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Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE July 2013 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 14 Number: 3 Article 8

SWOT ANALYSIS OF MA EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME OF ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

Dr. S. Manzoor Hussain SHAH

Muazzam Ali SAQIB Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad,

PAKISTAN ABSTRACT The major objectives of the study were to explore various internal aspects of the MA Educational Planning and Management (EPM) programme of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU), Islamabad to find its strengths and weaknesses, and to look into external aspects for identifying the opportunities and threats to the programme. Based on the study, a number of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats were found which provided a basis for reviewing and revising a number of components of the programme. The study explored the various aspects of MA EPM programme of AIOU in the light of programme objectives as well as the national and international needs with special considerations to a distance education programme. The finding of the study revealed recognition of a number of strengths and opportunities of the programme related to enrolment, workshops, examination, job placement, job satisfaction, and performance of the graduates in a competitive environment. At the same time, the study reflected few weaknesses and threats to the programme associated with the written assignments, tutors, study material, study tours, relevance of the curriculum to local needs, need to update the content, and revision of the curriculum. Recommendations of the study include periodically revising the curriculum, upgrading the courses books, improving the evaluation methods of assignments, introducing more activities for both learning and evaluation, and including study tours in the workshops. The study also recommended the EPPSL department to induct part-time/visiting faculty members in emergency situations to achieve the programme objectives. The researcher further recommended the EPPSL department to maintain the record of the graduates for prompt access to them for research purposes and to train the students for offering more cooperation with the researchers. More follow-up studies may be conducted to determine the viability and impact of EPM programmes of AIOU on the society. Keywords: Programme, Assignment, Workshop, Resource Person, Educational

Planning and Management (EPM), Graduates

INTRODUCTION Education, generally, is a means of transmitting knowledge, attitudes and skills from one generation to another. According to Oxford English Dictionary (1989, p.385) education is "training and instruction designed to give knowledge and develop skills". Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual.

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In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another. Thus education is responsible for a permanent change in attitude and behavior of an individual that is needed for personal as well as social adjustment of an individual. Education however is not to be strictly associated with the means it is transmitted through. The main focus is on the objectives and impact of any system and mode of education. Albert Einstein is of the view that "Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school" (www.brainyquote.com). This fact leads to discovery and invention of modern ways of education which suit every set of circumstances man has ever to come across. Non Formal Education (NFE) or more specifically Distance Education is therefore taken as emerging way of education for their flexibility and adaptability. Pakistan has a great reservoir of the agencies and organizations through which NFE programmes can be launched. In Pakistan, a number of non-formal educational programmes have been initiated at times both by public and private agencies. Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU), established in 1972 is the pioneer and one of the greatest non formal educational systems in Pakistan and has been imparting education under various disciplines over the last 4 decades. In AIOU, the institute of education had been working since 1976. In 1984 it was changed to Faculty of Education which is successfully operating since then. The department of Educational Planning and Management (EPM) started working in 1976 in the institute of Education. MA EPM was the first master degree programme of AIOU which was launched soon after the university was established, (Prospectus Faculty of Education AIOU, 2010). Since then the department is getting around 200 students enrolled in MA EPM programme every year. Hence for the last 35 years, AIOU has been producing professionals for educational planning and management. On combining few related areas of studies the name of the department has now been changed from EPM to Educational Planning, Policy Studies and Leadership (EPPSL). A programme with more than 35 years of age requires its evaluation and revision a number of times. MA EPM is the oldest master degree programme of AIOU. When it was launched, there was no other master level programme in the university to be compared with and to learn from. Furthermore there was no other institution in the country offering the similar programmes; this made it even harder to understand the advantages and disadvantages associated with the programme in the current circumstances of the country and the region. Moreover no significant studies were made to analyze and evaluate the programme in the later years as well. This called for a need of reviewing and analyzing the master degree programme of EPM department. SWOT analysis is a useful way to discuss the prospects and problems of a programme like MA EPM. It is one of the modern techniques of identifying and relating the strengths and problems associated to operation of an organization. The purpose of this technique is to find a base to make a strategic plan for the organization’s development. SWOT Analysis has been conducted by a number of organizations and educational programmes for improving their performance and overcoming the deficiencies.

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These studies include SWOT Analysis of the department of Kinesiology & Physical Education, Michigan Technical University (MTU), Frederick Country Ag Education Programme, B.Ed programme in Govt. College of Education, Afzalpur AJK, The Department of Education, Sargodha University, and M.Ed programme of AIOU. Amir, (2010) has also conducted SWOT analysis of another advanced programme of EPM i.e. M. Phil EPM. These studies have reflected a number of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats which could be considered for further strategic planning of these organizations and programmes. Hence SWOT Analysis of MA EPM programme was identified to be very important means to assess the overall viability of the programme and to develop new strategies for its development if needed.

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Educational Planning and Management (EPM) a Comprehensive Approach Planning and management in education are the interrelated acts for achieving the educational objectives. The process of planning contributes to achieve the objectives by making advance preparations for the purpose where as management contributes by directing and controlling the implementation (Pervaiz, 2007 p.37). Planning is a complex process which requires a large number of factors to be considered. According to Haddad (1995, p.7). Planning entails a variety of processes, from the analysis of the present situation, the generation and assessment of policy options, to the careful preparation and monitoring of policy implementation, eventually leading to the redefinition of a new policy cycle. A variety of players intervene in these processes and if their interests are not carefully assessed and taken care of, then the policy or the plan will have every chance of failing. (www.unesco.org/education)It is therefore necessary that planning should always be considered keeping in view all its complicated processes. The scope of planning is not limited to the traditional institutionalized setup anymore. While discussing the scope of educational planning as quoted by Haddad (1995, p.5), Hallak further stated: The scope of educational planning has been broadened. In addition to the formal system of education, it is now applied to all other important educational efforts in non formal settings. Attention to the growth and expansion of educational systems is being complemented and sometimes even replaced by a growing concern for the quality of the entire educational process and for the control of its results. Educational Planning is now considered to be an important factor towards educational development and should therefore be given significant role in the overall planning of education. According to (Prakash, V. 2008, p.1) a Working Party Report of the UNESCO states, “… educational planning is not an isolated activity … it must be undertaken in the framework of comprehensive development planning, and must be viewed in the larger context of all the steps required for effective educational development.” EPM IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE A large number of organizations, societies and forums have been established for the purpose of planning and management in education both for national and international needs. It is therefore of great importance to study the various activities and organizations of educational planning and management before one proceeds to evaluate any study program related to educational planning and management.

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The International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), The International Society for Educational Planning (ISEP), and The Academy of Educational Planning and management (AEPAM) are few of the institutes working in the field of EPM in collaboration with UNESCO and other related organizations. ( www.aepam.edu.pk). In order to understand how an EPM program for a university should be developed to serve especially in developing countries, it is useful to study the guidelines or objectives of various related agencies and universities educating EPM. A number of institutions/universities in developing countries are offering programmes of EPM at undergraduate and graduate level. These institutes include Bahir Dar University Ethiopia (www.bdu.edu.et), National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) India (www.nuepa.org), American University of Beirut (AUB) (www.aub.edu.lb), University of Education (UE) Pakistan (www.ue.edu.pk), Superior Group of Colleges, Pakistan (www.superior.edu.pk), National University of Modern Languages (NUML) Pakistan (www.numl.edu.pk), and Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) Pakistan(www.aiou.edu.pk). Most of the universities have almost similar aims and objectives that can best be represented by the aims and objectives of Advanced Training Programme of IIEP. ADVANCED TRAINING PROGRAMME (ATP), IIEP Through annual Advanced Training Programme (ATP) launched in 1965, IIEP trains educational planners and managers to analyze education systems, formulate policies, develop plans and programmes, and manage and monitor their implementation. The ATP started as a certificate programme in 1965 and, following its success and considerable demands from member states, the institute introduced a diploma in 1999. Since 2002, the IIEP Advanced Training Programme provides a master’s degree option, open to those who obtain the required scores in the courses.(www.unesco.org, p.2)The advanced training programme of IIEP aims at:

 Reviewing theories and approaches in current educational planning and

management  Strengthening core competencies in sector diagnosis and policy

formulation  Developing skills for strategic management and leadership in education  Providing tools for building and using information systems for decision

making and educational policy analysis  Developing skills for monitoring and evaluating educational programmes

and projects  Developing competencies for undertaking educational research  Fostering comparative perspectives on education through course work,

interaction with other trainees from different parts of the world, and study visits to two UNESCO Member States. (www.unesco.org, p. 3)

FUNDAMENTALS OF EPM In order to identify the real up-to-date issues in educational planning and policy making in different parts of the world, to support IIEP an editorial board has been appointed, composed of two general editors and associate editors from different regions, all professionals of high repute in their own field.

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At the first meeting of this new editorial board in January 1990, its members identified key topics to be covered in the coming issues under the following headings:

 Education and development  Equity considerations  Quality of education  Structure, administration and management of education  Curriculum  Cost and financing of education  Planning techniques and approaches  Information systems, monitoring and evaluation (www.unesco.org/education)

SWOT ANALYSIS SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) came from the research conducted by Albert S Humphrey and his team at Stanford Research Institute from 1960- 1970. The research was funded by the fortune 500 companies to find out why corporate planning failed and what could be done about this failure. Albert S Humphrey is therefore considered to be the founder of SWOT Analysis. (www.businessballs.com) SWOT profile uses a very simple framework as shown in the following figure.

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www.entrepreneurstoolkit.org

An important advantage of SWOT Analysis is its simplicity; most of the stakeholders can understand the findings of SWOT Analysis without necessarily having much technical knowledge. It further makes it easy to relate the findings, draw conclusions, and develop new strategies in a very simple way. Thus one of the most important merits of SWOT Analysis is that it does not require any specific qualification or technical experience for utilizing its outcomes. The attractions of SWOT Analysis are that this technique is familiar and easily understandable by users and it provides a good structuring device for sorting out ideas about the future and an organization’s ability to exploit that future. The reason why it has become so widely known is because of its inherent attractions, which include the facts that the technique is simple enough in concept to be immediately and readily accessible to managers.

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And finally SWOT analysis provides us with a device to structure the awkward mixture of quantitative and qualitative information, of familiar and unfamiliar facts, of known and half-known understandings that marks strategic marketing planning. (Piercy & Giles, 1989, p.6) The SWOT analysis is self-assessment data collection exercise for an organization. It should be followed by more comprehensive analysis which feed into a strategic plan. This should consider how to build on strengths, address the weaknesses, make the most of the opportunities identified, or reduce the impact of potential threats. (www.beecoop.co.uk) SWOT ANALYSIS OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS According to Hunter Taylor (www.ehow.com), the following questions/factors should be kept in mind while identifying Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats for SWOT Analysis of educational institutions. Strengths/Weaknesses An institution can identify its strengths by asking questions such as "What does the institution do better than anyone else" or "What advantages does the institution have?" A weakness for an academic institution could be its course offerings. For example, online institutions do not offer as many diverse courses as traditional brick- and-mortar institutions. Opportunities/Threats What societal trends is occurring that the institution is not taking advantage of or what opportunities are being missed? An opportunity for an institution could be to offer courses to senior adults. A decrease in financial aid funding could affect a institution's budget. Factors Specific to Study Programmes In SWOT analysis for managing vocational and technical education (VTE) programmes for improved efficiency in Nigeria, Adepoju and Famade (p.359) suggested that SWOT should cover all of the following areas, each of which may be a source of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities or threats. Internal Environment of the Institution The internal environment of the institution provides a number of factors that normally are related to strengths and weakness of the study programme. These factors include faculty and staff, classrooms, laboratories and facilities (the learning environment), current students, operating budget, various committees, and research programmes. External Environment of the Institution The external factors which are usually related to opportunities and threats to the programme include prospective employers of graduates, parents and families of students, competing colleges, preparatory high schools, population demographics, and funding agencies (Adepoju and Famade, 2010, p.359)

