1- Give a brief synopsis of your selected case study ?
2- Identify problems to be addressed ( research question) ?
3- What organizational behavior theory will you use ?
4- What is the objective of the study ?
5- What course of action will you take to complete this assignment ?
6- What do you hope to achieve in the completion of this assignment ?
Running head: [INSERT TITLE HERE]
[INSERT TITLE HERE]
Student Name
Allied American University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for [INSERT COURSE NAME], [INSERT COURSE ASSIGNMENT] taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].
Directions: Respond to the following prompts. Each answer must be one half of one page in length and utilize APA guidelines for formatting and citations.
1. Explain the three main elements necessary to establish and prove an assault.
2. Describe the “Rule of Thumb” standard that originated in the case of State v. Rhodes (1868) concerning domestic violence.
3. Research has attempted to identify factors that predict or precipitate episodes of domestic violence. List and describe some of these predictors.
4. Some agencies have adopted a dual arrest policy concerning domestic violence meaning that officers can circumvent the primary aggressor assessment and arrest both parties when injuries to both sides are observed. These policies do not preclude the single arrest of only the primary aggressor if the officer is able to make a primary aggressor determination. Name the factors an officer must consider in making this assessment.
5. Johnson (2004) divides elderly financial abuse crimes into two categories. Name and give examples of each category.
6. What are the two important pieces of evidence in assault investigations and why?
7. What is the three phase cycle of domestic violence? Describe them.
8. Describe why animal cruelty is associated with domestic violence.
9. How can the police avoid lawsuits in domestic violence cases?
10. What are some of the investigative challenges presented by stalking cases? Describe them in detail.
9/15/2014 Print | Organizational Behavior
http://devry.vitalsource.com/books/9781269551120/print?from=125&to=126&skip_desktop=true 1/4
PRINTED BY: [email protected]. Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted.
Questions 1.
What factors do you think make some organizations ineffective at managing emotions?
2.
Do you think the strategic use and display of emotions serve to protect employees, or does covering your true emotions at work lead to more problems than it solves?
3.
Have you ever worked where emotions were used as part of a management style? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of this approach in your experience.
4.
Research shows that acts of co-workers (37 percent) and management (22 percent) cause more negative emotions for employees than do acts of customers (7 percent).130 What can Laura’s company do to change its emotional climate?
Sources: A. Kreamer, “Go Ahead—Cry at Work,” Time (April 4, 2010), www.time.com; J. S. Lerner and K. Shonk, “How Anger Poisons Decision Making,” Harvard Business Review (September 2010), p. 26; and J. Perrone and M. H. Vickers, “Emotions as Strategic Game in a Hostile Workplace: An Exemplar Case,” Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 16, no. 3 (2004), pp. 167–178.
CASE INCIDENT 2 Can You Read Emotions from Faces?
We mentioned previously that some researchers—the psychologist Paul Ekman is the best known—have studied whether facial expressions reveal true emotions. These researchers have distinguished real smiles (so-called Duchenne smiles, named after French physician Guillaume Duchenne) from “fake” smiles. Duchenne found genuine smiles raised not only the corners of the mouth (easily faked) but also cheek and eye muscles (much more difficult to fake). So, one way to determine whether someone is genuinely happy or amused is to look at the muscles around the upper cheeks and eyes—if the person’s eyes are smiling or twinkling, the smile is genuine. Ekman and his associates have developed similar methods to detect other emotions, such as anger, disgust, and distress. According to Ekman, the key to identifying real emotions is to focus on micro-expressions, or those facial muscles we cannot easily manipulate.
