does not always spell presen- tation disaster, this framework underscores the principles of how adults learn. The following assumptions maximize trainee motivation to learn: • Success. Adults want to be successful learners; few employees come to work every

day wanting to do a bad job. The assumption should be that employees want to do a good job, and your role is to ensure that they have the requisite KSAs to succeed at performing their job duties.

• Volition. Adults want to have choice in their learning. Although every job has necessary duties, motivational benefits occur if the employee participates in the decision-making process concerning the order, pace, and modality of the required training.

• Employees want to learn something of value. Specifically, adult learners need to know the reasons for learning something before undertaking to learn it (Knowles, 1973).

• Enjoyment. Finally, though it is called work, adults want to have some level of enjoyment while performing their jobs.

2. Develop a motivating presentation framework (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012; Wlodkowski, 2008). We know, too, that to optimize the relationship between the trainer and trainee, a trainer must possess the skill set of EEEC (expert, enthusiastic, empathetic, and clear); that is, trainees relate better to the trainer when he or she is: • Expert. According to Wlodkowski (2008), expertise involves three essential ele- ments: trainers know something beneficial, they know it well, and they can convey it through an instructional process.

• Enthusiastic. The trainer values the subject matter and demonstrates a commit- ment to the topic with appropriate degrees of emotion, animation, and energy.

• Empathic. The trainer puts him- or herself in the trainee’s shoes; this is different from sympathy, which is more of a third-party detachment. Empathic training respects the learner’s perspectives and experiences.

• Clear. Verbalizing concepts in an organized and cogent way, supported by clear training materials.

Trainer KSAs Chapter 6

3. Demonstrate an understanding of communication patterns (Bates & Davis, 2010; Chase, 1997; Goldsmith, 2000; Hodell, 2011; Wlodkowski, 2008). One of the more practical aspects of training is maintaining trainee engagement and, specifically, managing trainees’ attention spans vis-à-vis the trainee’s speech–thought differen- tial (Jaffe, 2009). The speech–thought differential is the premise that we think at a faster rate than we speak. Specifically, we speak at a rate of 100 to 180 words per minute, and we think at a rate of 500 to 600 words per minute; as a result, the trainer must monitor trainee attention spans and know how to bring trainees back into focus, if necessary. Lundsteen’s (1979) classic work on speech–thought differential noted four levels of potential distraction that trainers should know about their trainees: • Small departures. Trainees produce their own examples, relate material to their

own personal experiences, answer rhetorical questions, and use time for mental interaction with the trainer’s ideas.

• Going off on a tangent. Trainees depart from the trainer’s line of thinking; train- ees seize on one of trainer’s ideas, taking it in their own direction. Going off on a tangent includes daydreaming.

• Private argument. Trainees begin to challenge and argue internally before they hear the trainer out. Trainees stop trying to understand the trainer and carry on a running argument with themselves.

• Large departures. Trainees’ pattern of attention wanders off into unrelated areas; their attention is brought back into focus on training for a while, but they go off again into thinking about unrelated topics. For example: A trainee thinks: “I wonder where we are going to eat tonight…” (Trainee lis- tens a bit about the new training software.) Then trainee thinks: “I can tell you—no more Mexican food!”

Another aspect of communication that trainers must manage concerns the potential distor- tion of how trainees’ receive and process the new information, including leveling, sharpen- ing, and assimilation (Kimmel, 2013):

• Leveling. Trainees’ tendency to reduce the message with fewer and fewer details. An example of this would be the telephone game that youngsters play. In this game a message is passed on in a whisper by each of several people so that the final version of the message is often radically changed from the original.

• Sharpening. Trainee selectively retains information, especially only dominant points (such as hyperbole). For example: Trainer: “If we can implement this new procedure efficiently, that means more money to our bottom line, which means more money for raises next year.” Trainee, upon leaving training: “Since this new procedure is saving the company money, we are going to get raises next year.”

• Assimilation. Trainees take the message into their own frame of reference or per- sonality. This idea follows adult learning principles in that learners process messages based on their prior experiences with the subject matter. For example, if the trainer speaks about quality, the construct of quality means different things to different people. Consider telling a teenager to clean his room; he might look around and say, “What do you mean? It is clean!”

Trainer KSAs Chapter 6

Consider, too, that even the trainer’s vocal variation and inflections (Jaffe, 2009) may have an unintended effect on the trainees. Consider these ideas of vocal variations and associations also mentioned in the following video links: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8 and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTm4r_SbJq0 (also see Chapter 5).

• Loud and fast = self-sufficient • Loud and slow = aggressive • Soft and fast = enthusiastic • Soft and slow = benevolent

So, for example, consider a trainer who speaks loudly and slowly. She may think she is being clear, but trainees may instead consider her aggressive.

Did You Know? For Some, Public Speaking Is Second Only to Death in Fear Factor!

Trainers must be comfortable speaking in public. Unfortunately, some novice trainers fear public speaking more than they fear death (Grigsby, 2010).

Training becomes easier with practice, but while you are practicing, here are a few tips for presenting and settling down those nerves:

• Drink water! Staying hydrated helps avoid “cotton mouth,” a real sign of anxiety; the person experiencing it is suffering.

• Exercise that morning. It has been shown that exercise can alleviate anxiety by releasing endorphins that can make you feel better.

• Think of something funny or pleasant. They used to say “picture your audience in their underwear.” While that tactic still may be effective, you can also try methods such as looking at a humorous photo or reminding yourself of a joke.

• And, perhaps the best tip of all, be prepared. You cannot overprepare for a presentation. Know your material back and forth; anticipate audience questions, and have a backup plan if technology or equipment fails.

Communication Patterns Particular to On-the-Job Trainers When selecting site trainers to lead OJT, not only should they be experienced and knowl- edgeable and follow all the rules of successful training, they also should have particular communication skills that go with the dynamics of shadowing someone in the workplace (Clifford, 2007).

Specifically, and as discussed in Chapter 2, we depend on the site trainer to make the implicit (that which could be articulated, but has not been yet) explicit, as appropriate. As previously discussed, here are the reasons for implicit knowledge remaining in the implicit realm:

• Productive reason. “Sure, I could tell David everything, but I believe he will learn bet- ter if he tries out some things himself and learns by trial and error; he’ll understand things better that way.”

Trainer KSAs Chapter 6

• Neutral reason (including trainer laziness). “Ah, sorry. I had forgotten to tell you that.” • Counterproductive reason. “If I tell Eliot too much, he’ll know as much as I do and then

the higher ups won’t value me as much!”

Food for Thought: Six Top Qualities of a Great Trainer

Kelly Prince, who is the senior instructional designer at Management Concepts, was interviewed on the top qualities that trainers should possess. She says a great trainer has all of the following qualities:

1. A command of the material 2. Preparation and practice 3. Rhythm and energy 4. Readiness to allow and encourage participants to learn from themselves and the class to

create as many organic learning moments as possible 5. Love for what they do 6. An excellent organization supporting them

At the top of her list, Prince advises that effective trainers have not only a command of the material—that is, know the material back and forth—but also know where to get answers if they do not know something. And although Prince emphasizes preparation and practice, trainers must come off as prepared yet not scripted. Trainees notice if trainers are just going through the motions; fake engagement is soon found out. She says that trainers should focus on being engaging rather than entertaining. Prince underscores that trainers should have a love for what they do; if the trainer is jaded and bored, this demeanor necessarily reflects poorly on the quality of the training itself.

Lastly, effective trainers have excellent organizations supporting them. Without organizational support, training programs suffer; trainers are not given enough time to prep, train-the-trainer procedures are lacking, and materials get delivered late or are of poor quality. A lack of organizational support inevitably leads to burnout, even for the most well- intended trainer.

Source: Malik, J. (2011). 6 top qualities of a great trainer. Retrieved from GovLoop website: http://www.govloop.com/profiles/blogs/title-6-top- qualities-of-a

Consider This 1. What additional qualities might be needed if the trainer were an external consultant

versus an internal trainer? 2. If one quality of great trainers is a love for what they do, what limitations might there be

in the train-the-trainer model? 3. What does Prince mean when she says engagement is more important than

entertainment?

Barriers to Implementing Training Chapter 6

HRD in Practice: When a Subject Matter Expert Does Not Equal a Presentation Expert

“What a colossal waste of time that was!” Rashanda muttered to herself as she left the training room. “That’s 90 minutes I’ll never get back!”

“Hey, Rashanda. What’s up? What’s wrong?”

“Hi, Carrie. Nothing. I just got out of the so-called training on the new system.”

“Bad?”

“Awful! And, it wasn’t because of the content; I actually was looking forward to learning the new system. Supposedly, the guy they got to train us was an expert on this system. But he was terrible! First off, we couldn’t hear a word he was saying because of the buzz from the computer fan, and when we could hear him, all he would do is stammer; every other word was like, ‘Ah—Uh—OK— Uh.’ And then he would turn his back to us and read word-by-word each of his PowerPoint® slides. To top things off, he ignored questions when people had their hands up. If there was a poster child for how not to give presentations, this guy was it! I wish there would have been some type of evaluation at the end because I would have written a thing or two, believe me! The bottom line is I still don’t know the system—I didn’t learn anything!”

Consider This 1. Given Rashanda’s description of the trainer, what rules for presentation do you think the

trainer violated? 2. What should an organization do if the subject matter expert is not an expert in

presentations skills?

6.3 Barriers to Implementing Training For a training program to be effective, employees must first perceive it as being useful (Agbet- tor, 2013; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Sambrook & Stewart, 2007). However, achieving this goal is sometimes easier said than done, due to three levels of potential resistance trainees may exhibit toward new training (Connor, Lake, & Stackman, 2003; Welty, 2007, 2013):

• Barriers to understanding the need for training. Trainees may feel the new train- ing is pointless because they see no need for it. “This is ridiculous; we don’t need con- flict handling training here. What we need is a raise!”

• Barriers to acceptance of training. Trainees may feel there is a need for the train- ing, but they do not accept that they themselves are in need of training. “Why are they grouping me with the supervisors who don’t know how to do a performance appraisal? I’m one of the supervisors who does know how to do it!”

• Barriers to acting out the training. Trainees may see the need for the training and accept they will be in training, but they are not committed or dedicated to the

Barriers to Implementing Training Chapter 6

outcomes of the training. “This is going to be a monster to implement; I’m just going to do it the way I always have.”

Remember, as discussed in Chapter 2, in the absence of able and willing trainees, barriers ultimately come down to a distressed status of the trainee’s ability and/or willingness:

• Able and willing • Not able, but willing • Able, but not willing • Not able and not willing

Chapter 8 will further discuss how to overcome such barriers using Lewin’s force-field analysis.