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Some SWOT Studies on Educational Programmes SWOT analysis being a very useful technique has been practiced by innumerable organizations to find out their positive and negative aspects and to utilize the findings for organization’s development. Some of the important SWOT studies conducted by different organizations are presented as follows. This would certainly a useful attempt to understand how SWOT analysis has been applied and utilized by various organizations. SWOT Analysis on the national Lifelong Learning (LLL) Strategies of Slovak Republic In Slovakia, the SWOT analysis in term of lifelong learning (LLL) and lifelong guidance (LLG) was created in years 2004-2006. This original SWOT analysis is the part of the Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance. The original SWOT analysis was elaborated as the basis for the creation of the Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance. This study led to certain findings in terms of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. (www.cbi-nlls.net)

SWOT Analysis for Frederick County Ag Education Programs In 2008 The Agricultural Education Program Advisory Committee (PAC) decided to conduct Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis for the Agriculture Education programs in Frederick County. A number of important discoveries were found on the basis of this study. (www.discoverfrederickmd.com)

SWOT Analysis of Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) Programmes in Nigeria In 2010, a research paper “The application of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis for managing vocational and technical education (VTE) programmes for improved efficiency in Nigeria” was developed by Adepoju and Famade. In the context of this paper, SWOT was presented for use as a decision-making strategy. An insight into the wide range of the potential applications of SWOT analysis was also the thrust of the paper. As conclusion, the SWOT Analysis was identified as very useful tool for decision making. (www.academicjournals.org) SWOT Analysis of Michigan Technological University (MTU) The self study report of Michigan Technological University (MTU) highlights different points which were identified in the SWOT Analysis. On the basis of these finding a detailed action plan was developed which was to be integrated into the strategic planning process for 1998/99. (www.admin.mtu.edu) SWOT Analysis of M.Ed Programme of AIOU SWOT analysis of M.Ed. Programme of AIOU was presented by Tahir (2009). The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats found in the study provided a base for improvements in the programme where needed. (www.scribd.com) SWOT Analysis of M.Phil EPM programme of Allama Iqbal Open University SWOT analysis of M.Phil EPM programme of AIOU was conducted by Shazia Amer (2010). The major Objectives of the study were to asses the impact of EPM training on the performance of graduates and to identify the contribution of the programme towards better placement of graduates. The study focused on the following assumptions about each of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

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NON FORMAL EDUCATION (NFE) As the programme under consideration i.e. MA EPM of AIOU is launched through distance learning under Non Formal Education (NFE) system, it is necessary to understand the important features and considerations to NFE particularly in Pakistan. According to Mujahid and Iqbal (2004, p.8) the non formal education in Pakistan is introduced as: Technically, non-formal education comprises all those educational activities (at all levels such as primary education, vocational training, adult literacy, functional literacy, etc.) which fall “outside” the purview of the formal standardized education system, endorsed by the Government of Pakistan or an international examination syndicate/board. In Pakistan, non-formal education is generally provided through:

 Non-formal basic education community or “home schools”;  Vocational/skill training centres/institutes;  Adult literacy/functional literacy centres; and  “Deeni madrassah” or religious schools.(www.paklife.net)

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DISTANCE LEARNING As the programme under consideration i.e. MA EPM of AIOU is launched through distance learning under Non Formal Education (NFE) system, it is useful to understand the important features and considerations to distance learning system. As stated by Dib (1988, p.4), the three universally accepted features of distance learning are as follows:

 Typical of the whole distance study is that it is based on non- contiguous communication, i.e., the learner is at a distance from the teacher for much, most or even all of the time during the teaching- learning process.

 A pre-produced course, as self-instructional as possible, printed and/or consisting of presentation brought about by other means than print (audio or video-tapes, radio or TV programmes, etc.) guides the study.

 Organized non-contiguous two-way communication is a constitutive element of distance study. It is in most cases principally brought about by assignments for submission for the students to solve and answer and for the tutors to comment on (in writing or on audio-tape), but freer forms of communication also occur.

Basic Responsibilities of Distance Learning Programme As the basic responsibilities, a distance learning system or programme should effectively manage certain activities. These activities are performed to ensure the smooth operation of the programme and achievement of the objectives of the programme. As mentioned by Dib (1988, p.4), distance learning is comprised of the development and technical production of distance study courses, the distribution of course materials, the non-contiguous two-way communication between students and tutors/counselors, and record-keeping.

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In some case, other activities may be required, as for instance course certificate, examination and degrees, and supplementary face-to-face contacts between students and tutors/counselors. Key Assessment Areas-Concluded from the Literature In connection to the literature reviewed above, the SWOT Analysis of MA EPM programme would be based on the following assumed areas for identification of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the programme. Strengths and Weaknesses The strengths and weakness of the programme may be studied with reference to:

 Factors related to general perception about the programme: what people know about the programme and how they rate it among the other similar programmes.

 Factors regarding the access to the programme: it includes the publicity, admission criteria and admission process.

 Quality of curriculum, faculty, and the overall teaching learning environment

 Relevance of the curriculum to the national needs and objectives: it provides a base for measuring the impact of the programme on the education system.

 Suitability of the students to the requirements, expectations, and demands of the programme: it determines whether the students can easily meet the requirements for understanding the content, and practicing the various activities of the programme.

 Factors related to completion of the programme and dropouts: it deals with the factors related to successful completion of the programme and also the reasons and remedies of the dropout problems.

 Extent of achieving the objectives: the level and the extent to which the programme is useful in achieving the objectives specified in the curriculum.

Opportunities and Threats The following important points may be considered while identifying the opportunities and opportunities to the programme:

 University’s management structure and facilities: it deals with the coordination and integration with other programmes, and also the overall circumstances and rules of the university associated with the students’ future.

 Factors related to further education and job placement  New emerging institutions with identical programmes  Trends of the society  National needs and circumstances: it deals with the significance and

importance of the programme at national level. It also includes the problems related to recognition of the programme when compared with the equivalent programmes of other universities or in other fields.

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 International needs and circumstances: whether the programme addresses the problems and issues of international community or is related to national need only. It also included the relevance of the international efforts and researches in EPM with the content of the programme.

 Effects of development in educational technology: it attempts to determine the extent to which the programme strategies are suitable to the emerging instructional technologies.

 Formal versus Non Formal conflicts and perception of the job offering agencies: it covers the likely conflicts in the systems of formal and non- formal education. This also includes the general perception about the quality, methods, teachers, study hours, and most of all the devotion and caliber of the clientele in both the system.

The key assessment areas identified above are useful to proceed for developing a research tool and analyzing the data obtained through it for evaluating the programme i.e. MA EPM programme of AIOU, through SWOT analysis. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study were to:

 Assess the strengths of MA EPM Programme of AIOU  Point out the weaknesses, if any, in MA EPM Programme  Identify opportunities to meet the future managerial requirements for

further expansion, and accessibility of the programme  Analyze the problems and external constraints, if any, of the MA EPM

Programme METHODOLOGY The population of the study comprises 266 graduates of MA EPM program of the sessions 2007-2009, 2008-2010, and 2009-2011. Many of the addresses of the graduates provided by EPPSL department of AIOU were related to their work positions. Due to changes in jobs, transfers, or shifting of the offices, these addresses were likely to be changed over the period of many years. Therefore the researcher did not have equal chances to approach each and every member of the population after their graduation. This limitation called for a need of convenience sampling and the graduates with permanent addresses were considered to be conveniently accessible by the researcher. In view to the above, 38% of the population i.e. 100 graduates with permanent addresses were selected to comprise the sample of the study. Thus the sample of the study comprised 100 MA EPM graduates of AIOU of the sessions starting in;

 2007,  2008, and  2009 through convenient sampling.

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A detailed questionnaire was developed as research tool after consulting the relevant literature and experts in the field of education. This questionnaire had 30 closed form statements and 3 open-ended questions. The collection of data was conducted through mailed questionnaires. The questionnaire was sent along with a return envelope and a covering letter to each of the respondents at the addresses obtained from EPPSL department of AIOU. Some of the respondents were also contacted personally or through email. As a result 81 out of 100 respondents returned the filled questionnaires which provided the data for analysis and conclusion. DATA ANALYSIS The data obtained through the questionnaire was tabulated separately for each of the items in the questionnaire. After frequency distribution of the responses for each item, these data were then taken through appropriate statistical treatments including percentage and arithmetic mean with the help of Microsoft Excel (a computer application). FINDINGS The analysis of the data directed towards the findings of the study which comprise the following facts. Ninty three percent of the respondents agreed that MA EPM of AIOU was one of the prestigious distance learning programmes in Pakistan whereas 5% of them disagreed and 2% of the respondents were uncertain about the statement. 80% of the respondents were of the opinion that the admission criteria ensured the potential required for successful completion of the programme whereas 7% disagreed and 13% were uncertain about the statement. 67% of the respondents said that MA EPM of AIOU was comparatively a low-cost programme whereas 22% disagreed with the statement and 11% were uncertain about it. 65% of the respondents agreed that the programme was useful for remote area students also along with others. 21% disagreed with it and 14% were uncertain about the statement. 86% of the respondents said that the faculty of EPPSL department of AIOU was highly qualified. 6% disagreed with the statement and 7% of them were uncertain. 93% of the respondents were of the opinion that the workshops of the program were effective and useful for students’ learning. 5% disagreed with the statement and 2% of the respondents remained uncertain. 91% of the respondents agreed that the programme was offering equal opportunity to both the genders whereas 4% disagreed and 5% were uncertain about the statement.

Fifty three percent of the respondents were in the favor that the EPPSL department addressed the academic problems of the students. 20% disagreed and a 27% remained uncertain about the statement. 41% of the respondents supported the statement that the printing quality of the study material was up to the mark. 42% respondents disagreed with the statement and 17% remained uncertain about it. 36% of the respondents supported the statement that the content of the study material was up to date whereas 51% of the respondents disagreed with the statement and 14% were uncertain about it. 75% of the respondents were satisfied that the program offered student-teacher interaction to a reasonable extent. 14% of them disagreed whereas 11% were uncertain about the statement. 41% of the respondents supported the statement that the assignments were properly evaluated by the tutors.

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44% respondents disagreed with the statement whereas 15% of them were uncertain. 52% of the respondents agreed that the workshop schedule was suitable to the circumstances of working students whereas 36% disagreed and 12% of them remained uncertain about it. 63% of the respondents agreed that the strength of the students in the workshop was appropriate for their better learning. 26% disagreed whereas 11% were uncertain about the statement. 80% agreed that the workshops were organized to obtain maximum benefit from the recourse persons whereas 16% disagreed and 4% of them were uncertain about the statement. Thirteen percent of the respondents agreed with the statement that the workshops offered a chance to visit different planning and management organizations whereas 73% supported the statement and 14% remained uncertain about it. 93% of the respondents said that the conduct of final examination at the end of the workshop was a useful step whereas 2% of them disagreed and 5% remained uncertain about the statement. 74% of the respondents agreed that the MA EPM graduates of AIOU are comparatively preferred for higher education in EPM. 10% of them disagreed whereas 16% remained uncertain about the statement. 46% of the respondents said that the MA EPM graduates of AIOU are comparatively preferred for administrative and managerial jobs. 21% disagreed whereas 33% were uncertain about the statement. 81% of the respondents agreed with a need of more EPM graduates due to the increasing demand of education at all levels. 13% disagreed whereas 6% remained uncertain about the statement. 74% of the respondents agreed with increasing need of EPM graduates in the country due to new Education Policy/ Education Sector Reforms. 12% of them disagreed whereas 14% remained uncertain about the statement. 54% of the respondents agreed that the programme encouraged the students to proceed for research whereas 28% disagreed and 17% were uncertain about the statement. 74% of the respondents agreed that after completion of the programme, the graduates felt a significant elevation in their position or status. 10% disagreed with the statement and 16% were uncertain about it. 70% of the respondents agreed that the inter-personal skills produced by the programme were according to the need of the day whereas 12% disagreed with it and 17% of them were uncertain. Forty eight percent respondents agreed that candidates prefer a formal system for MA EPM instead of distance learning. 19% of them disagreed whereas 33% were uncertain about the statement. 68% of the respondents agreed that the EPM courses offered by AIOU were equally effective as in new emerging universities. 11% of them disagreed whereas 21% were uncertain about it. 70% of the respondents believed the programme to maintain its effectiveness in a competitive environment with other universities. 19% disagreed whereas 11% were uncertain about it. 76% of the respondents agreed that the programme sustained its popularity even with high dropout rate whereas 7% disagreed and 17% remained uncertain about the statement. 51% respondents supported the statement that employers accepted the MA EPM degree as a professional degree for teaching jobs. 26% of the respondents disagreed and 23% were uncertain about the statement. 21% of the respondents agreed that the number of faculty members was adequate for achieving the programme objectives in emergency situations.