Dan Hill has used these techniques to study the facial expressions of CEOs and found they vary dramatically not only in their Duchenne smiles but also in the 124125degree to which they display positive versus negative facial expressions. The accompanying table shows Hill’s analysis of the facial expressions of some prominent male executives:
Jeff Bezos, Amazon 51% positive
Warren Buffet, Berkshire Hathaway 69% positive
Michael Dell, Dell Computers 47% positive
Larry Ellison, Oracle 0% positive
Bill Gates, Microsoft 73% positive
Steve Jobs, Apple 48% positive
Phil Knight, Nike 67% positive
Donald Trump, The Trump Organization16% positive
It’s interesting to note that these individuals, all of whom are successful in various ways, have such different levels of positive facial expressions. It also raises the question: is a smile from Larry Ellison worth more than a smile from Bill Gates?
Questions 1.
Most research suggests we are not very good at detecting fake emotions, and we think we’re much better at it than we are. Do you believe training would improve your ability to detect emotional displays in others?
2.
Do you think the information in this case could help you tell whether someone’s smile is genuine?
3.
Is your own impression of the facial expressions of the eight business leaders consistent with what the researcher found? If not, why do you think your views might be at odds with his? 4.
9/15/2014 Print | Organizational Behavior
http://devry.vitalsource.com/books/9781269551120/print?from=125&to=126&skip_desktop=true 2/4
4.
One research study found people’s ratings of the positive affect displayed in CEO’s faces had very little correlation to their company’s profits. Does that suggest to you that Hill’s analysis is immaterial?
5.
Assuming you could become better at detecting the real emotions in facial expressions, do you think it would help your career? Why or why not?
Sources: Based on P. Ekman, Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2009); D. Jones, “It’s Written All Over Their Faces,” USA Today (February 25, 2008), pp. 1B–2B; and N. O. Rule and N. Ambady, “The Face of Success,” Psychological Science 19, no. 2 (2008), pp. 109–111.
ENDNOTES 1.
See, for instance, C. D. Fisher and N. M. Ashkanasy, “The Emerging Role of Emotions in Work Life: An Introduction,” Journal of Organizational Behavior, Special Issue 2000, pp. 123–129; N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, and W. J. Zerbe (eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Research, Theory, and Practice (Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2000); N. M. Ashkanasy and C. S. Daus, “Emotion in the Workplace: The New Challenge for Managers,” Academy of Management Executive (February 2002), pp. 76–86; and N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hartel, and C. S. Daus, “Diversity and Emotion: The New Frontiers in Organizational Behavior Research,” Journal of Management 28, no. 3 (2002), pp. 307–338.
2.
See, for example, L. L. Putnam and D. K. Mumby, “Organizations, Emotion and the Myth of Rationality,” in S. Fineman (ed.), Emotion in Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993), pp. 36–57; and J. Martin, K. Knopoff, and C. Beckman, “An Alternative to Bureaucratic Impersonality and Emotional Labor: Bounded Emotionality at the Body Shop,” Administrative Science Quarterly (June 1998), pp. 429–469.
3.
B. E. Ashforth and R. H. Humphrey, “Emotion in the Workplace: A Reappraisal,” Human Relations (February 1995), pp. 97–125.
4.
S. G. Barsade and D. E. Gibson, “Why Does Affect Matter in Organizations?” Academy of Management Perspectives (February 2007), pp. 36– 59.
5.
See N. H. Frijda, “Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions,” in M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland (eds.), Handbook of Emotions (New York: Guilford Press, 1993), pp. 381–403.
6.
H. M. Weiss and R. Cropanzano, “Affective Events Theory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes and Consequences of Affective Experiences at Work,” in B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 18 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1996), pp. 17–19.
7.
See P. Ekman and R. J. Davidson (eds.), The Nature of Emotions: Fundamental Questions (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1994).
8.
Frijda, “Moods, Emotion Episodes and Emotions,” p. 381.
9.
See Ekman and Davidson (eds.), The Nature of Emotions.
10.
See, for example, P. Ekman, “An Argument for Basic Emotions,” Cognition and Emotion (May/July 1992), pp. 169–200; C. E. Izard, “Basic Emotions, Relations Among Emotions, and Emotion–Cognition Relations,” Psychological Bulletin (November 1992), pp. 561–565; and J. L. Tracy and R. W. Robins, “Emerging Insights into the Nature and Function of Pride,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 16, no. 3 (2007), pp. 147–150.
