University of Oregon Chandler Lester Department of Economics Fall 2019 October 30, 2019 Version A
Practice Midterm Exam
Economics 202 Principles of Macroeconomics
Instructions:
Please clear your desk of everything except for a pen or pencil and non-programmable cal- culator.
Please write your name and Student ID number on the front cover of this examination, and write your answers in the spaces provided. If you need extra paper, please ask me for blank paper that may be attached to this examination at its completion. DO NOT use your own paper.
You make keep this exam paper so that you know the answers you write down. Please submit all of your answer on the scantron. Incorrectly marked scantrons will not be regraded.
This the Exam consists of 40 Multiple Choice questions. Choose a SINGLE answer to each question. Correct answers are worth 2.5 points each, whereas incorrect or blank answers are worth zero points.
The maximum possible score on the whole exam is 100 points.
NAME:
STUDENT ID#:
Multiple Choice questions.
Circle the letter corresponding to the correct answer for each of the following multiple choice questions. Also, mark the corresponding bubble on your scantron.
Suppose we have an economy that only has three goods: Runescape subscriptions, hoodies, and hot chocolate. Using the tables below calculate the following GDP measurements.
Quantities 2012 2019
Runescape subscriptions 100 100 Hoodies 99 80 Hot chocolate 400 500
Prices 2012 2019
Runescape subscriptions 30.00 40.00 Hoodies 18.00 20.00 Hot chocolate 2.00 3.50
1. What was the nominal GDP in 2012?
A. 2,282
B. 5,582
C. 5,582
D. 7,530
E. 6,380
2. What was the nominal GDP in 2019?
A. 7,350
B. 5,582
C. 7,530
D. 5,440
E. 6,380
3. What was the real GDP in 2019 using 2012 prices?
A. 7,350
B. 5,582
C. 7,530
D. 5,440
E. 6,380
4. Which of the following is NOT true regarding The Bretton Woods system:
A. was abandoned by the United States in the early 1970s.
B. created a system in which most countries used floating exchange rates and not pegged exchange rates.
C. required member countries to declare a par value for their currency in terms of the US dollar.
D. established the World Bank and the IMF.
Page 2
5. Which of the following will cause an increase in the amount of money that one wishes to hold?
A. An increase in the interest rate
B. A reduction in the interest rate
C. A reduction in income
D. None of the above
6. The non-institutionalized civilian population is 250 million, of which 100 million are employed and 10 million are unemployed. Based on this information, the labor force participation rate is
A. 36%.
B. 40%.
C. 44%.
D. 90.1%.
E. 66%.
7. We are interested in long-term growth primarily because it brings
A. higher price levels.
B. lower price levels.
C. higher standards of living.
D. trade wars with our trading partners.
8. In 2011, Armenia had a real GDP of $4.21 billion. In 2012, real GDP was $4.59 billion. What was Armenia’s economic growth rate from 2011 to 2012?
A. 0.38 percent
B. 9.0 percent
C. 3.8 percent
D. 0.09 percent
9. Which of the following is used to calculate the standard of living?
A. real GDP/population
B. ((real GDP in the current year - real GDP in previous year)/real GDP in previous year) ⇥ 100
C. the one-third rule
D. real GDP/aggregate hours
Page 3
10. The term capital, as used in macroeconomics, refers to
A. the amount of money that someone can invest in a new venture.
B. the amount of money a firm can raise in the stock market.
C. physical capital.
D. All of the above answers are correct.
11. At the beginning of the year, Tom’s Tubes had a capital stock of 5 tube inflating ma- chines. During the year, Tom scrapped 2 old machines and purchased 3 new machines. Tom’s capital stock at the end of year equals