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Fifty six percent disagreed with the statement and 23% remained uncertain about it. As far as the suggestions to improve the curriculum are concerned, 79% of the respondents suggested periodic evaluation and revision of the curriculum to make the curriculum relevant to local needs and problems. 57% of the respondents suggested enriching the curriculum with latest information and advanced courses to meet international standards. 30% of the respondents also suggested that a variety of learning experiences and a Practical approached may be introduced in the curriculum. 23% of the candidates suggested improving the quality of the textbook in order to present the content in a simple and easy way. In order to improve the evaluation criteria, 30% of the respondents proposed to improve the quality of the Assignment component to ensure proper evaluation and guidance of the students. 27% were of the opinion to introduce activity based evaluation including presentations, projects etc. instead of mere written examination system. For general comments about the programme, majority 59% of the respondents rated it as an effective and helpful programme for managers.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION Objective No: 1 Based on the findings of the research, the following conclusions were drawn about MA EPM programme of AIOU. MA EPM programme was considered to be prestigious distance learning programme in Pakistan with a reasonable student-teacher interaction. The programme was comparatively low-cost and the admission criteria of the programme were sound enough to ensure the potential required for successful completion. The programme was equally useful for both the genders as well as the students of remote areas. The faculty of the EPPSL department was highly qualified and the EPPSL department was supportive to the students in their academic problems. The programme offered equally effective courses as in new emerging universities and encouraged the students to proceed for research. The group-study workshops of the programme were of appropriate group size, properly scheduled to be manageable for working students, useful in students’ learning, and organized to get maximum benefit from the resource persons. T he conduct of final examination at the end of the workshop of each course was also taken as a very useful step. The interpersonal skills produced by the programme were according to the need of the day. The programme sustained its popularity even with high dropout rate and maintained its effectiveness in a competitive environment with other universities. Objective No: 2 The printing quality of the study material was not up to the mark as per the expectations of the students. The content was also found to be out-dated. It was also found that the written assignments were not properly evaluated by the tutors. The research further showed that there were no provision of study tours to different planning and management organization during the workshops.

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Objective No: 3 MA EPM graduates of AIOU were comparatively preferred for higher studies and the jobs related to management and administration in education. More EPM graduates were needed due to increasing demand of education at all levels. The degree of MA EPM was accepted by the employers for teaching jobs as well. Moreover the need of more EPM graduates due to education sector reforms/policies was also considered to be an opportunity for the graduates. The graduates felt a significant elevation in their position or status after completing the programme. Objective No: 4 The candidates willing for enrolling in MA EPM programme prefer a formal system of education over distance education system which was concluded to be a threat to the MA EPM programme of AIOU. It was also found that the number of faculty members is not adequate for achieving the programme objectives in emergency situations.In connection to the improvement in the curriculum, it was concluded that there was a need of continuous revision of the curriculum on periodic basis. It was suggested to modify the curriculum to suit the local needs and problems, and to include the latest information and advanced courses to meet international standards. It was also suggested to introduce a practical approach and a variety of activities to improve the curriculum. The text books were required to be improved to present the content in simple and easy way. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS As far as the evaluation criteria are concerned, it was found that the assignment component needed improvements especially in evaluating them, and giving feedback to the students. It was also found that the respondents felt a need of introducing activity based evaluation instead of the written examination only. As general remarks about the programme, it was found that the graduates rated the MA EPM programme as an effective programme being helpful to managers. The printing quality of the study material may be improved and the content may be presented in a simpler and easier way. The curriculum may be enriched with the updated content and advanced courses to meet international standards. The curriculum may periodically be revised to focus on the local needs and problems of the society. The tutors may be instructed to be more dedicated for evaluating the assignments and providing the feed back to the students. Provision of study tours to different planning and management organizations may be offered during the workshops. Activity based evaluating techniques may be introduced in addition to mere written examination system. In order to compete with the similar programmes of formal education system, a variety of the learning activities and a practical approach may be introduced to make the programme attractive and interesting. The provision of temporarily appointed/visiting faculty members may be granted by the university administration to achieve the programme objectives in emergency situations. Record of EPM graduates may be maintained by the EPPSL department to ensure prompt access to the information about the graduates for research activity. The EPM students may be trained to cooperate in research activities in related fields.

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Similar researches may be conducted to find the viability of other programmes i.e. PGD, MS Leading to PhD, and PhD, in EPPSL department of AIOU. More follow-up studies may be conducted to determine the impact of EPM programmes of AIOU on the society BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of the AUTHORS

Dr. Syed Manzoor H. SHAH is Ass. Professor in the EPPSL department, Faculty of Education, at Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad Pakistan. He carries 18 years teaching and research experience. Dr Shah possesses vast experience of educational planning, projectization, educational research, in service teachers training programs, Population studies and micro teaching skills etc. He received his Doctorate Degree in Education (Educational Planning and Management) from AIOU

Islamabad, Pakistan. Dr Shah has been working as Coordinator with NORAD, UNICEF and UNESCO in their different projects. He has also developed different training modules for the tutors, senior tutors and teachers students of these projects. Dr. S. Manzoor Hussain SHAH Asstt.Professor, EPPSL, AIOU Islamabad, PAKISTAN Phone : + 92 51 9057716 Mobile : + 92 3025439121 Fax : + 92 51 9250059 Email: [email protected]

Mr. Muazzam Ali SAQIB is M. A Educational Planning and Management from Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad and is currently working as Lecturer in Cadet College Hassanabadal.

Muazzam Ali SAQIB Lecturer, Cadet College Hassanabadal, Punjab, PAKISTAN Phone : + 92 3335508018 Email:[email protected] REFERENCES Adepoju, & Famade (2010). Educational Research and Reviews. Vol 5(7). Retrieved f www.academicjournals.org/err/PDF/Pdf 2010/July/Adepoju and famade.pdf on June 03, 2012 at 16:32 AIOU. (2009). Prospectus of Faculty of Education. AIOU. Amer, S. (2010). SWOT analysis of M. Phil EPM program of AIOU (M.Phil thesis). AIOU.

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Dib, C. Z. (1988). Cooperative Networks in Physics Education - Conference Proceedings 173. New York: American Institute of Physics Haddad, W. D., & Demsky T. (1995). Education policy-planning process, an applied framework. Paris: UNESCO. Mujahid and Iqbal. (2004). NON-FORMAL EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN Issues in Resource Oxford Advance Learners English Dictionary (1989). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Piercy, N., & Giles, W. (1989). ‘Making SWOT Analysis Work’, Marketing Intelligence & Planning. Vol 7(5/6), 5-7. Prakash, V. (2008). Directions in Educational Planning Changing Landscape of Educational Planning in India. Paris: IIEP Pervaiz, R. (2007). Basic Concepts of Educational Planning. Islamabad: AIOU. Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Journal of Mixed Methods Research. Vol 1(1). WEBLIOGRAPHY http://mmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/77 on October 10, 2012 www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/education.html, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.businessballs.com/swotanalysisfreetemplate.htm, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.admin.mtu.edu/admin/nca/report/ch10/ch10p5.htm, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.discoverfrederickmd.com/documents/SWOTAnalysisforFrederickCountyAgPrograms10-31-08.pdf, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.scribd.com/doc/14051667/SWOT-Analysis-AJK-College-oF-Education-By- Naqeeb-ul-Khlil-Shaheen, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.scribd.com/doc/14050793/SWOT-Analysis-M-Ed-Program-Allam-Iqbal-Open-By-Abdul-Ghaffar-Tahir, retrieved n July 26, 2011o www.paklife.net/nfer_library/Reports/4-36.pdf, retrieved on July 26, 2011 www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/announcement.pdf, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.isep.info, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.aepam.edu.pk, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/pubs/Fund84.pdf, retrieved on January 09, 2012 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahir_Dar_University, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.bdu.edu.et/index.php/febs-postgraduate/199-streams-febs-postgraduate/114, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.nuepa.org, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.aub.edu.lb/fas/dep/Pages/postba.aspx, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.ue.edu.pk/programmes.asp, retrieved on January 09, 2012 www.superior.edu.pk/MEL.asp, retrieved on January 15, 2012 www.numl.edu.pk/ma-epm.aspx, retrieved on January 15, 2012 www.aiou.edu.pk/DeptDetail.asp?DeptID=43, retrieved on January 15, 2012 www.businessballs.com/swotanalysisfreetemplate.htm#SWOT analysis inventors, origins and history of SWOT analysis, retrieved on January 15, 2012 www.entrepreneurstoolkit.org/index.php?title=File%3ASWOT.jpg, retrieved on January 15, 2012 www.iiep.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Research_Challenges_and_Trends/pdf/symposium/VedPrakash. pdf, retrieved on May 17, 2012. www.beecoop.co.uk/cms/sites/teacher.beecoop.co.uk/files/brandswothow.pdf, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm, , retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.academicjournals.org/err/PDF/Pdf 2010/July/Adepoju and famade.pdf, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.ehow.com/facts_5305133_academic-swot-analysis.html, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.cbi-nlls.net/QIP/cbinlls.nsf/0/26C6C45E01191EA7C12577170071924F/$file/ 04_SWOT%20Analysis%20Slovak%20Republic.pdf, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.admin.mtu.edu/admin/nca/report/ch7/ch7p5.htm, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.techne-dib.com.br/downloads/6.pdf, retrieved on June 03, 2012 www.unesco.org/education/pdf/11_200.pdf, retrieved on June 03, 2012

APPENDICES

136

Appendix-A Table: 1

Response of the Graduates

Statements Response

(Percentage)

A D U

1. MA EPM of AIOU is one of the prestigious Distance Learning Programmes in Pakistan. 93 5 2

2. The admission criteria ensure the potential required for successful completion of the programme. 80 7 13

3. MA EPM of AIOU is comparatively a low-cost programme. 67 22 11

4. The programme is useful for remote area students as well. 65 21 14

5. The faculty of EPPSL department of AIOU is highly qualified. 86 6 7

6. The workshop of the program is effective and useful in students’ learning. 93 5 2

7. The programme offers equal opportunity to both the genders. 91 4 5

8. The EPPSL department addresses the academic problems of the students. 53 20 27

9. The printing quality of the study material is up to the mark. 41 42 17

10. The content of the study material is up to date. 36 51 14

11. The program offers reasonable student-teacher interaction. 75 14 11

12. The assignments are properly evaluated by the tutors 41 44 15

13. The workshop schedule suits the circumstances of working students. 52 36 12

14. The strength of the students in the workshop is appropriate for their better learning. 63 26 11

15. The workshops are organized to obtain maximum benefit from the recourse persons. 80 16 4

16. The workshops offer a chance to visit the different planning and management Orgn. 13 73 14

17. The conduct of final examination at the end of the workshop is a useful step. 93 2 5

18. The MA EPM graduates of AIOU are comparatively preferred for higher education in EPM. 74 10 16

19. The MA EPM graduates of AIOU are comparatively preferred for administrative and managerial jobs. 46 21 33

20. More EPM graduates are needed to respond to the increasing demand of education (at all levels). 81 13 6

21. The New Education Policy/ Education Sector Reforms call for the need of more EPM graduates in the country. 74 12 14

22. The Programme encourages the students to proceed for research. 54 28 17

23. The graduates feel a significant elevation in their position/status after completing the programme. 74 10 16

24. The inter-personal skills produced by the programme fulfill the need of the day. 70 12 17

25. Candidates prefer a formal system for MA EPM. 48 19 33

26. AIOU offers equally effective courses as in new emerging universities. 68 11 21

27. The programme maintains its effectiveness in a competitive environment with other Univ. 70 19 11

28. The programme sustains its popularity even with high dropout rate. 76 7 17

29. The employers accept MA EPM degree as a professional degree for teaching jobs. 51 26 23

30. The number of faculty members is adequate for achieving the programme objectives in emergency situations. 21 56 23

137

Appendix-B

Table: 2 Open ended questions (Suggestions/Comments of the Graduates)

Item No.