Food for Thought: Ways to Address Training Barriers

The Nonprofit Risk Management Center (http://www.nonprofitrisk.org) provides tips to overcome training barriers, specifically in workplace safety. These are common barriers:

• Lack of engagement and support from top management • Lack of trainee understanding and appreciation of the training • Lack of appropriate time investment for design and implementation • Lack of clear and consistent communication about performance expectations • A decentralized organizational structure

Source: Nonprofit Risk Management Center. (2008). Recognizing some barriers to implementing workplace-safety programs. Retrieved from: https:// nonprofitrisk.org/tools/workplace-safet y/nonprofit/c2/barriers.htm

Consider This 1. What would be an example of an organization’s reward structure for employees who

engage in safety practices? 2. Regarding workplace safety training, describe what you would do to convey to employees

a need for this training. 3. What challenges does a highly decentralized organization (one with many sites or

locations) pose for conveying the need for or appreciation of the training?

E-learning Readiness: Potential Barriers

Because of the touted cost savings of e-learning programs, it is tempting for organizations to jump right in and implement e-learning in their training program. However, one aspect orga- nizations must evaluate so it is not a barrier is the culture for e-learning (Aydin & Tasci, 2005; Borotis & Poulymenakou, 2004); that is, the organization’s e-learning readiness.

The factors that make up e-learning readiness are varied and numerous, ranging from evalu- ating the practical (for example, the IT equipment and financial wherewithal) to the intan- gible (for example, the interpersonal and sociological readiness of the workforce). To assess

Outsourcing Training Chapter 6

an organization’s e-learning readiness, Chapnick (2001) developed the e-learning readiness scale as a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”) on the following factors:

• Psychological readiness—the individual’s state of mind as it affects the outcome of the e-learning initiative

• Sociological readiness—the interpersonal aspects of the environment in which the program will be implemented

• Environmental readiness—the large-scale forces operating on the stakeholders, both inside and outside the organization

• Human resource readiness—the availability and design of the human support system • Financial readiness—the budget size and allocation process • Technological skill (aptitude) readiness—observable and measurable technical

competencies • Equipment readiness—the question of the proper equipment possession • Content readiness—the subject matter and goals of the instruction

The use of e-learning for training should not be done casually or indifferently (Liu, Gibby, Quiros, & Demps, 2002; Meier & Stormer, 2009; Onguko, Jepchumba, & Gaceri, 2013); in fact, the skills of trainers who use e-learning are so important that recently, the ATD developed a certification specifically for e-learning in instructional design.

6.4 Outsourcing Training Until now, we have detailed the processes of ADDIE and training internally, but an organi- zation might have various reasons for outsourcing, or deciding to purchase prepackaged training materials and bring in outside trainers for delivery (Duggan, 2013; Larson & Lockee, 2013; Neirotti & Paolucci, 2013; Noe, 2012; Welty, 2013). These reasons include:

• the need to comply with complex regulations such as those governing safety or envi- ronmental issues;

• legal requirements such as those governing equal opportunity, harassment, and discrimination;

• a small staff and a lack of enough (or any) qualified trainers; • large numbers of employees who need refresher training; and • the desire to keep employees up to date on what is happening in the industry.

Outsourcing: A Rising Trend

The State of the Industry report is ATD’s definitive review of workplace learning and develop- ment trends (ASTD, 2012). The ATD estimates that U.S. organizations spent approximately $164.2 billion on employee learning in 2012, of which 28% ($46 billion) was spent on exter- nal services and outsourcing. This total was up from 24% the previous year and only 12% in 2010.

Why an organization outsources some or all of its training depends also on its goals. For instance, if an organization’s goal is to maximize shareholder economic value, what Beer and

Outsourcing Training Chapter 6

Nohria (2000) call Theory E, then the outsourcing typically would be large and knowledge driven; that is, there would be extensive dependence and assistance from outside consultants, who would most likely perform the training. If the goal is to develop organizational capabili- ties, so-called Theory O, then the outsourcing would be small and process driven; that is, we would look to the outside consultants to give us the train-the-trainer processes so our train- ers could perform the training (see Table 6.2).

Table 6.2: Outsourcing dimensions

Dimensions of change Theory E Theory O

Goals Maximize shareholder value Develop organizational capabilities

Leadership Manage change from the top down Encourage participation from the bot- tom up

Focus Emphasize structure and systems Build up corporate culture: employees’ behavior and attitudes

Process Plan and establish programs Experiment and evolve

Reward system Motivate through financial incentives Motivate through commitment; use pay as fair exchange

Use of outsourcing Consultants analyze problems and shape solutions

Consultants support management in shaping their own solutions

Source: Adapted from Beer, M., & Nohria, N. (2000). Breaking the code of change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Potential Disadvantages of Outsourcing Although outsourcing has its advantages, organizations should consider some potential dis- advantages (Luftig & Ouellette, 2012), as well. They include the following:

• Cost. Although cost savings is often one of the reasons cited for outsourcing noncore functions, outsourced training services can be expensive (Agbettor, 2013; Allen, 2013; Laird, Naquin, & Holton, 2003). Training companies may charge hundreds of dollars per employee for a 1-day training course, and executive training programs, especially, tend to be more expensive.

• Control. Companies lose control when outsourcing support functions because the training services provider chooses the format and content of its training programs, which typically contain generic examples and case studies. For example, a car deal- ership may send its sales representatives to a training course that may contain few examples on how to convert car dealership visitors to customers. Also, training com- panies usually retain copyright of all training materials, so hiring companies may not be able to customize the manuals or presentation slides for future internal training needs. These restrictions make companies dependent on third parties for creating a skilled workforce (Basu, n.d.).

• Security issues. Both small and large companies generate and store data that can be critical and important. Although most outsourcing vendors take adequate precau- tions to safeguard sensitive data of clients—such as employee performance records,

Outsourcing Training Chapter 6

company trade secrets, patents, and copyrights—it is more difficult to secure data when that data is in another organization’s hands (Jochems, Koper, & Van Merrien- boer, 2013; Pelet, 2013). For example, if an outside firm was training your employees on a particular new KSA that would give your organization a competitive advantage, a leak could be devastating (Seth & Sethi, 2011).

• Lower quality work. Because the trainers are “outsiders” to begin with, employee per- formance may suffer, particularly if outsourcing vendors are not chosen well or if the host organization does not manage the outsourcing vendor properly. Good “fitness” of the vendor to the hiring organization is critical; therefore, contacting previous clients and reviewing vendors’ past results is critical (Agbettor, 2013; Allen, 2013; Laird et al., 2003).

The market for outsourced training, especially in e-learning scenarios, will grow to more than $50 billion over the next few years (ASTD, 2012), and each organization must weigh the pros and cons of outsourcing, with consideration given to factors such as financial resources, tech- nological capacity, and the subject matter of the training itself.

HRD in Practice: Cases for Outsourcing

Weyerhaeuser, an international paper and building products manufacturer, outsources about half its training programs—those focused on soft skills (communications, time management, leadership development, decision making, and problem solving), sales training, and health safety issues—to Novations Group, Inc. At the heart of the outsourcing is Novations’ standard catalog of 30 training courses to support Weyerhaeuser’s soft-skills learning programs; Novations adds new content as it is needed.

Weyerhaeuser’s motivation to outsource was an annual outlay of about $30 million on training; management had little idea where the money was going or what the return-on- training investment was. Further, the company wanted to find better, lower cost, less risky, and faster ways to manage and implement training programs. Weyerhaeuser’s director of education, Horace Parker, explains:

We used to maintain training contracts with 400 vendors, just in the soft-skills area. Now we have all that covered through one contract with Novations. We’re rid of all the hassles of dealing with multiple vendors, and we have the economies of scale that come from working with a single vendor.

Weyerhaeuser’s alliance with Novations realized a reduction in total gross spending for training of about 15%. The company was also able to reduce its in-house training staff by nearly 60%.

Source: Why outsource training? (2003). HRO Today, 2(3). Retrieved from http://www.hrotoday.com/content/575/why-outsource-training

Consider This 1. Although a cost savings was realized, what could be the unintended consequences of

Weyerhaeuser’s reduction in its in-house training staff ?

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

• An important step in implementation is testing the training prior to full-scale imple- mentation; this includes beta and pilot testing. In pilot testing we “prerelease” the training to selected trainees and SMEs for testing under normal, everyday conditions to pinpoint any remaining flaws and get feedback on particular modules of the train- ing, as well as the training as a whole. Beta testing takes place in the real-time trainee environment, and all intended users participate.

• In the implementation phase, we also ensure that the trainer has the required KSAs, which include being an expert in the training material, being well prepared, and hav- ing enthusiasm and good energy that the trainees pick up on. The trainer also has good communication skills and can manage speech–thought differential as well as the aspects of leveling, sharpening, and assimilation.

• It is important to manage the barriers of implementation, as well. These include bar- riers to understanding the need for training, barriers to acceptance of training, and barriers to acting out the training.

• Finally, it is important to weigh the pros and cons of outsourcing the training to out- side vendors. Outsourcing might be advantageous if the company must comply with complex regulations, such as those governing safety or environmental issues; when an organization does not have enough qualified trainers; and when an organization wants to keep employees current on industry trends. Disadvantages include lack of control and security issues and, if training is not managed properly, lower quality work from trained employees.

Posttest 1. Which type of testing assesses training’s outcomes?

a. beta testing b. pilot testing c. summative evaluation d. formative evaluation

2. In which testing situation would evaluators observe the training but not usually inter- rupt it? a. beta testing b. pilot testing c. prerelease testing d. posttesting

3. A trainee leaves a training remembering only the most dominant, even overstated, points that he heard. This is an example of which tendency in receiving and process- ing information? a. leveling b. departure c. sharpening d. assimilation

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

4. is the idea that each trainee might understand a concept differently according to his or her own unique frame of reference. a. Leveling b. Departure c. Sharpening d. Assimilation

5. In which level of potential distraction does a trainee find him- or herself relating the trainer’s material to personal examples from his or her own experience? a. going off on a tangent b. small departures c. internal argument d. large departures

6. Which of the following would be the LEAST effective way of speaking for a trainer? a. loud and slow b. loud and fast c. soft and fast d. soft and slow

7. A trainee believes that although many of his coworkers lack the skills to follow the new production protocol, he has followed it correctly numerous times and should be exempt from the training. This trainee is exhibiting . a. barriers to understanding the need for training b. barriers to acceptance of training c. barriers to acting out the training d. barriers to responding to training

8. Which aspect of e-learning readiness refers to the interpersonal environment in which the training will be implemented? a. psychological readiness b. human resource readiness c. environmental readiness d. sociological readiness

9. Which of the following is NOT a commonly feared disadvantage of outsourcing train- ing programs? a. Companies have less control over the content and format of what their employees

learn. b. Outside vendors have access to some company data, which might compromise

security. c. Employees do not trust that their employer cares about their learning if it out-

sources training. d. The quality of training and results could suffer if an outside vendor is chosen that is not a good fit.

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

10. How can copyright issues affect companies that outsource training functions? a. Training companies copyright their materials, so hiring companies cannot cus-

tomize them. b. Trainees are prohibited from discussing what they learned with other employees

in the company. c. Third-party trainers are allowed to use a company’s copyrights, which weakens

the protection of those copyrights. d. Regulations limit copyright of educational materials, so training companies

charge more for sessions rather than selling their materials.