A. 1 machine.
B. 2 machines.
C. 3 machines.
D. 6 machines
12. Which of the following does NOT describe a function of money?
A. unit of account
B. hedge against inflation
C. medium of exchange
D. store of value
13. The most direct way in which money replaces barter is through its use as a
A. medium of exchange.
B. recording device.
C. store of value.
D. unit of account.
14. Gross domestic product is the total produced within a country in a given time period.
A. market value of all final and intermediate goods and services
B. market value of all goods and services
C. amount of final and intermediate goods and services
D. market value of all final goods and services
15. Which of the following is a final good?
A. the memory chips in your new smart phone
B. a share of IBM stock
C. flour purchased at the store to bake cookies
D. flour used by the bakery to bake cookies
Page 4
16. Suppose the United States spends more on foreign goods and services than foreigners spend on our goods and services and the United States sells no foreign assets. Then the
A. United States must borrow an amount equal to national saving.
B. United States must borrow an amount equal to imports minus exports.
C. rest of the world may or may not finance the U.S. trade deficit.
D. United States must borrow an amount equal to consumption expenditure plus investment.
17. In January, suppose that a share of stock in Meyer, Inc. had a price of $50 and that each share entitled its owner to $2 of Meyer, Inc.’s profit. During the year, the price of a share of Meyer’s stock rose to $100. The interest rate paid on the share in January was percent.
A. 2
B. 0.02
C. 4
D. 0.04
18. The present value of $200 two years from now when the interest rate is 7 percent is
A. $207
B. $214
C. $187
D. $175
19. Double counting (counting the same thing twice) in GDP accounting is avoided by not including
A. net exports.
B. intermediate goods.
C. illegal activities.
D. depreciation.
20. In the short run, when the Fed decreases the quantity of money
A. bond prices fall and the interest rate rises.
B. bond prices rise and the interest rate falls.
C. the demand for money increases.
D. the supply of money curve shifts rightward.
Page 5
21. An economic model is
A. a generalization that summarizes all the normative assumptions we make about a particular issue.
B. a description of some aspect of the economic world that includes only those features of the world that are needed for the purpose at hand.
C. a statement that describes how the world should be.
D. a collection of facts that describe the real world.
22. If we compare the four sources of spending in the economy we see that
A. household consumption is the smallest.
B. government expenditure is the largest.
C. business investment is the largest.
D. household consumption is the largest.
23. Which of the following are equal to one another? I. aggregate production II. aggregate expenditure III. aggregate income
A. I equals II, but not III.
B. I equals III, but not II.
C. II equals III, but not I.
D. I equals II equals III.
24. Gross domestic product can be calculated
A. either by valuing the nation’s output of goods and services or by valuing the income generated in the production process.
B. by adding up the personal consumption of all members of the society.
C. by adding up the value of all intermediate goods used in the economy.
D. by adding up the income tax returns of all members of the society.
25. If the price level increases, but workers’ money wage rates remain constant,which of the following is TRUE? I. The quantity of labor demanded will increase. II. The real wage rate will decrease. III. The demand for labor curve shifts rightward.