Suggestions/Comments f %

1 Periodically revise the curriculum to focus on local needs and problems.

64 79

2 The programme is effective and very helpful for managers. 48

59

3 Enrich the curriculum with latest information and advance courses to meet international standards.

46

57

4 Introduce variety of learning experiences and practical approach. 24 30

5 Improve the quality of assignment component to ensure proper evaluation and guidance for the students. 24

30

6 Introduce activity based evaluation techniques instead of written examination only.

22

27

7 Improve quality of the textbooks to present the content in simple and easy way.

19

23

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Planning and implementing an educational programme for the smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school: the Greek project in all-day kindergartens

Helen Ch. Carida*

Primary Education Adviser, 8th Educational District of Piraeus, Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs, Greece

The transition from kindergarten to primary school constitutes a significant point in children’s development, entailing definitive effects on their personality and the formation of their behaviour, but also on their school performance. Innovative Educational Programmes constitute a nodal point for the development of cooperation among the educational institutions, aiming to facilitate the transition procedure. Based on the circular of the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs (Ref. No. 8495, 19-11-2007) and within the frame- work of Sub-programme 6, entitled ‘Innovative interventions in all-day kindergartens’, in the 4th District of Preschool Education, Prefecture of Piraeus, school year 2007–8, six transition projects were prepared, having as their subject the ‘Facilitation of the smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school’. The aim of this article is to present the results from the six aforementioned programmes.

Keywords: all-day kindergarten; Innovative Educational Programmes; transition

Introduction

The transition as a starting point of consideration at an international level has been very important. Children’s transition from kindergarten to primary school is not a momentary event, but a complex and long procedure, depending both on the child’s readiness (Shore 1998), but also on the safeguarding of a continuation of the education within the implementation of a unified Curriculum Studies for kindergarten, primary school, junior high school and high school. Towards this direction, from time to time, various serious initiatives have taken place internationally, mainly during the 1970s and afterwards. In Greece, the implementation of new Curriculum Studies of Preschool Education (CSPE) constitutes a similar initiative (CSPE 2003).

*Email: [email protected]

The Curriculum Journal

Vol. 22, No. 1, March 2011, 77–92

ISSN 0958-5176 print/ISSN 1469-3704 online

� 2011 British Curriculum Foundation DOI: 10.1080/09585176.2011.550800

http://www.informaworld.com

Children’s transition from kindergarten to primary school constitutes a turning point in their lives, since a large number of children encounter difficulties in adapting to the new situation, on the nature and seriousness of which their future school success and personality configuration depend (Kienig 2002). It is a fact that a significant percentage of children cannot effectively manage the new requirements and challenges in primary school, resulting in negative experiences and stress, such as ‘separation anxiety’ and ‘school phobia’ (Cowen et al. 1997; Griebel and Niesel 2002). Therefore, since the mid-1990s, special attention has been paid to the matter of transition through the development of research and the conducting of special scientific projects in Europe, such as the Early Years Transition Programme (EASE).

As far as the conceptual definition of the term ‘transition’ is concerned, it certainly does not fall within the purposes of this article to refer meticulously to sociological issues, which concern the role change of people as they adapt to their new environments, during the procedure of the various transitions throughout human life. Furthermore, it is practically impossible to refer to the variety of opinions and models as far as the term ‘transition’ is concerned. However, based on the aforementioned, we shall note the necessity for a modern education system to support the transition procedure from kindergarten to primary school.

We would, in other words, say that the transition from kindergarten to primary school is a complex and dynamic long-term procedure, during which the child moves from one intimate environment – that of the kindergarten school – to a new and different environment – that of the primary school – resulting in a change of roles and positions within its social status and all that this change will entail for its personal biography as well as for its collective identity (Fabian 2002).

Transition models

There are numerous and various opinions as to the conceptual definition of the term ‘transition’, as well as for the factors affecting the transition from kindergarten to primary school. At this point, mainly for practical reasons, we shall deal with the summarising of the various aspects concerning the term of transition in the following two widely used transition models (Downer et al. 2006).

The model of capacities/abilities

This model considers the transition as a momentary event, confining the transition period to a specific time period, the one towards the end of the child’s attendance at kindergarten school. This model’s essential factors

78 H.C. Carida

for school ‘adaptation’ and the child’s readiness are considered as related to the child’s personal qualities.

The ecosystem/developmental model

This model considers the transition as a continuous and structured process, over the long term, which depends not only on the child’s personal qualities but also mainly on a total of factors within its environment, for instance the family, the kindergarten school, the primary school and the wider society in which the child lives and grows up.

As we can perceive, the two models offer different approaches to the term ‘transition’ and therefore they refer to different practices and applications during the implementation of the transition programmes (Rimm-Kaufman and Pianta 2000). In addition, due to the different approaches of the term ‘transition’, there is difficulty in determining the common acceptable criteria for a successful transition from kindergarten to primary school. None the less, according to the philosophy of the ecosystem/developmental model and the perspective to safeguard the education’s continuance, we shall describe the following general principles, which could also be the criteria for a successful transition from kindergarten to primary school:

. Emphasis on child’s spherical development. There should be compat- ibility between the two educational levels, as to their general philosophy and the target setting of the education. The child participates in learning, not only by acquiring knowledge and cognitive abilities, but also by acquiring social skills and positive attitudes towards the school.

. Redefinition of basic factors affecting the school class, both during kindergarten and primary school, in order to maximise the compatibility of the Curriculum Studies of preschool education with those of primary education, regarding the targets of instruc- tion, the educational methods and the instructional style of the teacher, the educational time management and its arrangement, the human anthropo-geography of the class and the communication networks (Einarsdóttir 2003, 2007).

. Active participation between professors, parents, high officials of education and institutions of local society, in order to update, inform and converge opinions as far as the roles and the responsibilities of the parties involved in the transition procedure are concerned. A determinant is the matter of negotiation of the type of expectations and demands for the students’ response towards the courses. Otherwise, the degree of the children’s response, as well as the parents’ expectations generated due to the child’s transition to

The Curriculum Journal 79

primary school, depend on: (a) the family’s culture; (b) the cooperation between parents and school; (c) the profile of the school unit and the preparation for the kindergarten pupils’ reception; and (d) the effects of the wider social-cultural environ- ment (Vrynioti and Matsagouras 2005).

For the settlement of all the above the creation of an appropriate institutional framework is definitely required (Bagakis et al. 2006).

Innovative Educational Programmes

The implementation of Innovative Educational Programmes in order to facilitate the transition from kindergarten to primary school plays an important role in everyday schooling. The idea to implement Innovative Educational Programmes and to apply the ‘project method’ within Curriculum Studies was initially based on the ‘progressive education’ model in Great Britain and other European countries, such as Sweden, West Germany, etc. (Helm and Katz 2002). In the USA the ‘project method’ was applied within the framework of ‘open education’. The greatest interest was, however, provoked by the reports of and the references to the collective working plans implemented in primary schools by Reggio Emilia in Italy (Reggio 1997).

In general, we would say that new abilities and perspectives created during the last 50 years, and mainly in the last 20 years, have led to the creation of transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies at European level (Matsagouras 2002).

In Transdisciplinary Educational Programmes the consistency of separate courses is maintained, but meanwhile there are attempted simple or complex correlations of their content, having as the ultimate end the most complete expansion and organisation of their cognitive fields.

In Interdisciplinary Educational Programmes the limits between the separate courses are removed, in an attempt to unify their content and their goals, having as their ultimate end the deep study of a subject.

Initially, at European level, Transdisciplinary Educational Pro- grammes in secondary education were implemented (CIDREE 1999), and then Interdisciplinary Educational Programmes were implemented too (CIDREE 2001). Transdisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Educational Programmes are relatively easy and cheap to implement, because the maximisation of their results does not burden the current Curriculum Studies with new additional contexts. However, during their implementa- tion, there have been numerous difficulties and problems, although these were not able to cancel out the significance of the application of the project method (Chrisafidis 1994). In this way, the project method

80 H.C. Carida

primarily contributes to the emergence of original, innovative and imaginative activities (Carida 2009).

Recently, at European level, Innovative Educational Programmes were developed within the framework of the programmes’ implementation, in order to facilitate children’s transition from kindergarten to primary school. Meanwhile, a significant support towards these programmes was offered by international educational institutions such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Furthermore, significant support was also provided towards this direction by important global scientific institutes, such as the National Centre for Early Development and Learning, the European Early Childhood Education and Research Association, the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, and so forth.

Nevertheless, there are research findings which demonstrate that the systematic preparation for the child’s transition from kindergarten to primary school is insufficient and presents difficulties and problems (La Paro et al. 2000a, 2000b). Respective problems have also been noticed in the cooperation of parents, teachers and pupils in relation to their being informed during the transition period (Pianta and Kraft-Sayre 2003; Downer et al. 2006).

The institutional foundation supporting the application of Innovative Educational Programmes in Greece is as follows (Carida 2006):

. The Framework Law 1566/85, providing ‘Synthetic Creative Projects for Primary School’ (oral for classes A–D and written for classes E–F).

. The Flexible Zone of Interdisciplinary and Creative Activities (F.12.1/ 648/104935/�1/5-10-2005 & F.12.1/545/85812/�1/11-8-2005).

. The Greek Curriculum Studies of Preschool Education (CSPE), which includes the Interdisciplinary Cross-Curriculum Framework (ICCF) and the Analytical Courses of Studies (ACS) [Ref. No 303/13-03- 03]. As a result, it defines the maintenance of the separate courses at a high degree (85%) and the dedication of 15% of educational time for interdisciplinary activities and interdisciplinary projects.

. The Circular Ref. No.105087/�7/5-10-2005 and all the circulars afterwards, concerning the planning and implementation of school activities programmes.

Training programme for education officials in Greece (2007–8)

The aforementioned institutional framework provides and includes the implementation of Innovative Educational Programmes within the ‘Flexible Zone’ (see above).

The Curriculum Journal 81

During 2007–8, following the decision of the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs, a transition programme was imple- mented in Greece during which Innovative Educational Programmes were prepared jointly by kindergartens and primary schools.

Specifically, within the framework of the training programme for high officials of education and for kindergarten teachers,1 Sub-programme 6 was created, entitled ‘Innovative interventions in all-day kindergartens’, as well as a transition programme entitled ‘Innovative activities concerning the smooth transition from preschool to primary school education’, having the following subject: ‘Facilitation of the smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school’. The main purpose of the programme was the qualitative improvement of the operation of all-day kindergartens, the advancement of the connection with primary school and, in general, the improvement of the educational procedure. The programme’s phases comprised the planning and submission of the project planning and presentation. The duration of the programme was from 19 November 2007 until 31 May 2008 and the maximum financing was e700 per school. It was a prerequisite that the participating kindergarten schools be all-day ones and one kindergarten teacher was to be appointed as a coordinator for each programme.

The process concerned the completion and submission of the programme and included the following documents2 to be filled out by the participating all-day kindergartens and primary schools:

. Project Plan Application Form and Proposal Submission Form.

. Minutes of the Project’s Assignment (I) for the implementation of a specific work plan and the determination of the coordinator kindergarten teacher. These minutes were to be drawn up by the principal of the kindergarten school, after their relative suggestions on this issue.

. Minutes of the Project’s Assignment (II) for the implementation of a specific work plan, to be drawn up by the principal of the primary school, following a written proposal by the kindergarten teacher and his or her own suggestions to the Teachers’ Association.

. Collaboration Form of the schools.

. Application Form of the coordinator of the programme.