Assess Your Learning: Critical Reflection 1. What would be the special considerations, if any, in piloting a self-directed training

program? 2. If you had to choose between one of the following trainer profiles, which one would

you choose and why? a. a subject matter expert who scored a 75% in presentation skills b. an expert presenter who scored a 75% in content knowledge

3. Give your own communication examples of leveling, sharpening, and assimilation. 4. Explain the paradox in which employees can see the need for training but are not

committed to being trained. How do you overcome this barrier? 5. Are there certain subjects or content that should not be outsourced? If so, why?

Additional Resources Web Resources

For speaking skills: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdBNUDIOIP8

2013 top 20 training outsourcing companies: http://www.trainingindustry.com

Case study on overcoming the top five barriers to electronic health records implementation: http://www.prognosishis.com/pdf/Overcoming%20Barriers%20Whitepaper.pdf

About outsourcing management training: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h64PnKpAKTY

For more readings on Theory E and Theory O: http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/2166.html and http://stevblogs.wordpress.com/2009/05/22/theory-e-o

Further Reading

American Society for Training & Development. (2012). State of the industry report. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.

Jochems, W., Koper, R., & Van Merrienboer, J. (2013). Integrated e-learning: Implications for pedagogy, technology and organization. London: Taylor & Francis.

Kimmel, A. J. (2013). Rumors and rumor control: A manager’s guide to understanding and combatting rumors. London: Taylor & Francis.

Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

Shaw, J. (2011). The cave man guide to training and development. Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest

1. False. In pilot testing, selected trainees and subject matter experts take the training under everyday conditions and provide feedback. Beta testing, on the other hand, involves the entire training audience in the real training environment.

2. True. Humans think at about 500 to 600 words per minute but can only speak about 100 to 180 words per minute. This difference, called the speech–thought differential, is useful for trainers to remember because it helps explain how easy it is for trainees’ thoughts to wander.

3. True. Trainers should be aware that the speed and volume of their speech can influ- ence how trainees perceive them and thus how well trainees learn. For example, a trainer attempting to speak clearly may in fact sound aggressive to listeners.

4. False. Because of the potential cost savings of e-learning programs, management may be tempted to start them without examining the organization’s readiness. Organiza- tions should first evaluate their culture for e-learning to make sure that culture does not pose a barrier to training.

5. True. One-day training courses outsourced to training companies can cost hundreds of dollars per employee, and executive training programs may cost even more.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Posttest

1. c. Evaluations of a training’s final outcomes are called summative evaluations. Forma- tive evaluations judge a program’s value while the program’s values are still ongoing and include beta testing and pilot testing.

2. a. In prerelease pilot testing, which takes place under less formal everyday conditions, those who are evaluating the training can observe and ask questions. Because beta testing occurs in the real-time trainee environment, it may be observed but not usu- ally interrupted.

3. c. Trainers must manage potential distortions in how trainees receive and process the new information. In the distortion pattern called sharpening, trainees selectively retain information, usually the most dominant, sometimes hyperbolic, points.

4. d. Each trainee integrates the message in terms of his or her frame of reference or prior experiences. Distortions in how trainees receive or process a training message are sometimes due to these assimilation differences.

5. b. When trainees’ attention turns to mentally creating their own examples, answer- ing rhetorical questions, and relating material to their own life, they are at the level of small departures, the lowest level of potential distraction.

6. b. Speaking loudly but slowly is often perceived by trainees as aggressive. On the other hand, loud and fast speech is perceived more neutrally as self-sufficient. The other two patterns have more positive connotations: soft and fast speech is heard as enthusiasm, while soft and slow speech is believed to be benevolent.

7. b. Trainees who experience barriers to acceptance of training understand that there is a need for training within the organization. However, they do not accept that they should receive the training themselves.

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

8. d. Sociological readiness refers to the interpersonal aspects of the environment in which the program will be implemented. It is just one of many kinds of readiness that must be considered before a company jumps in to start an e-learning component.

9. c. Common potential downsides of outsourcing training include loss of control over format and content, security risks, and the possibility of lower quality work or poor fit between trainers and the company.

10. a. Training companies typically retain copyright to all training materials, meaning that hiring companies are not able to customize them for future internal training. As a result, companies can become dependent on third-party trainers.

Key Terms assimilation A process by which trainees incorporate a message into their own frame of reference or personality. This idea follows adult learning principles in that learners take in messages based on their prior expe- riences with the subject matter.

barriers to acceptance of train- ing Barriers to training whereby trainees may feel there is a need for the training, but they do not accept that they must be trained.

barriers to acting out the training  Barriers to training whereby trainees may see the need for the training and accept that they will be in training, but they are not committed or dedicated to the outcomes of the training.

barriers to understanding the need for training Barriers to training whereby train- ees may feel the new training is pointless and see no need for it.

beta test A type of test in which the training takes place in the real-time trainee environ- ment and all intended users participate; part of a formative evaluation.

control An outsourcing consideration. Organizations may lose control when out- sourcing support functions because the training services provider decides on the format and content of its training programs.

cost An outsourcing consideration. Cost savings is often one of the reasons cited for outsourcing noncore functions, but outsourced training services can be more expensive.

EEEC Expert, enthusiastic, empathic, and clear; a skill set recommended for a trainer in order to optimize the relationship between the trainer and trainee.

e-learning readiness An organization’s culture for e-learning.

formative evaluation A method for judging the worth of a program while the program activities are forming (in progress); an evalu- ation of the processes of the training.

going off on a tangent Engaging in a depar- ture from the trainer’s line of thinking: The trainee seizes on one of trainer’s ideas and takes it in his or her own direction; includes daydreaming.

implementation One of the phases of ADDIE; implementation rolls out and com- mences the training itself and is usually done after the analysis, design, and develop- ment phase.

large departures A level of distraction in which a trainee’s attention wanders off into unrelated areas; the trainee’s attention is brought back into focus on training for a while but goes off again into thinking about unrelated topics.

leveling The trainee’s tendency to reduce the message with fewer and fewer details.

outsourcing Purchasing prepackaged train- ing materials and bringing in outside train- ers for delivery.

pilot test A pretest administered to pin- point any remaining flaws and get feedback

Summary and Resources Chapter 6

on particular modules of the training by prereleasing the training to selected actual trainees and SMEs for testing under normal, everyday conditions; part of a formative evaluation.

private argument A distraction whereby the trainee begins to challenge and argue internally before hearing the trainer out. The trainee stops trying to understand the trainer and carries on a running argument with him- or herself.

security issues Another outsourcing consideration. Outsourcing vendors must take adequate precautions to safeguard data of clients who undertake outsourcing; it is more difficult to secure data when that data is in another organization’s hands.

sharpening The trainee’s tendency to selectively retain information, especially only dominant points (such as hyperbole).

small departures A level of distraction in which trainees produce their own exam- ples, relate material to their own personal

experiences, answer rhetorical questions, and use time for mental interaction with the trainer’s ideas.

speech–thought differential The premise that people think at a faster rate than they speak.

summative evaluation An evaluation of the final outcomes of the training itself.

Theory E The theory that if an organiza- tion’s goal is to maximize shareholder eco- nomic value, then the outsourcing typically would be large and knowledge driven.

Theory O The theory that if an organiza- tion’s goal is to develop organizational capa- bilities, then the outsourcing should be small and process driven.

vocal variation and inflections Various ways of speaking; in presentation of training, these must be appropriate or they may have an unintended effect on the trainees; for example, vocal variations such as loud and slow could be interpreted as aggression.

5(D)evelopment— Putting Theory Into Practice

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Create training materials (end products).

• Identify appropriate instructional method and media.

• Describe characteristics of an optimal training setting.

• Summarize how to review and edit training materials for accuracy.

In theory, theory and practice are the same. In practice, they are not. —Albert Einstein

Introduction Chapter 5

Pretest 1. One important aspect of evaluating a training session is finding out whether trainees

enjoyed it. a. true b. false

2. Informal on-the-job training is not organized in advance in any way. a. true b. false

3. The design of training materials can capture trainees’ attention and ensure they are engaged with the material and thus learn from it. a. true b. false

4. Seating arrangements such as clusters of tables or circles may be useful in school set- tings but are not effective for adult learning. a. true b. false

5. In a design review of instructional materials, an experienced graphic designer goes over the formatting, font, and layout of the materials to make sure they are optimized for learning. a. true b. false

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction Although the design phase of the ADDIE model is considered the blueprint for workplace training, the development phase begins the actual manufacturing of the training content itself. Specifically, this step involves the production of the end user training materials, known as end products. From the training materials and methods to the instructional technologies, we can think of development as the phase that converts the theory of instructional design into practice.

In the development phase all the prior work we have done in the analysis and design phases comes together. After creating the training materials, we then put them through a rigorous editorial process, not only to verify their accuracy, but also to assess whether any gaps or sec- tions need improvement.

In sum, whereas the design phase was “how we are going to do it,” the development phase is about “doing it right” (Piskurich, 2010).

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

5.1 Creating Training Materials As previously discussed, the focus in the development phase is the procurement or produc- tion of the training materials to be used (Hodell, 2011). The data collected in the analysis phase—and subsequently used in the design phase—now inform our choices regarding both the use and development of the end products of training. Specifically, training materials may include end products such as:

• communication packs; • lesson plans; • session plans, trainer guides, and learner guides and resources; • trainer and on-the-job aids; • participant assessment instruments; and • program evaluation instruments.

With training material, we must consider both the horizontal and vertical aspects; that is, “How much?” and “How complex?” The answers to these questions are not only a function of the required level of trainer engagement and participant interaction with the material (Dick et al., 2009; Dobbs, 2006; Swanson, 2002), they are also related to cost and practicality, as well as based on the training content, number of trainees, and delivery method. Swanson (2002)—and subsequently others (ASTD, 2012; Fee, 2011; Wan, 2013)—specifically noted five stages of training material development in relation to the horizontal and vertical charac- teristics; specifically, the appropriateness of particular training material:

• Stage 0: No planned instructor materials; no planned participant materials • Stage 1: Training presentation slides; paper copies of the slides for the participants;

job aids • Stage 2: Training presentation slides; trainee print materials in the form of a struc-

tured trainee notebook (including paper copies of the slides for the participants) • Stage 3: Training presentation slides; trainee print materials in the form of a struc-

tured trainee notebook; workplace objects and artifacts from the tasks to be learned; dynamic or interactive support materials such as e-learning products

• Stage 4: Materials are designed to the level that they can mediate the development of trainee knowledge and expertise seeking without the need of a trainer.