A. I only
B. I and II
C. II and III
D. I, II and III
Page 6
26. The labor force participation rate
A. does not change when the real wage rate changes.
B. decreases as the real wage rate rises.
C. increases as the real wage rate increases.
D. has an inverse e↵ect of the supply of labor.
27. If the real wage rate is such that the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity of labor demanded
A. a full-employment equilibrium occurs.
B. actual GDP equals potential GDP.
C. the supply curve of labor is vertical.
D. Both answers A and B are correct.
28. When the population increases with no change in labor productivity, employment and potential GDP .
A. decreases; decreases
B. increases; increases
C. decreases; increases
D. increases; decreases
29. Labor productivity is defined as
A. total output attributable to labor.
B. total real GDP.
C. the growth rate of the labor force.
D. real GDP per hour of labor.
30. A decrease in decreases the demand for money.
A. the discount rate
B. real GDP
C. the interest rate
D. the quantity of money
31. When the nominal interest rate rises, the quantity of money demanded decreases because
A. people will buy fewer goods and hence hold less money.
B. the price level also rises and people decrease their demand for money.
C. people shift funds from interest-bearing assets into money.
D. people shift funds from money holdings to interest-bearing assets.
Page 7
32. Human capital is the
A. machinery used by humans to produce GDP.
B. technology used by humans to produce GDP.
C. skill and knowledge accumulated by humans.
D. plant and equipment produced by humans and not by machines.
33. On-the-job-training is an example of
A. increasing labor force participation.
B. investment in human capital.
C. investment in physical capital.
D. technological change.
34. The view that population growth occurs when real GDP per person exceeds the amount necessary to sustain life is part of the
A. classical growth theory.
B. modern theory of population growth.
C. neoclassical growth theory.
D. new growth theory.
35. The neoclassical growth theory says, in part, that
A. a population explosion driven by economic growth will end economic growth.
B. technological change leads to economic growth.
C. the di↵erences in nation’s growth rates will persist indefinitely.
D. technology does not play a role in economic growth.
36. If you lend a dollar for a year and at the end of the year the price level has risen by 10 percent
A. the purchasing power of your loan has risen over the year regardless of the interest rate at which you lent it.
B. the purchasing power of your loan has remained constant over the year regard- less of the interest rate at which you lent it.
C. you must have earned a nominal interest rate of 10 percent to maintain the purchasing power of your loan.
D. you must have earned a nominal interest rate of 5 percent to maintain the purchasing power of your loan.
Page 8
37. People know that the inflation rate will increase from 3 percent to 5 percent. As a result
A. the nominal interest rate falls by 2 percentage points.
B. the nominal interest rate is constant.
C. the nominal interest rate rises by 2 percentage points.
D. the real interest rate rises by 2 percentage points.
38. The expected profit from an investment will change with
A. a change in the real interest rate.
B. a change in technology.
C. Both A and B are correct.
D. Neither A nor B is correct.
39. A rise in the real interest rate
A. decreases the demand for loanable funds.
B. increases the demand for loanable funds.
C. decreases the quantity of loanable funds demanded.
D. increases the quantity of loanable funds demanded.
40. According to the ”Lie that saved Brazil” (part two of the podcast on money,) inflation in Brazil began due to:
A. Printing too much money
B. Unstable currency exchanges
C. Importing too much
D. Low Savings
Page 9
Unit I Essay Examples
1. Define SIDS and describe some of the possible causes and preventions of this syndrome.
SIDS is a condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing suddenly without an apparent cause.
Research has shown that infants who are placed to sleep on their stomach have a higher incidence of SIDS due to the inability to breath effectively or arouse from sleep when their face is down. It also restricts the infant’s ability to swallow effectively. Also, heart arrhythmias are estimated to occur in as many as 10-15% of SIDS cases. Some of the other instances that it is more likely to occur is in infants with low birth weight, infants who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke, when infants sleep in the same bed as their parents and when they don’t use a pacifier to go to sleep.
To reduce the risk of SIDS, the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended that infants be place to sleep on their back on a firm surface, do not sleep with the infant, and don’t expose the infant to cigarette in utero or after birth. It is shocking that the CDC web site states that approx. 4,000 infants die of SIDS every year in the US.
2. Briefly describe the three cognitive theories presented in the book and their main differences.
A cognitive theory focuses on how children develop complex thinking skills. .
a. Piaget’s Theory- His belief is that children construct their understanding of the world and go through four states of cognitive development.; Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.
b. Vygotsky’s Theory- Socialcultural -He believed that children actively construct their knowledge through social interaction and culture activities. He stressed that cognitive development involves learning to sue the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies.
c. Information-Processing Theory- individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. The processes of memory and thinking are central.
Vygotsky and the Information Processing theory differ from Piaget’s theory in that they recognize that cognition and memory directs language and they suggest that education merely refines the cognitive skills that have already emerged whereas Piaget’s main focus is on language and education.