. Certificate of the Parents and their Association (concerning the kindergarten and primary school pupils’ parents).

. Follow-up cards of educational activities and Follow-up cards with the Observations of the group of follow-up inspectors (Supervising Preschool Education Advisers) in the Regional Directorate of Attica.

. Evaluation reports issued by the supervising follow-up inspectors in three different phases during the implementation of the programme.

82 H.C. Carida

Based on the aforementioned procedure in the 4th District of Preschool Education, a total of six transition programmes were put into effect by joint preparation of work plans with primary schools.

Aim of the research

This survey aims to present the results coming from the implementation of the six programmes of transition from kindergarten to primary school, which were part of a large-scale sub-programme entitled ‘Innovative interventions in all-day kindergartens’, all over Greece.

Key research questions

The key research questions fall into five main categories:

. Exploring the teachers’ motivations for their participation in the transition programme.

. Focusing on the problems and difficulties arising during the implementation of the transition programme.

. Exploring the teachers’ satisfaction with the parents’ involvement in the transition programme.

. Exploring the teachers’ views about the benefits of the transition programme.

. Describing and presenting the means and ways of the transition programme evaluation.

Research methodology and description of tools

This survey was conducted in the school year 2007–8 and our sample consisted of 12 in-service kindergarten teachers and 12 in-service primary school teachers, whose kindergarten and primary schools participated in the six transition programmes, as follows:

. The 9th Kindergarten of Nikea in collaboration with the 26th Primary School of Nikea.

. The Neon Ikonion Kindergarten in collaboration with the Neon Ikonion Primary School.

. The 10th Kindergarten of Keratsini in collaboration with the 15th Primary School of Keratsini.

. The 18th Kindergarten of Keratsini in collaboration with the 18th and 24th Primary Schools of Keratsini.

. The 6th Kindergarten of Keratsini in collaboration with the 12th and 23rd Primary Schools of Keratsini.

. The 18th Kindergarten of Piraeus in collaboration with the 2nd and 23rd Primary Schools of Piraeus.

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The methodology we used was both quantitative and qualitative. Specifically, we used questionnaires, interviews-discussions and research memos for the data collection.

Questionnaires

Our questionnaire was devised and distributed to 12 in-service kindergarten teachers and 12 in-service primary school teachers, whose schools participated in the six transition programmes mentioned above. Our questionnaire consisted of 11 closed questions.

Interviews-discussions

After careful consideration, it was decided that it would be best if the teachers participated in an interview, after completing the questionnaire. The Supervising Preschool Education Adviser conducted these inter- views during her visits to the kindergartens which participated in the transition programme. The key questions of the interview were related to questions 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 of the questionnaire, and concerned the following issues:

. The various problems and difficulties the kindergarten and primary teachers confronted during the transition programmes.

. The effectiveness of the cooperative learning process during the transition programme.

. The means and ways of the transition programme evaluation.

Research memos

Finally, it was decided that certain entries coming from systematic observations which had been made by the Supervising Preschool Education Adviser should be collected and examined. These entries could be mainly used for the evaluation reports, which were also to be shared with the transition programmes in other districts.

Research results

Questionnaires: answers to key questions

Question 1

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the three main reasons which motivated them to participate in the transition programmes. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (41% and 38% respectively) regarded as the first and foremost reason the benefits

84 H.C. Carida

for pupils resulting from the transition programmes. They also regarded as the second most important reason (38% and 26% respectively) the motivation by their colleagues and as the third most important reason (17% and 26% respectively) their professional development.

Question 2

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to answer whether the transition programme had contributed to the improvement of both educational practice and the school climate. Almost half of the kindergarten teachers and the primary school teachers (58% and 47% respectively) agreed with the statement above.

Question 3

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to answer whether the educational activities of the transition programme had contributed to the development of the pupils’ communicative and social skills more than the development of their cognitive skills. Almost half of the kindergarten and primary school teachers (55% and 45% respec- tively) agreed with the statement above.

Question 4

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to say if there were any problems and difficulties during the implementation of the transition programme. The kindergarten and primary school teachers (58% and 20% respectively) stated that there had indeed been problems and difficulties.

Question 5

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the fields in which the problems and difficulties were focused. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (39% and 34% respectively) considered that the first major difficulty had to do with the bureaucratic processes of submission and approval of the transition programme. They also considered (39% and 33% respectively) that the second main difficulty had to do with the inadequate funding. Finally, the kindergarten teachers (13%) considered that the third main difficulty was to do with the kindergarten pupils moving from the kindergarten to the primary school site, while the primary school teachers (33%) considered that the third main difficulty had to do with the school premises and teaching aids.

The Curriculum Journal 85

Question 6

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to state how satisfied they were with the parents’ active participation, if any, in the programme. The kindergarten teachers (75%) seemed to be very satisfied, while the primary school teachers (55%) were less satisfied.

Question 7

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the main benefits from the transition programme. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (58% and 38% respectively) stated that the main benefits were as follows: the successful management of inconsistencies and discontinuities between the two educational levels; and the creation of a positive response to the programme requirements, on the part of the kindergarten pupils.

Question 8

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the main difficulties for the kindergarten pupils’ adjustment to the different conditions in primary school. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (30% and 31% respectively) regarded the first and foremost difficulty as the fitting out of the classroom (i.e. the layout of desks and benches). Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (41% and 23% respectively) considered as a second difficulty the different organisation of the courses in primary school, compared with that of the kindergarten school. The kindergarten teachers (13%) considered as a third problem the difficulty of the kindergarten pupils in expressing themselves freely in the primary school classroom, while the primary school teachers (20%) considered as a third problem the difficulty of the kindergarten pupils contacting and communicating effectively with them.

Question 9

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the main reasons for the difficulties which appeared during the programme. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (38% and 45% respectively) regarded as the first and foremost difficulty the differentia- tion of the timetables in kindergarten and primary school. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (34% and 30% respectively) considered as a second difficulty the lack of an appropriate institutional framework. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (21% and 20% respectively) considered as a third difficulty the inadequate funding.

86 H.C. Carida

Question 10

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to identify the means and ways of the transition programme evaluation. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (25% and 33% respectively) chose as the first best way the presentation of the programme of cultural events at the end of the school year. Both kindergarten and primary school teachers (24% and 29% respectively) chose as the second best way the giving out of commemorative items for the programme and both kindergarten and primary school teachers (17% and 17% respectively) chose as a third best way the enrichment of pupils’ portfolios.

Question 11

The kindergarten and primary school teachers were asked to express their own views about the significance of the programme. The kindergarten and primary school teachers (83% and 40% respectively) had a very positive view about the programme. None had a negative or less positive view about it.

Interviews-discussions: answers to the questions

Question 1

The kindergarten teachers and the primary school teachers stated that they were not informed in time about the submission and approval procedure of the transition programme. Specifically, they considered that there had been a delay regarding the initial informative meeting about the whole project. That was obviously the reason some kindergarten teachers of other districts quit the programme at the beginning. It was also noticeable that the kindergarten and primary school teachers who participated in the programme were well educated and trained in developing the project method. Therefore, they had no hesitation about submitting the final evaluation plan of the programme, something which was a prerequisite of the procedure.

Question 2

In all school partnerships, ‘mixed’ working groups, consisting of one primary school pupil and one kindergarten pupil, were formed. The kindergarten and the primary school teachers stated that at the beginning of the programme, the kindergarten pupils were in one way or another timid and bashful, while later on they felt comfortable and safe.

The Curriculum Journal 87

Question 3

It was clear that both kindergarten teachers and primary school teachers failed in organising the pupils’ portfolios in a more systematic way, because they had no previous experience of doing so and they were not trained for it (e.g. by attending an informative meeting).

Question 4

It was assumed that the role of the primary school director was very helpful in getting the kindergarten pupils acquainted and familiar with the primary school premises and surroundings and its functional sites. It was also stated that from the start of the transition programme, the primary school directors had no reservations or even hesitations about it, while the primary school teachers seemed to be a little uncertain. At the beginning, some primary school teachers believed that the implementation of the transition programme might hinder the smooth running of courses, while others believed it might not be effective, because they had no previous experience of such a programme.

Research memos

The data derived from the systematic observations, made by the Supervising School Counsellor in charge, are as follows.

In almost all kindergartens, there had been plenty of learning sources and material for the requirements of the programme.

In all partnerships there had been reciprocal visits for cooperation between the kindergarten pupils and the first-grade (A-class) pupils, but there were no outdoor visits to museums and other significant places. In almost all partnerships the kindergarten and primary schools were located in the same building, so there was no difficulty in kindergarten pupils moving from the kindergarten site to the primary school site. Specifically, in all partnerships there had been a visit from the first-grade class pupils to the kindergarten, so that the first-grade class pupils enjoyed not only the specially designed small sites in the kindergarten classroom, well provided with educational material, but also other functional sites such as the school yard, the kitchen, the hall for multiple activities, etc.

In all partnerships a priority was given to group working rather than the individual style of working. As a result, there was no substantial attempt to organise the pupils’ portfolios in a systematic way.

In almost all partnerships some very interesting innovative ideas and practices emerged.

88 H.C. Carida

In almost all partnerships the transition programme was supervised and supported by the education officials in charge, such as the Supervising Preschool Education Adviser and the general headmaster of the educational district. Additionally, concerning the 4th Educational District, the Primary Education Adviser was informally briefed by the Supervising Preschool Education Adviser, something which was not a prerequisite of the procedure.

In three of the six partnerships there had not been substantial cooperation between parents and the school(s).

Conclusions

This survey highlighted the following interesting points, consistent with the requirements of the ecosystem model.

Primarily, both kindergarten and primary school teachers realised the necessity and the benefits coming from the implementation of Innovative Educational Programmes for a smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school. In particular, the kindergarten and primary school teachers believed that these programmes contributed mainly to the development of pupils’ social-communicative skills rather than their cognitive skills.

The kindergarten and primary school teachers also reported that the Primary Education Adviser had to be well informed and involved in the whole programme too, and that this ought to be a prerequisite for the project. In this case, the Primary Education Adviser would have the chance of guiding and supporting the primary school teachers to be more effective.

Furthermore, the kindergarten and primary school teachers made clear that there had been certain problems and difficulties related with the fitting out of the classroom, the management of teaching time, and the interpersonal and social relations among teachers, pupils and parents during the transition programme. Some other problems appeared as well, related to the bureaucratic processes of the programme, inadequate funding and the school premises.

Moreover, all the kindergarten and primary school teachers who applied the project method believed that it promoted innovative ideas in everyday school practice. The need for an institutional framework to support such types of programmes was also emphasised.

Finally, the kindergarten and primary school teachers believed that this transition programme from kindergarten to primary school contributed to the successful management of the inconsistencies and discontinuities between the two educational levels and the creation of a positive response to the programme requirements on the part of the kindergarten pupils.

The Curriculum Journal 89

Suggestions and perspectives

Suggestions to be made included the following:

. Simplifying the bureaucratic procedure: prompt, systematic and adequate information about the submission of the required docu- ments and the training of the teachers participating is necessary.

. Organising conferences and training cooperation meetings more regularly and in a more effective way.

. Inclusion in the Proposal Submission Form of further specific information regarding the conditions of the associated school units (e.g. in case of common school building or not, in case of mutual visits by either side, etc.).

. Providing travel expenses and students’ insurance premiums.

. Conducting relevant pilot programmes through e-learning.

. Improving the coordination among the teachers of the programme through the active role of the Primary Education Adviser.

. Developing the entry of new proposals/ideas coming from the effective planning and implementation of an Innovative Educational Programme for facilitating the transition from kindergarten to primary school.

. Developing intro-school parents’ training, giving the possibility of wider engagement of the kindergarten pupils’ and mainly the primary pupils’ parents to allow them to get involved. Some ways would include: (a) organising educational and training meetings for the exploitation of activities promoting cooperation between family and school; and (b) distributing questionnaires addressed to the kindergarten and primary school pupils’ parents.

. Giving classic kindergartens the chance to take part in similar transition programmes.

. Integrating the financing of similar programmes, taking advantage of the National Strategic Reference Framework (ESPA, 2007–2013).