11.
R. C. Solomon, “Back to Basics: On the Very Idea of ‘Basic Emotions,’” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 32, no. 2 (June 2002), pp. 115–144.
12.
R. Descartes, The Passions of the Soul (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1989).
13.
P. Ekman, Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life (New York: Times Books/Henry Holt and Co., 2003).
14. P. R. Shaver, H. J. Morgan, and S. J. Wu, “Is Love a ‘Basic’ Emotion?” Personal Relationships 3, no. 1 (March 1996), pp. 81–96.
9/15/2014 Print | Organizational Behavior
http://devry.vitalsource.com/books/9781269551120/print?from=125&to=126&skip_desktop=true 3/4
P. R. Shaver, H. J. Morgan, and S. J. Wu, “Is Love a ‘Basic’ Emotion?” Personal Relationships 3, no. 1 (March 1996), pp. 81–96.
15.
Ibid.
125 126 16.
Ashforth and Humphrey, “Emotion in the Workplace,” p. 104; B. Plasait, “Accueil des Touristes Dans les Grands Centres de Transit Paris,” Rapport du Bernard Plasait (October 4, 2004), www.tourisme.gouv.fr/fr/navd/presse/dossiers/att00005767/dp_plasait.pdf; B. Mesquita, “Emotions in Collectivist and Individualist Contexts,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80, no. 1 (2001), pp. 68–74; and D. Rubin, “Grumpy German Shoppers Distrust the Wal-Mart Style,” Seattle Times (December 30, 2001), p. A15.
17.
Solomon, “Back to Basics.”
18.
Weiss and Cropanzano, “Affective Events Theory,” pp. 20–22.
19.
Cited in R. D. Woodworth, Experimental Psychology (New York: Holt, 1938).
20.
D. Watson, L. A. Clark, and A. Tellegen, “Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1988), pp. 1063–1070.
21.
A. Ben-Ze’ev, The Subtlety of Emotions (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 94.
22.
“Flight Attendant War Stories . . . Stewardess,” AboutMyJob.com, www.aboutmyjob.com/?p=2111.
23.
A. Ben-Ze’ev, The Subtlety of Emotions, p. 99.
24.
J. T. Cacioppo and W. L. Gardner, “Emotion,” in Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 50 (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, 1999), pp. 191–214.
25.
D. Holman, “Call Centres,” in D. Holman, T. D. Wall, C. Clegg, P. Sparrow, and A. Howard (eds.), The Essentials of the New Work Place: A Guide to the Human Impact of Modern Working Practices (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2005), pp. 111–132.
26.
M. Eid and E. Diener, “Norms for Experiencing Emotions in Different Cultures: Inter- and International Differences,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (2001), pp. 869–885.
27.
S. Oishi, E. Diener, and C. Napa Scollon, “Cross-Situational Consistency of Affective Experiences Across Cultures,” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 86, no. 3 (2004), pp. 460–472.
28.
Eid and Diener, “Norms for Experiencing Emotions in Different Cultures.”
29.
L. M. Poverny and S. Picascia, “There Is No Crying in Business,” Womensmedia.com, October 20, 2009, www.womensmedia.com/new/Crying-at-Work.shtml.
30.
A. R. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Quill, 1994).
31.
Ibid.
32.
J. Haidt, “The New Synthesis in Moral Psychology,” Science 316 (May 18, 2007), pp. 998, 1002; I. E. de Hooge, R. M. A. Nelissen, S. M. Breugelmans, and M. Zeelenberg, “What is Moral about Guilt? Acting ‘Prosocially’ at the Disadvantage of Others,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (2011), pp. 462–473; and C. A. Hutcherson and J. J. Gross, “The Moral Emotions: A Social-Functionalist Account of Anger, Disgust, and Contempt,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (2011), pp. 719–737. 33.