3. Name and define the four Parenting Styles as defined by Diana Baumrind and discuss how other cultures view them.
a) authoritarian parenting -- restrictive, punitive style demanding obedience and respect
b) authoritative parenting -- encourages independence but still places limits and controls
c) neglectful parenting -- parent is very uninvolved in the child's life
d) indulgent parenting -- highly involved with but place few demands or controls
While we tend to think that the authoritative parenting style is the most effective for the child in America. The authoritarian style has had good results in Arab and Asian worlds. They tend to have high academic achievement due to the strict parental controls. Their goals are perseverance, working hard in school, and respecting their parent’s wishes. Maybe we need a mix of both to boost our academic achievement and decrease our “if it feels good, do it” attitude in America.
4. Motor development begins with some basic reflexes that infants are born with. Describe two of the reflexes and when they begin to disappear and also define some of the reflexes that never disappears.
a. Rooting reflex: This is a survival reflex and occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. This disappears after 3-4 months.
b. Moro reflex: This occurs in response to a sudden, intense noise or movement. This disappears after 3-4 months.
Some of the reflexes that we are born with and continue to use as an adult are coughing, sneezing, and blinking. The most interesting to me is the reflex that allows a newborn, when immersed in water, to hold its breath and contract its throat to keep water out. Unfortunately this goes away during the first year. We are born with amazing bodies.
5. From the video, Biology of Dads, describe some of the ways that a dad has an influence on his child.
a. Toddler- Physical play with the dad helps to exert power and learns limits. They learn to respect boundaries and take risk. Dad’s use less baby talk and therefore dads aid in language development of the child.
b. Child- Dad’s provide the child with entertainment, more structure and a stronger sense of security and independence.
c. Teen- Dad’s encourage competitiveness and to respect discipline. They tend to take the emotion out of it and set rules and boundaries.
In each area, Dad’s have the opportunity to positively impact a child’s life. Dad’s have an influence as a role model on a girls choice in a future husband and a son relationship with a future wife. This can be positive or negative according to how effective and present a dad is in his child’s life. It is amazing how important our dads are.
Unit 2
EARLY CHILDHOOD THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
Unit II
Unit II (Early Childhood-Adolescence)
Early Childhood (2-7): Physical Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Middle Childhood (7-12): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Adolescence (12-21): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
The Adolescent years
Physical, Cognitive &Socioemotional
Adolescence Defined
Adolescence is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
Internationally, those who reach a certain age (often 18, though this varies) are legally regarded as adults and are held to be responsible for their actions. People below this age are considered minors.
Adolescence is approximately between the ages 12 and 21 and encompasses both physiological and psychological changes
Adolescence in Western societies tends to be a period of rebellion against adult authority figures, often parents or school officials, in the search for personal identity.
The classification of a period of life as adolescence is a relatively recent development in many Western societies, one that is not recognized as a distinct phase of life in many other cultures.
4
Adolescence
Adolescence is a relatively new concept in human development. It is marked by a degree of maintaining a childlike self while emerging into a young adult.
*My daughter holding a bear while reading a book~the right of passage.
Legal issues, rights and privileges
Legal responsibility for criminal action?
India – 7
Belgium – 18
Legal working age
Age of consent
Varies widely between jurisdictions
Age to vote
Join the military
Physical Changes During Adolescence
Adolescents develop physically at a rapid pace – dramatic changes in both height and weight
Puberty (the period where sex organs mature) occurs during adolescence
Puberty begins when the pituitary gland in the brain signals other glands in the children’s bodies to begin producing sex hormones at adult levels
Puberty begins earlier for girls – typically around age 11 or 12, compared to the average age of 13 or 14 for boys
Wide variations among individuals
Puberty in Girls
Menarche – the onset of menstruation
The most obvious signal of the onset of puberty for girls
Evidence has supported the fact that girls who are better nourished and healthier are more apt to start menstruation at an earlier age than those who are malnourished or suffer from chronic illness.
The onset of puberty has gradually happened earlier and earlier over the past 100 years.
End of 19th century – average age menstruation began = 14 or 15
Today – average age = 11 or 12
What are some factors that could have contributed to this pattern of change?