Notes

1. Ministerial decision 7966/29-10-2007 and circular 8495/19-11-2007. 2. http://nip-oloimero.sch.gr/frontoffice/portal.asp?cpage¼NODE&cnode¼12.

Notes on contributor

Helen Ch. Carida is a primary education adviser in the 8th Educational District of Piraeus, Greece.

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Downer, J.T., K. Driscoll, and R.C. Pianta. 2006. The transition from kindergarten to first grade: A developmental, ecological approach. In K Today: Teaching and learning in the kindergarten year, ed. D. Gullo, 151–60. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

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Kienig, A. 2002. The importance of social adjustment for future success. In Transitions in the early years: Debating continuity and progression for children in early education, ed. H. Fabian and A.W. Dunlop, 23–37. London/New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

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La Paro, K.M., R.C. Pianta, and M.J. Cox. 2000b. Kindergarten teachers’ reported use of kindergarten to first grade transition. Elementary School Journal 101, no. 1: 63–78.

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Pianta, R.C., and M.J. Cox. 1999. The transition to kindergarten. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

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Important websites

. ESPA 2007–2013. http://www.espa.gr/Greek/Default.aspx.

. European Early Childhood Education and Research Association. http://www.eecera. org/.

. Early Years Transition Programme. http://www.ease-eu.com/.

. Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. http://www.education. vic.gov.au/.

. Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs. http://www.ypepth.gr/

. Innovative interventions in all-day kindergartens – Innovative activities concerning the smooth transition from preschool to primary school education – Facilitation of the smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school: http://nip-oloimero.sch.gr/ frontoffice/portal.asp?cpage¼NODE&cnode¼12.

. Ministerial decision 7966/29-10-2007 and circular 8495/19-11-2007.

. National Centre for Early Development and Learning. http://www.fpg.unc.edu/ncedl/ pages/contact.cfm.

. Reggio Children. http://www.reggiochildren.it.

92 H.C. Carida

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OPEN FILE

The influence of supranational organizations on educational programme planning in the Least Developed Countries: The case of Nepal

Kapil Dev Regmi1

Published online: 26 July 2015 � UNESCO IBE 2015

Abstract Amidst growing criticisms of global financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, this article explores their influence on educational programme planning in some of

the impoverished nations known as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The domi-

nation of these institutions originates not only from their monetary power but also from the

hegemonic ideas they spread: the theory of human capital and the technical-rational model

have long guided educational programme planning. In the context of increasing control of

educational governance by supranational organizations, this article explores how these

ideologies are constraining the capacities of poor nations to make sovereign decisions and

set their own educational goals and priorities. Nepal provides a special case. In recent

decades it has faced policy changes because of two sets of conditions: those imposed by the

World Bank and those resulting from protracted political instability following 10 years of

armed conflict.

Keywords Supranational organizations � World Bank � Programme planning � Human capital theory � Technical-rational model � Least Developed Countries � Nepal

The United Nations (UN 2008) has identified 49 countries—deemed the ‘‘Least Developed

Countries’’ (LDCs) and mostly concentrated in Asia and Africa—as having the weakest

gross domestic production, the lowest achievement in health and literacy indicators, and

the least ability to cope with economic shocks and natural disasters. Perpetuated poverty,

The author would like to thank Tom Sork, University of British Columbia, for his feedback on an earlier draft of this paper. Acknowledgements also go to anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and to Simona Popa for her editorial work on the article.

& Kapil Dev Regmi [email protected]

1 Department of Educational Studies, University of British Columbia, 2044 Lower Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2, Canada

123

Prospects (2015) 45:501–514 DOI 10.1007/s11125-015-9352-3

which the people of these nations have endured for several decades, is the major cause of

these problems. Halving the proportion of people living in extreme poverty—that is, living

on less than US$ 1.25 per day—was the first of the 8 Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) set in 2000, to be achieved by 2015. This goal was achieved in 2012, but that

achievement has had almost no effect on the LDCs. The world reached this global target

primarily because some advanced developing countries like Brazil, China, and India made

great progress (UNDP 2013). Today, about 12% of the world’s people reside in the LDCs,

but more than 53% of that group live in extreme poverty (UN 2013). Studies show ‘‘a

strong association between armed conflict, poverty and underdevelopment’’ (Cortez and

Kim 2012, p. 1). Cortez and Kim have further found that 23 LDCs were affected by conflict

in 2010, which lead them to posit a ‘‘correlation between the emergence and recurrence of

conflict and having the LDC status’’ (p. 3).

Even though the socioeconomic gap between the developed countries and the advanced

developing countries is decreasing, the status of the LDCs has not changed since this

category was introduced in the early 1970s (UN 2013). What are the causes of poverty and

associated problems in the LDCs? Why are these countries lagging behind in many

development indicators such as health, literacy, and poverty reduction? Answers to these

questions are not simple. Historical analysis of international development shows that

governments and intergovernmental organizations have made several attempts to solve

these problems. Especially since World War II, some supranational organizations such as

the UN and the World Bank (‘‘the Bank’’) have intervened significantly in the LDCs. In

this article, I focus on the Bank’s influence on the field of educational programme

planning.

In considering educational issues, especially of poor countries, the World Bank is of

concern because of its financial power as a global bank. It has become ‘‘the largest

multilateral investor’’ in education in the developing countries (Mundy and Menashy 2014,

p. 417). Since 1962, it has ‘‘invested $69 billion globally in education via more than 1,500

projects’’ (World Bank 2011, p. 1). It considers education a good arena for investment and

provides educational loans to developing nations to enhance economic development.

However, contradictions are rife between the rhetoric and the realities of the Bank’s

intervention in the LDCs. Mundy and Menashy (2014), who analyzed the activities of the

Bank’s International Finance Corporation (a multilateral investor in private education),

claim that the Bank’s educational investments are not targeted toward alleviating poverty

in the LDCs.

Nepal is one of the Asian LDCs. Its economy depends largely on financial assistance

from bilateral and multilateral agencies. With the Primary Education Project (1984–1992),

the World Bank, along with its ally the International Monetary Fund (IMF), imposed the

Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). Following that agreement, Nepal has had to

change its educational policies and programmes to meet conditions imposed by these

financial institutions (Carney and Bista 2009; Rappleye 2009). The Basic Primary Edu-

cation Project (1993–2003) and the Community School Support Project (2003–2008), both

primarily funded and supported by the Bank, evidence the Bank’s blatant interventions in

Nepalese educational programme planning. For the current School Sector Reform Pro-

gramme (2009–2016), the Bank has committed to provide US$ 45 million, almost half of

the estimated US$ 96 million pooling budget for Fiscal Year 2014–15 (World Bank 2014).

It is yet to be seen whether, or how, these commitments may differ from the Bank’s past

imposition of loan conditions.

With a yearly per capita income of about US$ 350 and more than half of its 27.8 million

people living on less than US$ 2 per day, Nepal faces several challenges. A decade of

502 K. D. Regmi

123

armed conflict (1996–2006) and protracted political instability have made it a vulnerable

country—and an illustrative case to explore exogenous influences on the LDCs. Although

over 50 bilateral and multilateral donor agencies have worked actively in Nepal over the

last four decades, studies find no substantial achievement during that period in terms of

reducing the illiteracy, poverty, and many other problems common to all the LDCs.

Analyzing major policy documents of the World Bank as well as recent scholarly

publications, I make two arguments in this article. First, in the context of shifting edu-

cational governance from national to supranational forces, the Bank’s influence on LDCs’

educational programme planning is increasing. Second, a major reason for this influence is

the ideology underlying ‘‘human-capital’’ theory and the ‘‘technical-rational’’ model—

which work as hegemonic principles to shape all the major decisions of educational

planners working in both national and supranational spaces.

Programme planning

Several theories inform educational programme planning. My exploration of the genealogy

of programme planning shows that the technical-rational model—a dominant planning

model that emerged during the 1930s—has a strong theoretical and philosophical foun-

dation, based mainly in behaviourism (a psychological theory of learning) and positivism

(a philosophy that developed in natural science but has had a strong impact on social

science research). For example, the books Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

(Tyler 1949) and The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Pedagogy versus Andragogy

(Knowles 1970)—both following the technical-rational model—became for a long time the

epitomic volumes for programme planning in the field of adult education (Sork 2000;

Wilson and Cervero 1997).

When the technical-rational model was gaining momentum in North America and

Europe, some leaders interested in international development were seeking genuinely

supportive ways to intervene in developing nations recently liberated from colonization.

During the late 1940s, ‘‘international assistance’’, ‘‘altruism’’, and ‘‘philanthropy’’ con-

stituted part of the common jargon in the global sociopolitical arena. Interested parties set

up many national, international, and supranational organizations. For example, many

countries together established the United Nations (1945), UNESCO (1946), and the OECD

(1948) to enhance international cooperation and assistance. In addition, several developed

countries not only started to provide donations after late 1940s to Third World countries—

most of them now identified as LDCs—but also to set up international nongovernment

organizations (INGOs) for channeling development assistance. For instance, the United

States and Soviet Union, respectively, devised two mega plans—the Marshall Plan and the

Molotov Plan.

International communities adopted various approaches to enhance development in Third

World countries, but almost all of them focused on educational programmes (McNeely

1995). Besides INGOs, academic institutions were also interested in developing countries

in the name of ‘‘comparative education’’. During the late 1950s to 1960s, many of the

strongest North American academic centres had an ‘‘explicit focus on educational planning

in and for developing nations’’ (Farrell 1997, p. 277). Examples include the Centre for the

Study of Education and Development at Harvard, the Centre for Development Education at

Syracuse, the Comparative Education Centre at Chicago, and the Stanford International

and Development Education Centre (Farrell 1997). The first educational programme

The influence of supranational organizations on educational… 503

123

planning commission in Nepal—the National Education Planning Commission (NEPC)—

was set up in 1954 under the leadership of Hugh B. Wood, a US scholar and commission

advisor from the University of Oregon, under the auspices of the United States Overseas

Mission (USOM, now known as USAID).

Human capital and technical-rational models

In the search for a solution to the basic planning problems in education, different

approaches proliferated. They included social demands, costs-benefits, workforce plan-

ning, indicative planning, and manpower requirements (Farrell 1997; Lewin 2008). Among

these approaches, the technical-rational model became dominant because some of its

philosophical tenets concurred with those in the history of programme planning, such as

the paradigmatic overlap between human-capital theory and technical-rational traditions.

The technical-rational model prescribes ‘‘a scientifically-based procedural logic of

completing certain planning tasks’’ in the form of guiding principles for solving such

planning problems as assessing needs, defining objectives, developing content, choosing

instructional methods, and evaluating results (Wilson and Cervero 1997, p. 85). Similarly,

human capital theory works as a powerful tool to analyze labour markets, wage deter-

mination, economic growth, and expenditure on health (Woodhall 1997). One of the major

objectives of human capital theory is ‘‘to discover whether it is more profitable to invest in

men and women or machines’’ by comparing the rates of returns to investment in human

and in physical capital (Woodhall 1997, p. 220). The crux of this theory is that ‘‘individuals

and society derive economic benefits from investments in people’’ (Sweetland 1996,

p. 351). In both theories, technical procedures determine the calculations of investment in

and return on education, and the goal of educational planning is to increase the rate of

returns in purely economic terms.

This historical marriage between the ideals of human capital theory and the technical-

rational model made a lasting impact on the field of education and left an unprecedented

legacy in programme planning. The marriage flourished under the auspices of globalization

and neoliberalism and culminated in the worldwide homogenization of educational culture

(Resnik 2006). Writing about Nepal’s Basic and Primary Education Project (BPEP

1993–2003), Erik Winther-Schmidt, a chief technical advisor from Danish International

Development Agency (DANIDA), argued that, pursuing their own agenda, supranational

organizations succeeded in getting some of the best minds in Nepal to incorporate that

culture into ‘‘their own technical-rational intellectual framework’’ (Winther-Schmidt 2011,

p. 61). This implies that the discursive ideologies of the technical-rational model and of

human capital theory were the basis of a superficial consensus between national and

supranational programme planners.