No training materials or limited training materials (stage 0) would be needed when work- place learning was informal or incidental, for example. Other training material would require much more depth and breadth (stage 4), such as when a trainee is required to do post- training self-directed study in developing further expertise in the training content. For example, if a trainee is the departmental liaison for the organization’s safety program, the trainee may leave the session with a thick reference binder of safety regulations, standards, and proce- dures such as lock out or tag out. Even with on-the-job training, where the trainee is on the job site in real time, training materials must be available to ensure an effective OJT system; these include task lists, job aids, schedule, and even lesson plans (Chase, 1997; Clark, 2013; Clark, 2010; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Here is a typical OJT training material list:

• Task list. Following a job-task analysis, we should now have a detailed list of all the tasks the trainee must be able to perform to do his or her job. The list should include:

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

– Conditions: What tools or equipment and environment are needed to perform the task?

– Performance measure: How well must it be designed as far as depth and specificity?

– Frequency: How often is the task performed (hourly, daily, weekly, and so on)? – Difficulty: How difficult is the task, using a standard scale such as from 1 to 5? – Importance: What place of importance is this task as compared to the other tasks? – Steps: What are the logical steps for performing the task?

• Job aids. Used during training and/or on the job, job aids are step-by-step instructions or checklists that guide the trainee through the correct way of performing a task. They should also include guidelines for employees to check their own work.

• Training schedule. A training schedule helps trainers organize their OJT and document who has and has not been trained for any given task.

• Lesson plan. As created in the design phase, the lesson plan is an outline of how to teach the class and what to include to ensure trainers teach each task correctly and consistently every time.

Trainer and Participant Assessment Instruments

As Chapter 7 will discuss further, the training session must develop and use materials that assess not only if the trainees enjoyed the session—what is called a level 1 assessment—but also if they learned anything, known as a level 2 assessment. This classification system for training evaluation was introduced by Donald Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin and past president of the American Society for Training & Development. His four-level training evaluation model, known as Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy, includes four levels of evaluation—reaction, learning, behavior, and result—and was first published in 1959 in the US Training and Development Journal (Kirkpatrick, 1959; Kirkpatrick, 2009). It will be discussed in depth in Chapters 7 and 8.

These first two levels of Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy are particularly important to consider here when developing the training materials for the training session itself. (Levels 3 and 4, behav- ior and results, respectively, are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8.) Specifically, a level 1 assess- ment covers the trainee’s reaction and is sometimes called a “happy sheet” (Kirkpatrick, 2009; Wan, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). It can be paper based or online and asks questions such as: Did the trainees like and enjoy the training? Did they consider the training relevant? Was it a good use of their time? Did they like the venue, style, timing, amenities, and so on? (See samples in Figure 5.1.)

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: Level 1 evaluation sample

Employers can use “happy sheets,” or evaluations, to gather feedback from trainees to ensure the efficacy of the training and modify future trainings, if needed.

f05.01_BUS375.ai

1 – Strongly disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Neither agree nor disagree 4 – Agree 5 – Strongly agree

Workshop Evaluation

EMPLOYEE INFORMATION

Job title: Department:

1. Class objectives were met and well communicated 1 2 3 4 5

2. Subject matter was useful to me in my work 1 2 3 4 5

3. Sufficient time was allotted for explanation/practice 1 2 3 4 5

4. The training materials were easy to follow 1 2 3 4 5

5. The instructor actively involved the class in discussions 1 2 3 4 5

6. The instructor handled the questions effectively 1 2 3 4 5

7. This class adequately prepared me to participate in an outbreak investigation 1 2 3 4 5

8. I will be able to implement the processes and skills I learned today when I return to my job 1 2 3 4 5

9. Overall the class was satisfactory 1 2 3 4 5

10. How skilled do you think you were in this area Not Somewhat Very before you attended this class? skilled skilled skilled

11. How skilled do you think you are in this area Not Somewhat Very class after attending this class? skilled skilled skilled

Level 2 assessments try to ascertain if the trainee learned anything from the training. Many times, this assessment takes on the form of pretests and, subsequently, posttests. Of course, the questions within any level 2 assessment would be linked to the original learning objec- tives of the training, as determined by the analysis phase. So, for example, with a materials and storage handling workshop, trainers might test the trainees prior to the session on ques- tions such as these:

• What are the potential hazards for workers? • What precautions should workers take when moving materials manually? • What precautions should workers take when moving materials mechanically? • What precautions must workers take to avoid storage hazards? • What safeguards must workers follow when stacking materials?

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

And, let us say the average correct score on the pretraining survey was 66%. We could look at that as our baseline prior to the training, and then following the materials and storage handling workshop, we could again survey the trainees to see if any learning had occurred, given the new knowledge they would have been presented. So in our example, following the workshop, the average correct score on the posttraining survey jumps to 93%; in this case it would be difficult to suggest that some learning had not taken place.

Figure 5.2 is an actual level 2 assessment pre- and posttest using a Likert scale to measure knowledge gain for the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) used at Harvard Medi- cal School’s Brigham and Women’s Hospital.

Figure 5.2: Level 2 assessment pre- and posttest using a Likert scale

Level 2 evaluation attempts to gauge if any learning occurred as a result of the training. To assess this, many times trainees are tested prior to the training and then again subsequent to the training to see if there was any change in knowledge, skills, or attitudes.

f05.02_BUS375.ai

SD–Strongly disagree D–Disagree U–Undecided A–Agree SA–Strongly agree

ANCC 2013 Submission Criteria SD D U A SA

As a nurse I understand my role in Continuing Education. 1 2 3 4 5

I am familiar with ANCC 2013 submission criteria. 1 2 3 4 5

I know the difference between an Approved Approver and an Approved Provider of Continuing Education. 1 2 3 4 5

I know the difference between ANCC-awarded CE and Board of Registration-awarded CE. 1 2 3 4 5

Please mark your rating on each item below:

Source: Brigham and Women’s pre and post test guidelines. (2014). Brigham and Women’s Hospital.

You can calculate the learning gain—the improvement between the pre- and postlearning assessment scores—from the level 2 assessment. It can be calculated using the following formula:

(Postlearning score - prelearning score ÷ maximum score - prelearning score) × 100

For example, if the prelearning score is 50, the postlearning score is 80, and the maximum score is 100, then you get the following:

[(80 - 50) ÷ (100 - 50)] × 100 = (30 ÷ 50) × 100 = 60%

This shows that there was a 60% learning gain.

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

Materials Development Process

As you begin the training materials development process, overarching yet practical questions should guide you (ASTD, 2012; Shaw, 2011). You would have considered some of these during the analysis and design phases. They include:

1. What is the immediacy to achieve the new learning? If there is an immediate need to achieve (and therefore apply) the new learning, it is especially important that the train- ing materials and activities, which include games and simulations, have a quick learn- ing curve; that is, the training materials should be easy to use and straightforward.

2. Do the training materials honor adult learning principles? Training materials (includ- ing computer-based materials) must also be developed with adult learning principles in mind (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Wan, 2013) and thus be problem oriented, be rel- evant to real-world issues, and lead the learner toward intrinsic motivation (Dobbs, 2006; Knowles, 1973; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011).

3. Do the training materials build on current work activities? If the training materials and activities build on and extend current work activities and functions, trainees have a better chance of seeing the relevance of the training.

4. What is the budget for developing training materials? It is imperative to get some sense of the availability of funding to obtain and develop resources as early as the analysis phase. For example, technology-based and on-the-job-based activities often are much less expensive than hiring subject matter experts; however, those experts would be a more effective source if the training were highly specialized or technical.

Did You Know? Three Effective Components Make for One Great Presentation!

According to expert presenter Ellen Finkelstein, if you want an effective presentation, you must ensure that your content, design, and delivery are effective. Each of these components has to be well crafted, and they all have to work together.

First, with content, you must decide on two or three main points to which other points will refer. Content needs to be logical, simple, and clear so it will meet the needs of your audience.

On design, Finkelstein says the number one concern is legibility. You cannot put too much text on a slide and still keep it large enough to read easily. Likewise, the text color should be in high contrast to the background color. You also must ensure that your design complements your content: The background and images should not detract from the content, and the images themselves should clarify the text. The layout and size of text should underscore the major points of the presentation.

Finally, you must have an engaging delivery. Engaging your audience with eye contact and your overall energy is important. Finkelstein says to make sure you know your main points and emphasize them with inflection, and to spend an appropriate amount of time on each point.

Finkelstein reminds us that two’s a party but three’s a crowd. If you plan to just read your slides, you are putting PowerPoint® between you and the audience, and your presentation will suffer. Consider these guidelines and you will be well on the way to an effective presentation. Source: Adapted from Finkelstein, E. (2014). 3 components of an effective presentation. Retrieved from http://www.ellenfinkelstein.com/pptblog/ 3-components-of-an-effective-presentation

Creating Training Materials Chapter 5

On the Aesthetics of Training Materials Training materials must engage the trainee. Visual aids such as PowerPoint® presentations or YouTube® videos should not only facilitate but also enhance the trainees’ learning experience, especially in an e-learning environment (David & Glore, 2010). Remember, training materi- als are effective only when they are easy to read and highlight the most important training themes. Especially when the training content is dull, the design of the training material can be the difference between the trainee being engaged in the content or not. The following are some principles for creating easy-to-read materials (Bray, 2009; U.S. Department of Labor, 2010; McArdle, 1999; Piskurich, 2010; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011; Wakefield, 2011):

• Use a large, easy-to-read font for the main text. • Emphasize important points with underlining, bold type, italics, or boxes. • Include plenty of white space by using wide margins. • Use plenty of simple illustrations to explain the text. • Use simple line drawings that are free of clutter and abstract drawings.

Food for Thought: Interview With Ash Hibbert, Technical Writer

In this article, Ash Hibbert underscores how attention to the aesthetics of the training material goes a long way. Specifically, making training material clearly organized and visual helps trainees quickly conceptualize the flow of the instructions and encourages them to turn each page.

Source: Hibbert, A. (2012). Interview with the Technical Writer. Retrieved from http://www.ashhibbert.com/2011/05/interview-with-technical- writer.html

Consider This 1. Why does Hibbert suggest keeping user feedback mechanisms in place after publication

of training materials? 2. What particularly does Hibbert suggest to make training materials more relevant and

accurate? 3. What benefits does Hibbert see in working with graphic designers during production of

training materials?

Training Materials Speak As Chapter 10 will discuss further, training materials are important, too, because they become artifacts of both the organization and society at large. Although training itself may be value neutral, training programs historically have been the means to sustain stereotypes, racism, anti-Semitism, sexism, and prejudice in general. Today we can study historical training mate- rials that memorialized sexism (for example, airline hostess training manual) and fanatical cultural movements (for example, the Hitler Youth training manual). Reflecting on training and development’s objectivity is part of the critical perspective of HRD, which includes con- templations such as:

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

• the consequences of training and development to society, organizations, and individuals;

• the moral base and ethical dilemmas raised by HRD practice; and • the overall social responsibility of training.

What will future trainers think of training material 70 years from now?

Table 5.1 has some additional do’s and don’ts for training material.

Table 5.1: Do’s and don’ts of training materials

Do Don’t

Organize text into short, logical sections by using headings or subtitles.