9/15/2014 Print | Organizational Behavior
http://devry.vitalsource.com/books/9781269551120/print?from=125&to=126&skip_desktop=true 4/4
33.
R. J. Larsen and E. Diener, “Affect Intensity as an Individual Difference Characteristic: A Review,” Journal of Research in Personality 21 (1987), pp. 1–39.
34.
D. Watson, Mood and Temperament (New York: Guilford Press, 2000).
35.
J. J. A. Denissen, L. Butalid, L. Penke, and M. A. G. van Aken, “The Effects of Weather on Daily Mood: A Multilevel Approach,” Emotion 8, no. 5 (2008), pp. 662–667; M. C. Keller, B. L. Fredrickson, O. Ybarra, S. Cĉté, K. Johnson, J. Mikels, A. Conway, and T. Wagner, “A Warm Heart and a Clear Head: The Contingent Effects of Weather on Mood and Cognition,” Psychological Science 16 (2005) pp. 724–731; and Watson, Mood and Temperament.
36.
Watson, Mood and Temperament, p. 100.
37.
J. A. Fuller, J. M. Stanton, G. G. Fisher, C. Spitzmüller, S. S. Russell, and P. C. Smith, “A Lengthy Look at the Daily Grind: Time Series Analysis of Events, Mood, Stress, and Satisfaction,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 6 (December 2003), pp. 1019–1033.
38.
See “Monday Blahs,” May 16, 2005, www.ashidome.com/blogger/housearrest.asp?c=809&m=5&y=2005.
39.
A. M. Isen, “Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength,” in L. G. Aspinwall and U. Staudinger (eds.), The Psychology of Human Strengths (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003), pp. 179–195.
40.
Watson, Mood and Temperament.
41.
Sleep in America Poll (Washington, DC: National Sleep Foundation, 2005), www.kintera.org/atf/cf/%7Bf6bf2668-a1b4-4fe8-8d1a- a5d39340d9cb%7D/2005_summary_of_findings.pdf.
42.
M. Lavidor, A. Weller, and H. Babkoff, “How Sleep Is Related to Fatigue,” British Journal of Health Psychology 8 (2003), pp. 95–105; and J. J. Pilcher and E. Ott, “The Relationships Between Sleep and Measures of Health and Well-Being in College Students: A Repeated Measures Approach,” Behavioral Medicine 23 (1998), pp. 170–178.
43.
E. K. Miller and J. D. Cohen, “An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001), pp. 167–202.
44.
B. A. Scott and T. A. Judge, “Insomnia, Emotions, and Job Satisfaction: A Multilevel Study,” Journal of Management 32, no. 5 (2006), pp. 622–645.
45.
P. R. Giacobbi, H. A. Hausenblas, and N. Frye, “A Naturalistic Assessment of the Relationship Between Personality, Daily Life Events, Leisure-Time Exercise, and Mood,” Psychology of Sport & Exercise 6, no. 1 (January 2005), pp. 67–81.
46.
L. L. Carstensen, M. Pasupathi, M. Ulrich, and J. R. Nesselroade, “Emotional Experience in Everyday Life Across the Adult Life Span,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 4 (2000), pp. 644–655.
47.
M. LaFrance and M. Banaji, “Toward a Reconsideration of the Gender–Emotion Relationship,” in M. Clark (ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 14 (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), pp. 178–197; and A. M. Kring and A. H. Gordon, “Sex Differences in Emotion: Expression, Experience, and Physiology,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (March 1998), pp. 686–703.
48.
M. G. Gard and A. M. Kring, “Sex Differences in the Time Course of Emotion,” Emotion 7, no. 2 (2007), pp. 429–437; M. Jakupcak, K. Salters, K. L. Gratz, and L. Roemer, “Masculinity and Emotionality: An Investigation of Men’s Primary and Secondary Emotional Responding,” Sex Roles 49 (2003), pp. 111–120; and M. Grossman and W. Wood, “Sex Differences in Intensity of Emotional Experience: A Social Role Interpretation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (November 1992), pp. 1010–1022.