Supranational organizations such as the OECD and World Bank, which emerged as

leading international development institutions, took human capital theory and the techni-

cal-rational model for granted. They saw education as a tool for strengthening the econ-

omy. The global educational model developed in such a context is premised on education

to develop human capital and a knowledge-based economy, and encourage lifelong

learning. In turn, these characteristics of world education culture strengthened the ideo-

logical influence of human capital theory. The proponents of this theory—such as 1979

Nobel laureate Theodore Schultz—claim that there is a positive correlation between

investment in education and economic growth, and therefore that the agenda of educational

programme planning is the agenda of economics. Policymakers are not selected from

among educational experts in order to devise educational plans and programmes; rather,

504 K. D. Regmi

123

primary responsibility for that work is given to some economists working at supranational

organizations. Resnik (2006) contends that ‘‘the participation of economists of education

and international organizations … in the education expansion contributed to the consoli- dation and diffusion of the education—economic growth black box throughout the world’’

(p. 173).

The proponents of this ‘‘education–economic growth black box’’ approach found a

positive correlation between investment in education and Gross National Product (GNP)

but a negative correlation between investments in other sectors (e.g., agriculture) and the

GNP. They declared that investment in education was necessary to achieve a higher GNP.

Mathematically, to achieve ‘‘expected GNP’’, they needed to add human capital to the

‘‘actual GNP’’. They called the human capital created by such investment the ‘‘residual

factor’’ (Resnik 2006) and spoke of the ‘‘extra earning of the educated, which is assumed to

be due to education’’ (Woodhall 1997, p. 222).

Many scholars who promoted human capital theory looked at the rate and route of

development that the Marshall Plan countries of Europe had followed and assumed they

could be replicated in the LDCs. The proponents of this assumption claimed that ‘‘large

capital infusions plus the transfer of modern technology would enable these countries to

take off into a self-sustaining process of economic development and modernisations, at a

far faster pace than the industrialized nations of the West’’ (Coombs 1985, p. 15).

However, during the 1970s and 1980s, many scholars claimed that human capital theory

was no longer a solution for the poor countries. For example, Philip Coombs, former

director of UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning, argued that policies

based on that theory failed to develop the Third World countries that later were recognized

as LDCs (UN 2008). Coombs further argued that the analogy between the Marshall Plan

countries and the LDCs was flawed because the former already had strong economic,

administrative, and industrial infrastructures, and needed only to update their managerial,

research, and technological know-how. They had already developed strong economic,

administrative, and industrial infrastructures. The LDCs where such plans and policies

were transferred lacked all of these requisites.

Despite criticisms, this economistic-positivistic model emerged as a dominant theory of

educational programme planning. In this model ‘‘planners are viewed as technical analysts

or applied researchers who select the best policy option out of a very large number of

possible courses of action, using cost-benefit analysis, manpower planning, and mathe-

matical optimisation technique as instruments for analysis’’ (Verspoor 1992, p. 234). The

major postulation of this economistic-positivistic model was that if the planned actions

were carried out rigorously, the outcomes would automatically materialize. In the case of

Nepal, Carney and Bista (2009) argue that the BPEP Master Plan, promulgated in 1991

with major financial support from the World Bank, was premised on that postulate. They

further argue that the Bank itself provided the framework for the Master Plan. Since then,

economic concepts such as ‘‘improved efficiency’’, ‘‘tangible outputs’’, and ‘‘better

investment’’ have been shaping educational policy discourse in Nepal. The economic

rationales associated with human capital theory have provided the unchallenged premises

underlying the BPEP (1993–2003) and other such programmes as the Education for All

Programme (2004–2009), the Secondary Education Development Project (1992–2000), the

Community School Support Project (2003–2008), and the School Sector Reform Pro-

gramme (2009–2016). The Bank provided both financial and advisory support to all of

these programmes.

The influence of supranational organizations on educational… 505

123

Influence of supranational organizations

Some previous studies have found that the degree of influence that supranational organi-

zations have on national programme planning varies according to the status of the indi-

vidual country in the global economic pyramid. For example, McNeely (1995) studied how

supranational educational norms and processes become institutionalized in national edu-

cation systems. Comparing UNESCO’s policy documents with those of its member

countries, especially the developing ones, McNeely concluded that ‘‘the transnational

exchange of educational ideals and information constitutes a legitimate basis on which the

education systems of individual countries are organized’’ (p. 506).

Similarly, Hall and Peters (2003) studied the impact of global educational agendas such

as Education for All (EFA) on education policies and planning in Peru. They found that

because of the overemphasis on global educational goals, Peru is facing significant

obstacles in achieving quality education. They concluded that there is a disjuncture

between, on the one hand, externally generated educational guidelines and, on the other,

the local realities of educational systems in districts characterized by endemic poverty.

These studies by McNeely (1995) and by Hall and Peters (2003) make it clear that

supranational organizations and their educational agendas significantly influence pro-

gramme planning at the national level. Looking at those studies, I argue that the LDCs,

unlike developed and developing countries, are heavily influenced by global educational

cultures so that the needs and interests of supranational forces become the de facto pri-

orities of the LDCs (Bhatta 2011). One reason behind this, as Cortez and Kim (2012)

argue, is that the internal conflicts and political instabilities often characteristic of LDCs

provide a strong rationale, and ample opportunities, for supranational forces to intervene.

In shifting educational governance from national to supranational forces, ‘‘important

political decisions are taken within supranational networks of power, rather than by the

weakened national institutions’’ (Moutsios 2009, p. 472). Presenting the case of Nepal,

Winther-Schmidt (2011) claims that supranational organizations such as the World Bank

gain more influence over the overall governance of the educational programme mainly

because governments of aid-dependent countries try ‘‘to avoid the risk of donor walkout’’

(p. 61). As none of the LDCs have sufficient financial resources for their educational

programmes, they have little choice but to accept the conditions imposed by financial

institutions such as the Bank and the IMF.

The influence of supranational organizations on the programme planning of the LDCs

accelerated after the World Conference on Education for All (EFA), known as the Jomtien

Conference, in 1990. The World Bank was a leading partner in the EFA initiative. The

conference decided to universalize primary education and massively reduce illiteracy by

the year 2000 (UNESCO 2013). A follow-up conference in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000,

attended by about 1,100 educational leaders from around the world, approved the Dakar

Framework for Action as a blueprint for the implementation of the EFA plans. The con-

ference intended these EFA goals to contribute to the global pursuit of the 8 Millennium

Development Goals (MDG) adopted by 189 countries in September 2000 (UNDP 2013).

The conference set 2015 as the target date for reaching these goals. However, the midterm

results (UNDP 2013; UNESCO 2013) showed that almost none of the LDCs were on track

to achieve most of the goals by the stipulated date.

After the Jomtien Conference, the LDCs were encouraged, enticed, and even compelled

to try to meet those goals, and specifically to formulate National Plans of Action for

Education for All. Such documents ‘‘reflected the planning vocabulary of the international

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organizations and the funding agencies’’ (Bhatta 2011; Prakash 2008, p. 4). Bhatta further

argues that, since the 1990s, educational policymaking in Nepal ‘‘has become relatively

unimportant if not meaningless because the documents produced within the parameters of

global education targets have become the de facto policy’’ for the country (p. 11).

The World Bank in education

Of the major supranational organizations intervening in educational programme plan-

ning—including the European Union, the Danish International Development Agency

(DANIDA), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Norwegian Agency

for Development Cooperation (NORAD), the Department for International Development

(DFID), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), UNICEF, and UNESCO—the World Bank

has the most powerful influence on the educational activities of the LDCs, mainly because

it provides the largest amount of financial investment in education (Mundy and Menashy

2014). Although the United Nations originally mandated UNESCO to coordinate inter-

national efforts to meet the EFA and the MDGs, ‘‘the World Bank has supplanted the

former … as the primary funding agent’’ (Wickens and Sandlin 2007, p. 277). UNESCO’s budget for 2002 totaled just over US$ 900 million, whereas the Bank provides US$3 billion

in new loan investments annually. Wickens and Sandlin (2007) further argue that

‘‘although UNESCO is less dominated by superpowers such as the G8 countries and has

been called a more representative institution than the Bank, because of recent funding

practices it is not functioning in an autonomous and democratic manner’’ (p. 277). In the

case of Nepal, even though both DANIDA and the Bank provided almost equal amounts of

funding for the BPEP, the Bank controlled the BPEP’s policy and practice (Winther-

Schmidt 2011).

The World Bank’s influence on the LDCs has been more powerful because of its

financial alliance with the IMF. Though both the Bank and the IMF are members of the

Bretton Woods system and agree on the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ (Moutsios 2009), they

have different functions. Unlike the Bank, ‘‘the IMF does not make project investments or

reform education policies; it only engages in structural and sectorial adjustment lending’’

(Alexander 2001, p. 287). Despite these functional nuances, the auspicious joint venture of

these two organizations has made them powerful enough to dictate educational policies and

programmes to the LDCs. Out of the 192 countries that the UN recognizes, 185 are

members of the IMF and the Bank. But the power of the member states in both of the

organizations is distributed very asymmetrically. The Bank ‘‘functions as a cooperative and

its member states as shareholders’’ (Moutsios 2009, p. 473). Not surprisingly, as it is a

‘‘bank’’ and functions as a cooperative, members do not have equal proportions of shares.

Five industrialized nations—the US, Japan, Germany, the UK, and France—hold 37.4% of

the shares, with the US alone holding 16.4%. Adding in the shares of the other G8, OECD,

and EU countries, the economically powerful states possess over 50% (Moutsios 2009).

More unfortunate for the LDCs is the fact that economic power translates into voting

power. The Bank is governed by a 24-member board of directors; the 5 industrialized

nations with the greatest number of shares appoint 1 director each and the remaining 180

member states elect the other 19 members (Moutsios 2009). The accepted practice is that

‘‘the president of the World Bank is appointed by the US and the president of the IMF by

the EU’’ (Moutsios 2009, p. 473). It is important to note that the Structural Adjustment

Programmes launched through the joint initiatives of the Bank and the IMF have reap-

peared in recent decades through the introduction of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

(PRSPs). It is almost mandatory for all the LDCs to follow PRSP guidelines in applying for

The influence of supranational organizations on educational… 507

123

loans from the Bank and the IMF. For example, Nepal’s Tenth 5-Year Plan (2002–2007), a

national plan that guides policies and programs of all sectors including education, adhered

to the PRSP framework provided by the Bank/IMF (Rappleye 2009).

The World Bank in Nepal

It is evident that the influence of the World Bank on educational programme planning is

immense and multifaceted.

One facet of the Bank’s influence is its active promotion of decentralization of edu-

cation in all the LDCs, including Nepal (World Bank 2001). The Bank defines decen-

tralization as ‘‘the transfer of authority and responsibility for governance and public service

delivery from a higher to a lower level of government’’ (World Bank 2008, p. xiv).

Through decentralization, the Bank wants to provide greater autonomy to the local com-

munities that are primarily responsible for making investments in education. According to

Rappleye (2009), the transfer of state-owned schools to the local communities was a

minimum requirement for obtaining loans from the Bank for both the BPEP and the

Community School Support Project (CSSP, 2003–2008). To legalize the required decen-

tralization, Nepal amended its Education Act (1971) in 2001. That amendment mandates

that states transfer their control over all public schools to the local communities (Carney

and Bista 2009). The decentralization of school governance is a departure from the cen-

tralized school governance system in effect during the Panchayat regime (1960–1990). But

in Nepal, the current discourse of decentralization embodies a neoliberal interpretation of

educational demand that promotes market values.