Offer so much information that a reader could feel overwhelmed.

Define technical terms or jargon. Copy the material so many times the visual clarity suffers.

Keep sentences short and simple. Have any typos!

Use a conversational style and active voice. Use outdated references.

Source: Albrecht, 2006; Allen & Sites, 2012; Bray, 2009; Dobbs, 2006.

The Tone and Purpose of the Training Text An appropriate writing style (Alamargot, Terrier, & Cellier, 2008; Jonassen & Driscoll, 2013) also is important in training materials, and depending on the training content, one of these styles might be most appropriate:

• Descriptive tone. The primary purpose of descriptive training material is to describe the topic clearly so the reader understands it. For example, material might describe the specifics of a case of sexual harassment.

• Expository tone. The primary purpose of expository training material is to provide information such as an explanation or directions (for example, how to load paper in a printer).

• Narrative tone. The primary purpose of narrative training material is to describe an experience, event, or sequence of events in the form of a story. This method could be used, for example, in new employee orientation to describe the history of how the company was started.

• Persuasive tone. The primary purpose of persuasive training material is to give an opinion and try to influence the reader’s way of thinking using supporting evidence. For example, materials might urge employees to report safety infractions they witness at the work site.

5.2 Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media The decisions made regarding the particular instructional methods and media that will be used are a significant and consequential part of the development process. Although train- ing budgets often dictate the training modalities, developers should also consider trainee

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

learning styles, available technology, training setting, and the practicality of delivering the training to the trainee (for example, a U.S. trainer in Chicago, Illinois. may select videoconfer- encing as an option to train employees at the Mumbai, India, division.)

Training Methods

Generally, training methods fall into four major categories (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Pelet, 2013; Wan, 2013):

1. Instructor-led 2. On-the-job training 3. Self-directed training 4. E-learning (Many times, e-learning is used with the other three methods as part of

blended learning.)

Instructor-Led Training According to the ASTD’s 2012 State of the Industry Report, when it comes to workplace train- ing, instructor-led training still outpaced other methods, accounting for almost 73% of training methods used (ASTD, 2012). This figure included whether the training was led face- to-face, online, or remotely (see Table 5.2). Instructor-led training is any kind of training that occurs in a training room, typically in an office, classroom, or conference room, but now also via online classrooms, as shown in Table 5.2.

This form of training can have one or more instructors who teach skills or material to another person or group through lectures, presentations, demonstrations, and discussions (ASTD, 2012; Noe, 2012; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011; Werner & DeSimone, 2011).

Table 5.2: Percentage of instructor-led training

Distribution method ASTD State of the Industry Report

Instructor led, classroom 59.4%

Instructor led, online 8.75%

Instructor led, remote (satellite, video) 4.5%

As discussed in Chapter 4, the instructional method—including icebreakers—can dictate the training setting, but training methods should support the learning activities in the session and the objectives of the training itself (Hodell, 2011; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011). For example, instructor-led training is most appropriate when the learning activities are knowledge acquisition, problem solving, changing attitudes, or interpersonal skills (Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Vijayasamundeeswari, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Instructor-led classroom examples of learning activities include:

• Knowledge acquisition—“In today’s session we are going over the history of our com- pany, including our organizational mission.”

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

• Problem solving—“Okay, pair up and let’s work on this hypothetical customer service problem.”

• Changing attitudes—“In today’s training, we are going to discuss the benefits of car- pooling and recycling.”

• Interpersonal skills—“Welcome to the Effective Communication Workshop.”

On-the-Job Training When knowledge retention is critical, on-the-job training is most appropriate. In 1969 Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, first introduced his “cone of experience” research that illustrated how various modalities of imparting information based on levels of abstrac- tion—words being the most abstract and at the top of the cone and real-life experiences the most concrete at the base of the cone (Dale, 1948; Hoban & Zisman, 1937). Dale’s and others’ research led to the concept of the learning pyramid that shows, for example, that up to 75% of the new information is retained after 72 hours when students are given an opportunity to practice the skill (see Figure 5.3). For more information, see the learning retention pyramid used by the National Training Laboratories (http://www.ntl.org).

Figure 5.3: Learning retention pyramid

A trainee can engage with training material in both active and passive ways. The learning retention pyramid illustrates learner recall for the various approaches. The first four levels are passive, and the last three are participatory.

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10% Reading

20% Audiovisual

30% Demonstration

50% Discussion

75% Practice

90% Teach others

Lecture

Source: Reprinted with permission from NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Sciences.

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

On-the-job training can be formal or informal (Jacobs, 2003; Werner & DeSimone, 2011). Formal OJT is planned and organized training that is conducted by trainers with trainees at the job site (see Figure 5.4). Informal OJT is not planned or organized in any logical pattern. Learning takes place when trainees perform the work or watch others perform it (Jacobs & Phillips, 2002; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011).

With informal OJT, incidental workplace learning can also take place while trainees perform the work or watch the trainer perform (Wan, 2013). Incidental learning is a subcategory of informal learning and is characterized as unintentional and unexpected; it takes place when people are not conscious that learning is happening (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Chapter 6 will discuss the particular challenges to OJT as it relates to how important the trainer–trainee communication process becomes.

Figure 5.4: Formal OJT example

On-the-job training materials give detailed guidance for completing job-related tasks in a training situation.

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Results In

Typical Training Event— Manufacturing Example

1. Trainer shows the trainee the machinery.

2. Trainer describes what the machine does.

3. Trainer shows the trainee how to turn the machine on.

4. Trainer says, “I’ll be working at another machine, call me if there are any problems.”

✔ Trainee tries the steps.

✔ Trainee feels awkward about asking questions because it is his or her nature not to admit failure.

✔ Trainee has performance problems and trainer spends time retraining the trainee.

✔ Trainer feels that the trainee should have gotten it the first time.

✔ HR wonders why so much effort is being spent retraining the individual.

✔ Production manager is displeased with the overall performance drop he or she has seen in the line.

✔ Trainee feels extra pressure to perform because it seems to be his or her fault.

✔ Trainee finally learns the job through trial and error, becomes experienced, and trains a new employee in the same manner he or she was trained.

Source: Molnar, J. & Watts, B. (2000). Figure 4 “Typical Training Event”. Structured On-the-Job Training: Effectively Training Employees with Employees. Center for Entrepreneurial Studies and Development, Inc., p. 4. Reprinted with permission.

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

Self-Directed Training As discussed in Chapter 4, self-directed training refers to the form of training in which the learner takes responsibility for managing his or her own training, from the content selected to timing and delivery. Many organizational training programs have components of trainee self-study.

The attraction of self-directed training for organizations is that this form of training:

• complements and reinforces other, more formal development activities, increasing retention and reducing the falloff of learning;

• can be carried out continuously, as an integral part of day-to-day working activity; and • places greater responsibility on the individual to empower themselves and take the

initiative in planning their own personal development (Guglielmino, 2001).

Self-directed training, or self-directed learning, typically has two dimensions: self-teaching and autonomy (for example, instead of self-study, an employee may autonomously choose to be taught). However, when SDL equates to self-study, it typically is supported by materials, including:

1. explicit instructions that indicate what the required learning is, why the knowledge is important, the expected path through the learning materials, and the expectations and next steps when the training concludes;

2. self-paced lessons intended to convey the required knowledge; these may be available online or on paper; and

3. a series of self-tests that, although graded, usually are not recorded. The purpose is only to give trainees an idea of whether they are successfully learning the materials according to their employer’s expectation.

Also, before beginning the self-study, an effective tool especially for self-directed training is the learning contract. A learning contract (Knowles, 1973; Knowles et al., 2012) typically specifies for the employee:

1. the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner will acquire (learning objectives); 2. how the learner will accomplish these objectives (learning resources and strategies); 3. the target date for the accomplishment of the learning objectives; 4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the learner has mastered the

objectives; and 5. how the employer will judge or validate the evidence.

Figure 5.5 is a sample learning contract from Train to Gain (http://www.traintogain.gov.uk). Train to Gain is a UK government–funded initiative to deliver vocational training to employ individuals.

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

Figure 5.5: Sample learning contract

One way to facilitate a trainee’s self-directed learning is to create a learning contract that not only memorializes the training objectives but also gives a timeline and means to evaluate accomplishment.

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Learning Contract

Part One: To be completed prior to the training

Name:

Job title: Date:

Proposed training and development

Title:

Duration: From: To:

Cost per person: Name of provider:

1. Reasons for training (including how you perceive the training will enhance your knowledge, skills and attitudes).

2. Objectives: Provide a precise description of what you will be expected to achieve as a result of training and development. Use SMART objectives.

3. On completion of this training, how do you plan to demonstrate the benefits listed above, and when will this happen?

To be reviewed on:

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Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

f05.05b _BUS375.ai

4. Were the objectives listed at Q2 achieved? Yes/No (delete as appropriate)

Please explain how or why:

5. Which parts of the training and development contributed most to the achievement of your objectives?

6. List the new actions or tasks you can now perform as a result of the training and development. Confirm these with your manager, and what outcomes you would expect to see in the workplace.

7. How do you believe the organization and/or your work colleagues have benefited?

8. Who else could benefit from this activity?

Signed: Manager Employee

Source: http://www.traintogain.gov.uk

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

E-learning

Type the phrase “e-learning in training” into Google and the search will produce no fewer than 75,000 hits! The extraordinary growth of information technologies in today’s world now requires that a trainer also make decisions about how to develop and use electronic support related to the training (Dobbs, 2006; United Nations, 2013; Onguko, Jepchumba, & Gaceri, 2013) and especially when e-learning is used to supplement traditional face-to-face training delivery, known as blended learning (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng, 2005).

The allure of e-learning in training is based on two primary issues: speed and savings (Allen, 2013; ASTD, 2012; Jochems, Koper, & Van Merrienboer, 2013; Pelet, 2013). Well-researched organizational examples of this idea include the Dow Chemical Company, which reduced average spending from $95 per learner per course on classroom training to only $11 per learner per course with electronic delivery; this reduction translated into an annual savings of $34 million (Shepherd, 2003). Ernst & Young cut training costs 35% by condensing 2,900 hours of classroom training into 700 hours of web-based learning, 200 hours of distance learning, and 500 hours of classroom instruction—a cut of 52% (LiveOps Receives Brandon Hall Group Excellence in Learning Award, 2013). Specifically, e-learning, especially when used to supplement traditionally face-to-face methods, can accomplish the same amount of instruction or information as in a classroom 25% to 60% of the time (Jochems et al., 2013; Rosenberg, 2001).

According to the Brandon Hall Group (“LiveOps Receives,” 2013), there are several reasons e-learning can reduce the time it takes to train people:

• Learners can go at their own pace, not at the pace of the slowest member of a group. • Time in classrooms can be spent on questions or topics other learners introduce that

are irrelevant to the needs of the individual learner. • There is less social interaction time. • It takes less time to start and wind up a learning session. • There is less travel time to and from a training event. • Learners learn what they need to learn, and they can skip elements of a program.