*
What is motivation?
What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?
What is the equity theory of motivation?
What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?
What is the goal-setting theory of motivation?
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Motivation
Individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person’s effort expended at work.
Direction - an individual’s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives.
Level - the amount of effort a person puts forth.
Persistence - the length of time a person sticks with a given action.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Because motivation influences productivity and job satisfaction, part of being a good manager is understanding what motivates employees to work at their full potential.
Motivation is an internal process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. Individual differences have a strong impact on behavior motivation patterns.
However, all motivated behavior relies to a larger or lesser extent on the forces of direction, level, and persistence.
Level is concerned with how hard a person tries.
However, unless effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization and the individual, high level of effort is not a guarantee of high performance on the job.
Finally, persistence (how long a person can maintain effort) is important. A motivated person stays with a task long enough to achieve his or her goal.
Types of motivation theories
Content theories
Focus on individual needs – that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that individuals feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.
Process theories
Focus on the thoughts, or cognitive processes, that take place within the minds of individuals and that influence their behavior.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Theories of both types contribute to our understanding of motivation to work. But none offers a complete explanation.
Content Theories – Deal with ‘what’ – What internal factors cause us to behave the way that we do.
Primarily focused on needs, feelings of satisfaction, and our efforts to satisfy those needs.
Process Theories – Deal with ‘how and why’ motivation arises - the interaction between the individual and the environment, and their active thoughts about what is motivating and what is not.
Motivation Across Cultures
Motivation theories are largely developed from a North American perspective.
They are subject to cultural limitations and contingencies.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely to vary considerably across the cultures of Asia, South America, Eastern Europe, and Africa.
We must not assume that people in all cultures are motivated by the same things in the same ways – because they are not. Managers who are placed in global assignments must be knowledgeable about what the members of the culture value.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Identifies five levels of individual needs.
Assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Needs range from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at the bottom.
Physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated – safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Maslow’s theory has some limitations. It presumes that people have to have one need met before the next need emerges.
Satisfying the higher-order needs can present more of a challenge, and individuals are different in terms of their ‘level’ of need and at what point they are satisfied. As an individual moves through their career, different needs may vary.
To address some of the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy, Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory. It orders needs as a hierarchy (like Maslow).
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ERG theory helps to explain why a lower-level need can become activated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. E.g., if an individual is frustrated in trying to move forward in their growth needs (career advancement), relatedness needs can become key motivations.
*
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
McClelland developed the TAT, to identify the three basic needs that people develop over a lifetime. The TAT is a projective test that presents people with a series of ambiguous pictures and asks them to develop a story about the pictures. The assumption is that the person will project his or her needs or drives onto the pictures.
- What do you see?
Acquired needs theory
Need for achievement (nAch).
The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff).
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others.
Need for power (nPower).
The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain ways.
McClelland encourages managers to learn how to identify the presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and others, since each need can be linked with a set of work preferences and motivation. Since these three needs are acquired, McClelland believes it may be possible to teach people to develop profiles for success in various types of jobs.
For example, a low nAff can predispose an executive to make difficult decisions without undue worry about being disliked.
Two-Factor Theory
Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
Also known as the motivator-hygiene theory.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Herzberg asked workers to report the times they felt exceptionally good about their jobs and the times they felt exceptionally bad about them. Researchers noticed that people talked about very different things when they reported feeling good or bad about their jobs.
Hygiene factors
Sources of job dissatisfaction associated with job context.
Job dissatisfaction results when hygiene factors are poor.
Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job dissatisfaction.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Herzberg found that a low base salary or wage makes people dissatisfied, but that paying more does not necessarily satisfy or motivate them.
Motivator factors
Sources of job satisfaction related to job content.
Presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance.
When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Equity Theory
Any perceived inequity
becomes a motivating state
of mind.
People are motivated to behave in ways that restore equity in situations.
Foundation of equity is social comparison.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Motivation is a function of how one evaluates rewards relative to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by others relative to their efforts made.
A key word in this comparison is “fairness.” Everyone does not have to receive the same rewards, but the rewards should be in accordance with individual contributions.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5-*
Individual Outcomes
Individual Efforts
Others’ Outcomes
Others’ Efforts
=
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received for their work.
We compare our efforts and resultant outcomes to the efforts and outcomes of others. If we find they are equivalent, we are satisfied and motivated. When the comparison is out of balance, we are dissatisfied and lose motivation.
Equity theory prediction:
Negative inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs.
Positive inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others in proportion to work inputs.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
When people believe that an inequity exists, the theory states that they will be motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a sense of felt equity.
People who feel they are overpaid are likely to try and increase the quantity and quality of their work.
Those who feel they are underpaid are likely to try and decrease the quantity and quality of their work.
Equity restoration behaviors.
Change work inputs.
Change the outcomes received.
Leave the situation.
Change the comparison person.
Psychologically distort the comparisons.
Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Steps for managing equity dynamics
Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the workplace.
Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.
Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.
Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward is based.
Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the situation
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
A reward given by a team leader and expected to be motivational to a team may or may not work as intended. Unless it is perceived as fair and equitable in comparison with results for other teammates, the reward may create negative equity dynamics and work just the opposite of what the team leader expected.
You regularly work longer hours than anyone else in your department. Yet, you do not feel that you are being adequately recognized or rewarded. According to equity theory, you will most likely ….
Increase your efforts by working longer hours.
Ask for a raise or bonus.
Reduce your efforts by decreasing hours.
Frame the situation as a learning experience and beneficial for your future career.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
You will most likely reduce your efforts (3.) or try to restore equity by increasing our outcomes (2.)
*
Organizational justice
How fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
In ethics, the justice view of moral reasoning considers behavior to be ethical when it is fair and impartial in the treatment of people. Organizational justice notions are important in OB. It refers to the ways in which people perceive they are being treated at work in respect to procedural, distributive, and interactional justice are likely to affect their motivations.
It is their perceptions of these justice types that create the ultimate motivational influence.
Distributive justice - degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or any other demographic characteristic.
Interactional justice - degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect.
Procedural justice, degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation – people will do what they can do when they want to do it.
Expectancy
effort will yield acceptable performance
Instrumentality
performance will be rewarded
Valence
value of the rewards is highly positive
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Equity theory is based on the concept of fairness.
Expectancy theory is based on the concept of effort.
How much effort should be put out to achieve a desired outcome?
Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance.
Instrumentality is the probability assigned by an individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.
Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Motivational implications of expectancy theory.
Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or valence approach zero or are negative.
Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Expectancy logic argues that managers should always try to intervene actively in work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives.
Even though the theory has received substantial support, some components, such as the multiplier effect, remain subject to some question.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Goal setting
The process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
The basic precepts of goal-setting theory are an important source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.
Reasonably Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones.
Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than vague or very general ones.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
If the goals are seen as too difficult, the relationship with performance no longer holds.
All too often people work with very general goals such as the encouragement to “do your best.”
Task feedback is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals.
Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Feedback lets people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their efforts.
The individual must be able to accomplish the goals and feel confident in those abilities.
Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted by the individual, and there is commitment to them.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance and commitment. It creates a sense of “ownership”.
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*
MBO involves managers working with their team members to establish performance goals and make plans that are consistent with higher level work unit and organizational objectives. When done throughout an organization, MBO helps clarify the hierarchy of objectives as a series of well-defined means-end chains.
5-*
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*

Get help from top-rated tutors in any subject.
Efficiently complete your homework and academic assignments by getting help from the experts at homeworkarchive.com