The World Bank does not admit that decentralization is part of its agenda; rather it

claims that national governments are demanding it (World Bank 2008). But some scholars

critique decentralization as an ‘‘imposition’’ of neoliberal ideas onto the educational

programme planning of aid-dependent countries (Carney, Bista, and Agergaard 2007;

Rappleye 2009). They claim that LDC governments are forced to decentralize their edu-

cation systems ‘‘without the creation of local organizations with capacity to organize

education’’ (McGinn 1994, p. 293). In Nepal, the community now manages about one third

of state-funded schools. But centralization has negatively impacted the quality of education

that those schools provide. For example, researchers have shown (Carney and Bista 2009)

that hiring and firing teachers based on the decisions of local school management com-

mittees (SMCs) has left school teachers at the mercy of local leaders. When school staffing

becomes a local political issue, local leaders often make decisions based on their vested

political interests rather than on the interests of the students. In addition, Carney et al.

(2007) found that many head teachers and SMCs have tried ‘‘to reproduce the model of the

private or boarding school’’ (p. 625). Carney and Bista (2009) claim that decentralization

policy has not solved the existing educational problems in Nepal. The formation processes

of the SMCs have not been fair and democratic; all too often, a handful of local political

elites have become the leaders of the SMCs. The net result is that there has been no

significant improvement in the overall quality of education.

A second facet of the World Bank’s impact has been to promote privatization in

education, a priority long on the Bank’s agenda. In 1995, the Bank argued that even though

public intervention in education could be justified as helping to reduce inequality and to

open opportunities for the poor and disadvantaged, public spending on education was often

an inefficient and inequitable financing method (World Bank 1995). The Bank’s aim is ‘‘to

expand the provision of educational services by private firms and nongovernmental

organizations’’ (Alexander 2001, p. 287). Alexander argues that in some instances this

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approach may have some merit; however, it ‘‘endangers educational progress because it

ignores the fact that when educational services are provided at cost, they will not reach

poor populations even when subsidy schemes are used’’ (p. 287). In recent decades, the

Bank has promoted public-private partnership (PPP) as an educational financing model for

donor agencies in several LDCs, including Nepal (World Bank 2011). However, the PPP

model has accelerated the privatization of education not only in financing but also in

management and governance of entire education systems. In the context of neoliberal

globalization, multinational corporations regard education as a profitable investment

sector.

The demands of globalization, neoliberalism, and neocolonialism have shaped the

World Bank’s influence on educational systems in the LDCs (Wickens and Sandlin 2007).

The educational programme planning advocated by the Bank and its kindred financial

institutions is heavily influenced by the vested interests of the industrialized nations and

multinational corporations that effectively control those institutions. Critics claim that

those organizations are ‘‘the main promoters of the neoliberal agenda in the discourse,

policies and organizational practices of educational institutions’’ (Moutsios 2009, p. 475).

Wickens and Sandlin (2007) state that ‘‘as these agencies are predominantly Western

institutions, they reproduce Western ideas of education across the globe’’; further, they

argue, ‘‘there is an on-going globalization of educational policy and practice’’ and what

prevails ‘‘is the Western paradigm of what constitutes good educational practice’’ (p. 289).

Thus, educational initiatives sponsored by those organizations have reproduced the dom-

inant educational culture, as exemplified by economistic-positivistic or technical-rational

planning models. Both of these models neglect indigenous epistemologies and all non-

Western ideas and understandings.

Not surprisingly, the World Bank is forcing LDCs to change their educational policies and

practices according to its own interests. World Bank loans and grants are not only contingent

upon the successful achievement of the outcomes the Bank desires, but also constrained by

its criteria for fund allocation. For a couple of decades, the Bank did not provide loans and

grants for higher education. The EFA and MDGs (goal #2) on education both of which the

Bank finances, focused on achieving universal primary education but neglected higher

education. Wickens and Sandlin (2007) claim that the Bank and the IMF have both with-

drawn financial support to various countries because of alleged governmental misallocation

of funds. The former found that those countries ‘‘misallocate’’ funds to higher education

instead of to basic education. Too many countries are ineligible for grants because ‘‘donors

do not consider them to be politically strategic or because the donors that do support them do

not focus on basic education’’ (Wickens and Sandlin 2007, p. 286).

Finally, donors such as the World Bank have made LDCs more dependent on inter-

national financial support in a way that has thwarted the potential of these countries to find

sustainable solutions to their problems. They have weakened the ability of LDC govern-

ments and their people to be independent and genuinely self-governing, shaping their

subjectivities in ways that erode their capacity to make wise decisions for the benefit of

their societies. As argued by McGinn (1994), the growth of supranational organizations has

reduced the sovereignty of nation-states, weakening their willingness and ability to provide

high-quality public education.

The amount of loans and grants from the World Bank to developing countries has

increased significantly since the 1990 Jomtien Conference. For example, a significant

portion (about 75%) of the estimated budget (US$ 96.18 million) for Nepal’s current

School Sector Reform Programme (SSRP, 2009–2016) is expected to come from foreign

donors, mainly the Bank. What happens when these donors stop lending? Given the LDCs’

The influence of supranational organizations on educational… 509

123

economic conditions, if that were to happen, almost all the educational programmes in the

poor countries would stop because those countries have been made to be dependent on

external assistance. As argued by Mundy and Menashy (2014, p. 22), the Bank does ‘‘not

really want to do anything at the bottom of the pyramid’’.

The problem is not limited to the conditions imposed for receiving loans and grants. The

power and influence of institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF are propagating a

culture of international servitude where the donors are the masters and the nation-states are

compelled to formulate policies and plans that support the donors’ interests. In their

observations of some biannual joint meetings between donors and the Government of

Nepal, both Bhatta (2011) and Winther-Schmidt (2011) found a very asymmetrical power

relation between the two parties. In most cases, the donors interact with representatives

from the Nepalese government in a way that makes it seem that the policies and pro-

grammes are being made and implemented for the donors, not for the Nepalese. Those

authors further claim that Nepalese government liaisons rarely object to the conditions

placed on financial assistance and do not request changes in programme delivery, giving

the appearance that to do so would displease the donors and cause them to walk out.

The prospects of programme planning in education

The ideological and philosophical underpinnings of the technical-rational model stem from

theories of behaviourism, positivism, and human capital. Although this model has long

been hegemonic, it has nonetheless been critiqued from several perspectives within the

academic community. Feminism, postmodernism, and critical theory have provided the-

oretical and philosophical standpoints that are helpful for exploring the shortcomings of the

technical-rational model and adding new dimensions to the discourse on programme

planning (Sork 2000). Many scholars have critiqued the work of Tyler (1949), Knowles

(1970), and Houle (1972), based on the technical-rational model (Cervero and Wilson

1994, 1998; Sork 2000, 2010; Wilson and Cervero 1997).

Even though these critiquing authors have focused on different aspects of the technical-

rational model, they have made some common, and crucial, points. For example, using a

question-based approach to programme planning, Sork (2000) argues that a good planner

should be technically capable, politically aware, and ethically responsible. Cervero and

Wilson (1994, 1998), on the other hand, look at the negotiation of power, the conflicts of

interest, and the conception of responsibility among the people and institutions involved in

programme planning. They define programme planning as a social activity, in which

planners negotiate interests in organizational contexts ‘‘structured by power relations’’

(Cervero and Wilson 1998, p. 5). They also emphasize that power relations do not emerge

all of a sudden in the ongoing context of planning, but rather that they are historically

developed and structurally organized. Similarly, Sork (1996) argues that in order to fully

understand planning we must understand where power comes from and how it is dis-

tributed, redistributed, and exercised.

These scholars provide useful ways to analyze the influence of supranational organi-

zations on programme planning in the LDCs. For example, Cervero and Wilson (1994)

argue that the power of supranational organizations such as the World Bank did not emerge

all of a sudden. Further, Sork (1996) insists that to fully understand educational planning in

the LDCs, we must understand the source of power. Below, I present three pertinent issues

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related to power negotiation between the Bank and the LDCs while planning educational

programmes.

First, many programme-planning scholars maintain that identifying the need of the

learners as well as of their communities is the first and most important step in planning a

good educational programme. But when supranational organizations, especially the World

Bank, impose their own conditions for financial assistance—for example, a plan for

achieving EFA and MDG targets, or steps to decentralize and privatize education—it

becomes impossible to address the real needs of learners and their communities, for the

reasons discussed throughout this article.

Second, some critics of the technical-rationale model maintain that to be sound, an

educational programme must be developed through the active involvement of all con-

cerned stakeholders. But because supranational organizations and their consultants—often

hired from Western donor countries and think tanks—control the funding, they can compel

educational planners in the LDCs to subordinate their perceived needs to the global goals

and targets of the funders themselves. The supposed expertise of the donors, which

Bourdieu (1984) would say works as symbolic power that makes people ‘‘believe’’ (p. 480)

in donors’ expertise, is inconsistent with ‘‘the quality of interaction required for a recip-

rocal partnership’’ (Winther-Schmidt 2011, p. 61). Winther-Schmidt further argues that,

even if Nepal did have a good number of what he calls ‘‘educationists’’, ‘‘only the World

Bank and other savvy donors—not the Government of Nepal, seemed to know how to

make a good use of local expertise’’ (p. 61). Power is not a one-way relationship (Cervero

and Wilson 1994). It always involves some reciprocity and is a function of the negotiations

among the various people involved. But the power relation between the supranational

organizations (the creditors) and the LDCs (the debtors) is not fully reciprocal and cannot

be negotiated because these debtors and creditors do not exercise equal power. The key is

that the debtors fear not getting the loans and grants they need if they oppose the creditors’

proposals (Rappleye 2009).

Third, to be effective, programme planners should be attuned to, and able to advocate

forcefully for, the needs of their citizens (Sork 2000). But the enormous disparity in

political power between the LDCs and the donor financial institutions renders programme

planners in those countries virtually powerless to prioritize local needs over and against the

agendas of those institutions. Therefore, it is no surprise that educational programme

planning in Nepal for the last three decades has followed the World Bank’s framework and

guidelines (Carney and Bista 2009; Winther-Schmidt 2011).

Thus, I conclude that there is a great power asymmetry—perpetuated for decades—

between national programme planners (mainly of the LDCs) and programme planners

associated with supranational organizations. Hence, no matter how advanced the pro-

gramme planning theories are, they have almost no effect on the educational practices of

the LDCs.

Conclusions

In this article, I have argued that the efforts of the international community and the

commitment of individual nations have not improved educational practices in the LDCs. I

suggest that the power and support mechanisms are unequal between supranational

organizations and the LDCs. Moreover, chaos, tension, and power asymmetry between the

two are ever-increasing. In the context of rising transnational governance in education,

The influence of supranational organizations on educational… 511

123

programme planning is no longer the exclusive affair of a nation-state. Against the

backdrop of all these developments, I argued that (1) the educational policies promoted by

international financial agencies like the World Bank are heavily influenced by particular

ideological assumptions of the technical-rational model and of human capital theory that

are profoundly inappropriate to the actual situations of LDCs like Nepal; (2) that the

enormous disparity in power between LDCs like Nepal and the financial institutions like

the World Bank allows those institutions to impose their educational agendas on the LDCs;

(3) that, as a result, the intervention of those institutions does not improve the education

provided by LDCs like Nepal; and (4) therefore, meaningful progress in improving edu-

cation in LDCs like Nepal will require a persuasive critique of those assumptions and the

disproportionate financial, and therefore political, power of international financial agencies

like the World Bank.

Educational planning cannot be limited to applying economic theory to educational

problems (Verspoor 1992); rather, it should break the ‘‘education-economic growth black

box’’ (Resnik 2006) and interrupt the economistic and positivistic tradition of programme

planning. The thinking of educational planners working at both the supranational and

national levels should transcend this economistic-positivistic boundary. Such an ontolog-

ical departure would open up new avenues for justified collaboration between donors and

national governments. Supranational organizations should encourage and promote such a

departure so that national and local educational planners are unconditionally allowed to

make wise decisions based solely on the needs and interests of their own populace. In so

doing, agencies such as the World Bank could, finally, legitimately justify their endeavours

to help poor countries and their citizens (Wickens and Sandlin 2007).

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Kapil Dev Regmi (Nepal) received his master’s degree in development studies at Kathmandu University in 2009. After teaching for 10 years in Nepal, he is now a Ph.D. candidate and sessional lecturer at the University of British Columbia. His research interests include comparative education, international development, lifelong learning, policy studies, and educational planning.

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