But What Is E-learning? E-learning is any technology-enhanced learning, computer-based instruction, Internet-based training, or virtual instruction (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Pelet, 2013; Vijayasamundeeswari, 2013; Wan, 2013). Specifically, e-learning includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and streaming video. It includes technology applications as well as local intranet/extranet, smart phone apps, and web-based learning (Wan, 2013; Werner & DeSimone, 2011).

E-learning is unique because it is both a delivery method and a medium; it can be self-paced and asynchronous learning; that is, not in real time, such as with the use of a YouTube® video or podcast. Or, with an instructor, it can be synchronous; that is, in real-time, such as that seen on platforms like Skype® or FaceTime® (Allen, 2006; Driscoll, 2010). E-learning is usually blended in conjunction with other delivery methods, such as instructor led (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010; Dobbs, 2006). In other words, when it comes to e-learning, it is not necessarily an either–or approach, but could include both. However, e-learning has issues

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

other delivery methods may not have. According to Lin (2007), when developing e-training tools, particularly, issues of copyright, learner privacy, and accessibility must be considered.

However, as technology becomes more pervasive in the workplace, e-learning still must be developed with adult learning principles in mind (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Wan, 2013). That is, e-learning, too, must be interactive, problem oriented, and relevant to real-world issues, and it must lead the learner toward intrinsic motivation (Dobbs, 2006; Knowles, 1973; Sto- lovitch & Keeps, 2011). With this in mind, e-learning seems to be effective, according to Allen (2013); a 9-year survey of the research literature in training published by Tobias and Fletcher (2000) and commissioned by the American Psychological Society says: “Learners learn more using computer-based instruction than they do with conventional ways of teaching, as mea- sured by higher post-treatment test scores” (p. 414).

HRD in Practice: How E-learning Becomes Less Expensive Than Traditional Training: A Detailed Example of a Healthcare Organization

A healthcare customer had a requirement to train 500 learners. The training would require 25 weeks to cycle the learners through a traditional classroom or 1 week to train all of the learners using custom online training. After calculating a total cost savings of $1,294,000, the company decided to choose an online learning delivery strategy to save money and train the employees in a shorter time frame.

Table 5.3 by consulting firm SyberWorks (2014) gives an example of the typical components that make up training expenses and then compares the classroom setting with custom online training. The return-on-investment for e-learning can be 50% to 60% greater than for traditional training, which itself can have a fourfold ROI, if done properly. Table 5.3 assumes a traditional classroom training plan that includes 500 trainees who each experience a week of training, travel for half of them (250 employees), the time constraint of a 3-month rollout (5 trainers, 10 locations)—all compared to an equivalent e-learning scenario using very conservative assumptions, including an opportunity cost rate of $400 per day.

Table 5.3: Example of ROI calculations

Training expense Classroom training E-learning

Wages of trainees ($20/hour, burdened)

$400,000 $240,000

Travel costs (50% of people traveling) $250,000 $ —

Trainer wages $47,500 $11,400

Trainer travel $20,000 $ —

Development costs (custom training) $160,000 $400,000

Delivery systems (first year amortized) $ — $35,000

Totals $877,500 $686,400

Source: SyberWorks. (2014). E-Learning benefits and ROI comparison of e-learning vs. traditional training, from http://www.syberworks.com/articles/ e-learningROI.htm. Used with permission of SyberWorks, Inc. Copyright 2014 SyberWorks, Inc.

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Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

These figures indicate that the e-learning approach, given conservative assumptions, saves approximately 30% in the first year of implementation; in the second and later years, when development costs are not a factor for this course, the savings for e-learning grows to nearly 50%. In addition, the computer-based training or web-based training can be rolled out in half the time, once developed.

Consider This 1. The expenses outlined by SyberWorks summarize tangible costs; what could be some

intangible costs of e-learning, if any? 2. What assumptions does the ROI calculation make about the organization’s capability (for

example, infrastructure) for e-learning? 3. Explain why trainer wages would be less in an e-learning scenario.

Selecting Training Media

According to Piskurich (2010), certain training media are recommended over other types depending, on the key variables of use and audience size (see Table 5.4).

Table 5.4: Selecting training media

Purpose

Type of media

Most desirable Alternative Least desirable

Explain and clarify • Handouts • Slideshow presentation • Video(s)

• Board • Flip chart

• No media used; just lecture

Basis for discussion • Video(s) • Handouts • Flip chart • Slideshow presentation

• Board

Organize discussion • Handouts • Flip chart

• Board • Slideshow presentation

• Video(s)

Summarize • Handouts • Slideshow presentation • Video(s)

• Board • Flip chart

Educate • Handouts • Board • Flip chart • Video(s)

• Slideshow presentation

Audience size

Small • Handouts • Board • Flip chart • Video(s)

• Slideshow presentation

Large • Handouts • Slideshow presentation

• Video(s) • Board • Flip chart

Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid training development: Developing training courses fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Choosing Appropriate Instructional Methods and Media Chapter 5

For example, although PowerPoint® is desirable for explanation and clarification, it is not meant to educate the trainees; handouts or a (black)board are more appropriate to educate. Also, a PowerPoint® presentation might be too formal and stilted for a small training session. Likewise, flip charts and whiteboards are not appropriate media for audiences.

In their study of the use of certain training media (see Table 5.5), Hirumi, Bradford, and Ruth- erford (2011) found that the minimum and maximum development hours of training materi- als was a function of course material stability. That is, if the training materials and media are considered very stable (with no significant changes predicted for more than 3 years), then the course materials are considered more stable.

Table 5.5: Comparison of minimum and maximum development hours for training materials

Medium

Minimum development hours per training hour

Maximum development hours per training hour

Print 10 150

Audio 20 200

Video 50 500

Videoconferencing 10 250

Simulation or virtual reality 200 2,000

While use and audience size drive media selection, course developers should keep in mind a list of media tools that range from high development costs for very stable content to low development costs for changing content. For example, although the Second Life® virtual reality software ultimately may be effective, it may take longer to recoup the initial training investment due to up to 2,000 hours of development time.

HRD in Practice: IBM Uses Second Life® Virtual Software for Training and Team Building

Second Life® is an online virtual world developed by Linden Lab. It was launched on June 23, 2003, and recently celebrated 10 years as the Internet’s largest 3-D environment software. The power of Second Life® is that remote users interact with each other through avatars (also called residents) who can meet other residents, socialize, participate in individual and group activities, and create and trade virtual property and services with one another. Companies like Cisco Systems and the Intel Corporation use the online world for meetings, interviews, guest speaker events, and training for other employees. And now, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is embracing the virtual world it created for its employees.

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Training Setting Chapter 5

Chuck Hamilton, the virtual learning leader at IBM’s Center for Advanced Learning, claims that Second Life® is ideal for the company. Hamilton recently told Hypergrid Business, “At IBM, we have over 400,000 employees and 70 percent or so are outside the Americas and 44 percent of the population works outside a traditional office—we are virtual by nature.” Source: IBM dives into Second Life. (n.d.). Retrieved from IBM website: http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-social-secondlife

Consider This 1. Why would software such as Second Life® encourage team building among the users? 2. How might a virtual environment encourage trainer participation? 3. Does virtual software like Second Life® diminish the challenges of diversity in the

workplace?

Other Factors That Affect Development Time A recent study from the ASTD (Kapp & Defelice, 2009) suggests that development times may vary widely as a function of the scope of work, technology, and review time. Specifically, it was noted that factors that affected development time included:

• lack of understanding of one’s responsibility to the project; this factor included not allotting enough time to review work, SME unavailability, and lack of provision of materials in a timely manner;

• organizational changes; changes impacting either resources for the project or the overall project; and

• incompatible technology and/or lack of knowledge of a technology. It was noted sev- eral times that the clients’ technology was incompatible and/or there was a learning curve to using the new tools.

5.3 Training Setting As discussed, most of the time, training will take the form of instructor-led training, what we call the “same time, same place” classroom setting. As a result, considerations to the training room itself are essential, although if the content and trainer are well developed and appropri- ate, they can easily rise above the room conditions (poor OJT conditions with good training outcomes prove this assumption). Yet room layout influences not only whether the trainee will enjoy the training (level 1), but also whether he or she will learn something from the ses- sion (level 2). In fact, it is not unreasonable to conclude that as the training room setting goes, so goes the training itself.

Specific training room considerations include (ASTD, 2006):

• the distance from the screen to the last row of seats should not exceed six screen widths (a typical pull-down white screen is 84 inches diagonally);

Training Setting Chapter 5

• the distance from the screen to the front row of seats should be at least twice the width of the screen;

• the proper width of the viewing area is three screen widths; and • the room’s ceiling should be high enough—a minimum of 9 feet—to permit people

seated in the last row to see the bottom of the screen over the heads of those in front of them.

Seating Arrangements Conducive to Learning

There are many room configurations, specifically seating arrangements that encourage par- ticipation and improve trainee learning, including the U shape, theater, chevron, and circle (see Table 5.6).

Remember, if the goal of the training session is for the employee to apply the training, a class- room that is more conducive to transfer of the training makes sense; training room configura- tion is part of optimizing training transfer (Coates, 2008).

Table 5.6: Suggestions of when each configuration is appropriate

Seating configuration Space Uses and limitations

Theater • Fits the most number of people • Not a lot of space between people

• High attendance • Makes it difficult for audience to take

notes

Classroom • Accommodates a lot of people • A little more space between people

than theater seating • Has a table

• High attendance • Allows people to take notes or

receive handout material

Chevron • Accommodates a lot of people • Provides more space between people • Tables are optional

• High attendance • Fosters interaction for large groups • Allows people to take notes or

receive handout material

Modified chevron • Accommodates a lot of people • Less space between people than

chevron seating • Tables are optional

• High attendance • Speaker’s visibility of audience

improves • Can make note taking difficult

Square or rectangle • Accommodates a smaller group of people than theater, classroom, or chevron seating

• Tables provided

• Good for meetings where hierarchy is not an issue

• Great for facilitator-led meetings • Promotes audience participation • Allows note taking • Can make it difficult to present

visuals

Boardroom • Accommodates 6 to 15 people • Table provided

• Suggests hierarchy • Those seated further away from

speaker can feel disconnected from group

• Allows note taking

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Editorial Process and Technical Review Chapter 5

Seating configuration Space Uses and limitations

Perpendicular • Can accommodate more people by placing seats on both sides of the table

• Allows speaker or instructor to watch audience

• Facilitates communication between speaker and audience

• Space between tables allows for visu- als or demonstrations

• Allows note taking

U-shape • Speaker table is optional • Fosters collaboration • Space in the center allows for visuals

such as simulations and role-plays • Allows note taking

Semicircle or circle • Tables are optional • Minimizes speaker’s role • Good visibility and interaction

among audience • Excellent for emotional sessions

Cluster • Tables can be round or small rectangles

• Good for presentations with group activities

• Arrangement allows for food and beverages

Source: Adapted from Wallace, M. (2002). Guide on the side—room setups for presentations & training—one size does NOT fit all. Retrieved from LLRX.com website: http://www.llrx.com/columns/guide59.htm

5.4 Editorial Process and Technical Review Before implementing the training, trainers must review the process of the training docu- mentation and materials one more time. This includes content review, design review, orga- nizational review, and editorial review (Larson & Lockee, 2013; Noe, 2012; Piskurich, 2010; Wan, 2013).

Content Review

In a content review of the materials, a subject matter expert typically should be involved to verify that the training is linked to the scope of the learning objectives. Furthermore, an SME also can advise if the training session needs to have more specific information, such as includ- ing a more detailed history of the subject matter to link more clearly to the learning outcomes.

Design Review

In a design review, an experienced instructional designer reviews not only the learning objec- tives and whether they are SMART, for example, but also whether the training methods and media selected are appropriate.

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

Organizational Review

An organizational review is done anytime top management will help sell the training and cre- ate trainee buy-in; this review helps make the training more legitimate. For example, trainees might not feel there is a need for a particular training until the CEO comes to the start of the session to voice his or her support.

Editorial Review

Finally, an editorial review ensures the material includes no misspelled words, incomplete sentences, or even inappropriate images. These items can be distracters in the learning pro- cess and affect the integrity of the training. Support staff can perform this task. One good way to catch misspellings is to read the content backward. This helps focus more on the words than on the ideas presented.

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

• The focus in the development phase is the creation of training materials, including production, procurement, and quality assurance. In this phase we convert the theory of instructional design into practice.

• The training media and method also are chosen during the development phase. Selection of the training media is usually guided by the learner activity, audience size, and development time. Training methods include instructor led, on the job, self- instruction, and e-learning.

• The training setting is then optimized. Within instructor-led training, effective room configuration is required—specifically, seating arrangements that encourage par- ticipation and improve trainee learning (including the U-shape, theater, chevron, and circle).

• Finally, it is important to review and edit training materials for accuracy.

Posttest 1. Training materials that describe how the company’s values and culture developed

over time would likely adopt which writing style and tone? a. descriptive b. expository c. narrative d. persuasive

2. The difference between participants’ scores on a learning assessment before training versus after training is called . a. the postlearning score b. the learning gain c. the Kirkpatrick level d. the zone of training relevance

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

3. Which of the following accurately describes trainings based on adult learning principles? a. They take into account adults’ focus on extrinsic motivation. b. They avoid activities like games and simulations that might seem frivolous. c. They are more complex and require close study. d. They are problem oriented and relevant to real-world issues.

4. Which method is most commonly used in workplace training today? a. instructor-led training b. on-the-job training c. self-study d. e-learning

5. Which document specifies what, how, and by when the trainee will learn, along with how mastery will be evaluated? a. structured trainee notebook b. learning pyramid c. learning contract d. task list

6. What type of training method is best suited for explaining and clarifying material for a small audience? a. PowerPoint®

b. handout c. video d. flip chart

7. A trainer would like to arrange the training room to promote lots of interaction among the large group of participants. What configuration should he choose? a. theater style b. classroom style c. modified chevron d. chevron style

8. The screen a trainer plans to use in a presentation is 70 inches wide. How wide should the viewing area for the presentation be? a. 420 inches b. 210 inches c. 180 inches d. 140 inches

9. Who typically performs a content review of training materials? a. a subject matter expert b. support staff c. an instructional designer d. top management

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

10. The purpose of an organizational review of training materials is to . a. ensure that the learning objectives of the training are aligned with the strategic

goals of the organization b. reduce items that can be distracters in the learning process and affect the train-

ing’s integrity c. create employee buy-in for the training by demonstrating top management’s sup-

port of it d. make sure that the training uses SMART objectives that are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time specific

Assess Your Learning: Critical Reflection Questions 1. Beyond being unprofessional, discuss what other message typos and other grammati-

cal errors may convey to the trainees. 2. Training sometimes requires self-directed study by the trainee. If a trainee is not

naturally self-directed, can he or she be taught to be self-directed? 3. Discuss how e-learning is both a delivery method and a medium. 4. Training materials take on a certain tone. Give a training example in which the tone of

the material would need to be persuasive. 5. Although on-the-job training is effective for learning retention, what may be some

disadvantages of on-the-job training?

Additional Resources Web Resources

For additional info on training evaluation: http://www.businessballs.com/trainingprogramevaluation.htm

Workplace safety videos using YouTube®: http://www.youtube.com/user/vocamsafetytv?feature=watch

Many e-learning training tools—including podcast production, using social media, and learning management systems—can be found here: http://theelearningcoach.com/elearning2-0/100-elearning-freebies

For more information on effective training room arrangement: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/seating.html

Blogger Cathy Moore details and demonstrates more than 50 examples of the different types of e-learning (such as simulations, tutorials, drill and practice): http://blog.cathy-moore.com/resources/elearning-samples

Further Reading

Allen, M. W. (2013). Michael Allen’s guide to e-learning: Building interactive, fun, and effective learning programs for any company. New York: Wiley.

American Society for Training & Development. (2012). ASTD 2012 state of the industry report. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

LiveOps receives Brandon Hall Group Excellence in Learning Award. (2013, October 22). Company overview, Business Wire. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id= GALE%7CA346492136&v=2.1&u=miam50083&it=r&p=ITOF&sw=w&asid=6ca3cc50a 8686ae60279c48992969594

Pelet, J. E. (2013). E-learning 2.0 technologies and web applications in higher education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Shaw, J. (2011). The cave man guide to training and development. Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest

1. true. In addition to whether employees learned anything from a training session, the four-level training evaluation model assesses whether trainees enjoyed the session. Understanding whether participants found the training relevant, a good use of time, and engaging helps ensure that future trainings meet employees’ needs.

2. true. In contrast to formal on-the-job training, informal training is not organized in advance. Instead, it takes place as trainees perform work or as they watch others perform it.

3. true. Training materials and visual aids need to engage the trainee and enhance the learning experience. Materials can only be effective if they capture the trainee’s atten- tion and are easy to read. When the content is not interesting on its own, the design can make all the difference for a learner.

4. false. The arrangement of seating in a training room can encourage participation and improve trainee learning. The seating configuration should be determined by the objectives of the training. For example, a circle may promote group bonding, whereas a cluster style works for presentations with breakout sessions.

5. false. Although issues of layout and formatting do have an impact on the readability of training materials, a design review does not deal with graphic design. Instead, it refers to instructional design. Before training is implemented, an instructional designer reviews the learning objectives, training methods, and selected media to make sure they are appropriate.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Posttest

1. c. Because narrative style uses the form of a story to describe an experience, event, or sequence of events, it would be appropriate for explaining a company’s growth. On the other hand, the expository tone is best used for instructions or directions, the per- suasive tone is used to convince, and the descriptive tone clearly describes the details of a topic.

2. b. Level 2 of Kirkpatrick’s four-level training evaluation model assesses whether the trainee learned from the training. Trainees are tested before the training session and then again after the session, using the same questions to see whether their under- standing of relevant information has increased. The difference between the pretrain- ing and posttraining scores is called the learning gain.

3. d. Training materials must honor adult learning principles. This means that they should be problem oriented, be relevant in terms of real-world issues, and guide the learner toward intrinsic motivation. Note that this does NOT mean that materials should be complicated or avoid engaging activities like simulations or games.

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

Key Terms activities Endeavors designed to promote learning and transfer of knowledge, such as behavior modeling, critique, fishbowl, forum, lectures, panel, role-play, simulation, and skits. A course is typically a series of lessons made up of instructional activities.

asynchronous learning Non-instructor- led training that uses a computer network– based delivery system in which the trainees are not online at the same time nor in direct, immediate contact, such as the use of elec- tronic bulletin boards and chat rooms.

descriptive tone A writing style that describes a topic so that the topic can be clearly seen in the reader’s mind.

end products Training materials that are produced as the result of development by

instructional design and analysis; for exam- ple, communication packs, lesson plans, and participant assessment instruments.

expository tone A writing style that pro- vides information, such as an explanation or directions on how to load paper in a printer.

incidental learning A subcategory of infor- mal learning; learning that is unintentional and unexpected; it takes place when people are not conscious that learning is happening.

instructor-led training Any kind of train- ing that occurs in a training room, typically in an office, classroom, or conference room.

jargon The technical terms of an industry.

learning contract A tool used for self- directed training or leaning to specify the

4. a. In 2012 instructor-led training was the most common method of workplace train- ing and was used in almost 73% of trainings. Defined as any training that occurs in a training room such as a classroom or conference room, it can take place in person, online, or remotely.

5. c. Learning contracts are effective tools for self-directed learning. Drafted before the self-study begins, the learning contract specifies learning objectives, how those learning objectives will be accomplished, and a target date. It also establishes what evidence will demonstrate that the learner has achieved the objectives and how the employer will judge that evidence.

6. b. Although PowerPoint® presentations are useful for explaining and clarifying infor- mation, they can be too formal for small training sessions. Handouts are considered the most desirable training method for smaller audiences.

7. d. The chevron seating configuration promotes a sense of participation and is the most interactive of the large group setups. It can be arranged with or without tables.

8. b. To make sure the screen is viewable by the audience, the proper width of the view- ing area is three times the width of the screen. Meanwhile, the distance from the last row of seats to the screen should be no more than six screen widths (420 inches in this example). The distance from the front row of seats to the screen should be at least twice the screen’s width (140 inches in this case).

9. a. An instructional designer reviews the appropriateness of the material according to learning principles, but a subject matter expert (SME) reviews the actual content. He or she checks to ensure that the information in the training is linked to the scope of the learning objectives. The SME might suggest including more detailed information or clarifying points.

10. c. An organizational review helps make a training more legitimate in the eyes of employees by showing that top management supports it. Thus, organizational review is performed whenever top managers will be “selling” the training to help create buy-in.

Summary and Resources Chapter 5

details of learning objectives, learning resources, and strategies for the learner or trainee.

narrative tone A writing style that describes an experience, event, or sequence of events in the form of a story.

persuasive tone A writing style that gives an opinion and tries to influence the reader’s way of thinking with supporting evidence.

pretest A test administered prior to a pro- gram to assess the level of a learner’s knowl- edge or skill.

social responsibility A duty every indi- vidual has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the ecosystem.

synchronous E-learning that includes real- time instruction using a net-based deliv- ery system—such as computer networks, telephones, or speaker phones—in which the instructor and trainees are online at the same time; also called online learning.

training media A delivery system used in a training program, such as texts, sound, overheads, print, video, audio, graphics, computer-generated or hand-drawn anima- tions, or any combination of these.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT: PERFORMANCE THROUGH LEARNING

David M. Kopp Adrian Dominican School of Education at

Barry University in Miami, Florida

David M. Kopp

Human Resource Development: Performance Through Learning

Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright

Sponsoring Editors: Mireille Yanow and Cheryl Cechvala

Development Editors: Carrie Brandt and Susan Walker

Assistant Editor: Kristle Maglunob

Senior Editorial Assistant: Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan

Production Editor: Catherine Morris

Copyeditor: LSF Editorial

Cover Design: Jelena Mirkovic

Printing Services: Bordeaux

Production Services: Hespenheide Design

ePub Development: M & R Consultants Corporation

Permission Editor: Sheri Gilbert

Cover Image: Robert Chruchill/iStock/Thinkstock, monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock, Jetta Productions/ Iconica/Getty Images

ISBN-10: 1621781739

ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-173-8

Copyright © 2014 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publica- tion the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction, or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development: Performance Through Learning 1

Chapter 2 Performance Management 29

Chapter 3 Introduction to ADDIE: (A)nalyzing Training Needs 59

Chapter 4 (D)esigning Effective Training 89

Chapter 5 (D)evelopment—Putting Theory Into Practice 119

Chapter 6 (I)mplementation—Execution 147

Chapter 7 (E)valuation of Training and Development 167

Chapter 8 Transfer of Training 195

Chapter 9 Employee and Organizational Development 223

Chapter 10 The Ethics of HRD and Corporate Social Responsibility 253

Glossary 279

References 297

Brief Contents

Contents

Dedication­ xi

About­the­Author xiii

Acknowledgments xiv

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Human Resource Development: Performance Through Learning 1

1.1  Defining Human Resource Development 3

1.2  Distinguishing Between Human Resource Development and Human Resource Management 4

1.3  The Advent of Human Resource Development 6 Training­in­the­Late­1800s­and­Early­1900s 6 World­Wars­Change­Jobs­and­Influence­Training 8 1950s­Workplace­Training­Developments 9 The­1960s­and­1970s:­The­Introduction­of­Computer-Based­Training 9 The­1980s­and­1990s:­The­Emergence­of­Intellectual­Capital 10 21st-Century­Training­and­Today’s­Influences­on­HRD 11

1.4  HRD Consensus and Debate 12 HRD­Consensus 12 HRD­Debate 13 Performance-Based­View­of­HRD 14 Developmental­View­of­HRD 16

1.5  Competencies of the Training and Development Professional 16 Certifications­in­Training­and­Development 18

Summary and Resources 20

Contents

Chapter 2 Performance Management 29

2.1  Perspectives in Workplace Performance 31 Performance­as­a­Natural­Outcome­of­Human­Activity 31 Performance­as­Necessary­for­Economic­Activity 32 Performance­as­an­Instrument­of­Organizational­Oppression 32

2.2  A Formula for Job Performance 32 Breaking­Down­the­Performance­Formula 34 Job Aids—Cost-Effective Way to Improve Knowledge and Skills Immediately 36 FLOW­and­SVVE 41

2.3  Quality of Performance: Expertise, Competence, and Incompetence 44

2.4  New Employees: On-Boarding Job Performance 46

2.5  Poor Performance Analysis—Managing the Gap 48 Managing­Performance­Gaps­With­Attribution­Analysis 50­ Returning­to­Opening­Case—Job­Performance 50

Summary and Resources 51

Chapter 3 Introduction to ADDIE: (A)nalyzing Training Needs 59

3.1  Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation 61 Where­Is­ADDIE­in­the­HRD­System? 62

3.2  Analysis—Defining the Needs 63

3.3  Levels of Needs Assessment 65 Organizational­Analysis 65 Job-Task­Analysis 68

3.4  Other Data Collection Methods 73 Individual­or­Person­Analysis 75 Why­Are­Needs­Assessments­Not­Done­More­Often? 79

3.5  Prioritizing the Training Needs 79

Summary and Resources 81

Contents

Chapter 4 (D)esigning Effective Training 89

4.1  Developing Training Objectives 91

4.2  Setting and Delivery Method Considerations 94 Train­the­Trainer 98 Preparing­Your­Training­Environment­Room 98

4.3  Individual Trainee Differences 100 Self-Directed­Trainees 102 Locus­of­Control 103

4.4  Training Design Sequencing 103 WPW­Learning­Model­in­Training­Design 104

4.5  Preparing Lesson Plan 106

4.6  Designing Learning Assessment 110

Summary and Resources 111

Chapter 5 (D)evelopment—Putting Theory Into Practice 119

5.1  Creating Training Materials 121 Trainer­and­Participant­Assessment­Instruments 122 Materials­Development­Process 125

5.2  Choosing Appropriate Instructional Method and Media 127 Training­Methods 128 E-learning 134 Selecting­Training­Media 136

5.3  Training Setting 138 Seating­Arrangements­Conducive­to­Learning 139

5.4  Editorial Process and Technical Review 140 Content­Review 140 Design­Review 140 Organizational­Review 141 Editorial­Review 141

Summary and Resources 141

Contents

Chapter 6 (I)mplementation—Execution 147

6.1  Beta and Pilot Testing of Training 148 Outcomes­of­Testing 149

6.2  Trainer KSAs 151 The­Anatomy­of­the­Excellent­Trainer 151

6.3  Barriers to Implementing Training 155 E-learning­Readiness:­Potential­Barriers 156

6.4  Outsourcing Training 157 Outsourcing:­A­Rising­Trend 157

Summary and Resources 160

Chapter 7 (E)valuation of Training and Development  167

7.1  Formative Evaluation 169

7.2  Summative Evaluation 170

7.3  Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Evaluation Framework 171 Level­1—Reaction:­Did­They­Like­It? 172 Level­2—Learning:­Did­They­Learn­It? 173 Level­3—Behavior:­Did­They­Apply­It? 175 Level­4—Results:­Did­the­Organization­Benefit? 175 Linking­Kirkpatrick­Outcome­Levels­to­the­Performance­Formula 177

7.4  Return on Investment 179 Hard­Data­Versus­Soft­Data 181 Data­Gathering­Methods 181

7.5  Evaluation: Essential, but Often Neglected 183 Sampling­of­Evaluation­Models 184

Summary and Resources 187

Contents

Chapter 8 Transfer of Training 195

8.1  A Framework for Training Transfer 197 Trainee­Characteristics 197 Training­Design 199 Work­Environment 202 On­the­Quality­of­Transfer:­Negative­and­Positive 204

8.2  Accountability for Training Transfer 205 The­Who,­What,­and­When­of­Transfer 206

8.3  Barriers to Training Transfer 208 Transfer­of­Training­as­Change­Management 209

8.4  Transfer and the Learning Organization 211 Organizational­Learning­and­the­Learning­Organization 213

Summary and Resources 214

Chapter 9 Employee and Organizational Development 223

9.1  Development and Strategic HRD 225 Development­for­Competitive­Advantage 227

9.2  Employee Development 228 Aspects­of­Employee­Development 229 Employee­Development­and­Mentoring 232

9.3  Leading Employee Development 234 D1­With­S1 235 D2­With­S2 236 D3­With­S3 236 D4­With­S4 237

9.4  Process of Career Development 237 Stages­of­Life­and­Career­Development 238 Career­Management 239

Contents

9.5  Organizational Development 242 A­Model­for­Organizational­Change 243 Dimensions­to­Organizational­Change 245

Summary and Resources 246

Chapter 10 ­The Ethics of HRD and Corporate Social Responsibility 253

10.1  Ethical Human Resource Development 255 Different­Ethical­Frameworks 256 Globalization­Means­Global­HRD 258

10.2  HRD and Social Responsibility 259 Nurturing­Corporate­Social­Responsibility­Within­the­Organization 261 “Walking­the­Walk”­of­Social­Responsibility 264

10.3  CSR and Social Justice Within the Organization 264 Access­to­Training:­The­Glass­Ceiling­of­Training­and­Development 265 Training­Considerations­for­Speakers­of­Other­Languages 267

10.4  Work–Life Balance 267 Workaholism—Performance,­but­at­What­Cost? 270

10.5  Critical HRD and Lessons Learned From the Social History of Training 272

Summary and Resources 273

Glossary 279

References 297

Sandra Huzenman: my unfailing

supporter and my North; from the first

keystroke to my last breath, te amo

Dr. David M. Kopp is an associate dean and pro- fessor of human resource development in the Adrian Dominican School of Education at Barry University­in­Miami,­Florida.­He­has­taught­and­ developed courses in training and development for more than 15 years. Dr. Kopp is one of the few academics who have earned the CPLP cre- dential­(Certified­Professional­in­Learning­and­ Performance).

Kopp­has­worked­with­both­profit­and­nonprofit­ organizations for more than 20 years, consult- ing and writing on leadership, strategic plan- ning, organizational change, and performance improvement.­He­regularly­hosts­a­community­ affairs television program in Florida, Community Crossroads, and recently spoke about human resource development in Macedonia at the nation’s largest public and private universities.

Dr. Kopp was Dr. Shaquille O’Neal’s doctoral advisor­and­is­also­an­expert­on­the­Beatles.

About the Author

The author would like to acknowledge the many people who were involved in the development­of­this­text.­Terry­Piper,­Lucia­Rhee,­Isaac­Levi,­Katie­Desiderio,­Valerie­ Dahan, Joanne Ittilucksatit, and Barry, Marilyn, Zak, Nik, Isaac, and Ash. Special thanks are due to Mireille Yanow and Cheryl Cechvala, sponsoring editors; Carrie Brandt and Susan Walker, development editors; Kristle Maglunob, assistant editor; Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan, senior editorial assistant; Catherine Morris, production editor; and Jermaine Jackson, video editor. Thanks also to the following Ashford faculty and advi- sors for their helpful advice and suggestions: Charles Nichols, Adrienne Osborne, and Maja Zelihic.

Finally, the author would like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable feed- back and insight:

Shani­Carter,­Rhode­Island­College

Rod­Githens,­University­of­Louisville

C. Allen Gorman, East Tennessee State University

Kathy­A.­Hanisch,­Iowa­State­University

Consuelo­Waight,­University­of­Houston

Chris Zirkle, Ohio State University

Acknowledgments

Preface

Human Resource Development: Performance Through Learning provides an introduction to the essentials of training theory and its practical applications in—and implications for—the business and management environment. Students will learn not only the func- tions, duties, and responsibilities of training through every phase of the training pro- cess, but also about the social responsibility of training and development. A primary objective­of­this­text­is­for­organizational­leaders­to­understand­the­means,­manner,­and­ methods of employee training, as well as how a trained and developed workforce affects and drives organizational performance.

Textbook Features To enhance, enrich, and enliven student learning, Human Resource Development: Performance Through Learning includes several features:

Case Studies feature scenarios that illustrate key concepts through real-world situa- tions. Students are challenged to analyze and solve problems by weighing the multiple variables of human resource development decisions.

Assess Your Learning: Critical Ref lection questions prompt students to critically examine­the­information­presented­in­the­chapter­and­apply­their­knowledge.­

Video lectures provide additional instruction in core concepts to human resource development.

Pretests and Posttests prompt students to answer multiple-choice questions that pro- vide real-time feedback on their understanding of chapter concepts.

Preface

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