Puberty in Girls - continued
Development of primary sex characteristics
Development of the organs and structures directly related to reproduction
Ex: changes in the vagina or uterus
Development of secondary sex characteristics
Visible signs of sexual maturity that do not directly involve the sex organs
Ex: development of breasts and pubic hair
Puberty in Boys
Development of Primary sex characteristics –
Age 12 (on average) – penis and scrotum begin to grow at an accelerated rate (they do not reach adult size until 3-4 years later)
Enlargement of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles
Spermarche (1st ejaculation) usually around age 13
Development of Secondary sex characteristics –
Pubic hair, underarm hair, and facial hair begins to grow
Voices deepen as vocal cords become longer and larynx gets larger
Gender Gaps
Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being
Obesity
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
Dropping Out of School
Illegal Drugs
Alcohol: Use and Abuse
The Dangers of Smoking Cigarettes
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Obesity
1 in 5 adolescents is overweight
1 in 20 is classified as obese (body weight more than 20% above average)
Reasons for obesity in adolescents the same as younger children, psychological consequences may be particularly severe during this phase of life when body image is of particular concern
Potential health consequences are more problematic for obese adolescents
Obesity strains the circulatory system, increasingly likelihood of high blood pressure and diabetes
Obese adolescents – 80% chance of becoming obese adults
Lack of exercise is one of the main culprits, particularly for females
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders are complex conditions that arise from a variety of factors, including physical, psychological, interpersonal, and social issues
Once started, however, they can create a self-perpetuating cycle of physical and emotional destruction. All eating disorders require professional help.
People with eating disorders often use food and the control of food in an attempt to compensate for feelings and emotions that may otherwise seem over-whelming.
For some, dieting, bingeing, and purging may begin as a way to cope with painful emotions and to feel in control of one’s life, but ultimately, these behaviors will damage a person’s physical and emotional health, self-esteem, and sense of competence and control.
Fun Fact: Nearly nonexistent in Asian and African cultures!
Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia Nervosa is a serious, potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and excessive weight loss. Anorexia Nervosa has four primary symptoms:
Resistance to maintaining body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height
Intense fear of weight gain or being “fat” even though underweight.
Denial of the seriousness of low body weight.
Loss of menstrual periods in girls and women post-puberty.
Health Consequences of Anorexia Nervosa:
Abnormally slow heart rate and low blood pressure
Reduction of bone density (osteoporosis), which results in dry, brittle bones.
Muscle loss and weakness.
Severe dehydration, which can result in kidney failure.
Fainting, fatigue, and overall weakness.
Dry hair and skin, hair loss is common.
Growth of a downy layer of hair called lanugo all over the body, including the face, in an effort to keep the body warm.
Bulimia
Bulimia is a serious, potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by a cycle of bingeing and compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting designed to undo or compensate for the effects of binge eating. Three primary symptoms:
Regular intake of large amounts of food accompanied by a sense of loss of control over eating behavior.
Regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse, fasting, and/or obsessive or compulsive exercise.
Extreme concern with body weight and shape.
Health Consequences of Bulimia:
Electrolyte imbalances caused by dehydration and loss of potassium and sodium from the body as a result of purging behaviors.
Inflammation and possible rupture of the esophagus from frequent vomiting.
Tooth decay and staining from stomach acids released during vomiting.
Chronic irregular bowel movements and constipation as a result of laxative abuse.
Gastric rupture is an uncommon but possible side effect of binge eating.
Factors that can contribute to eating disorders:
Psychological Factors:
Low self-esteem
Feelings of inadequacy or lack of control in life
Depression, anxiety, anger, or loneliness
Interpersonal Factors:
Troubled family and personal relationships
Difficulty expressing emotions and feelings
History of being teased or ridiculed based on size or weight
History of physical or sexual abuse
Social Factors:
Cultural pressures that glorify "thinness" and place value on obtaining the "perfect body"
Narrow definitions of beauty that include only women and men of specific body weights and shapes
Cultural norms that value people on the basis of physical appearance and not inner qualities and strengths
The Media, Body Image, and Eating Disorders - Media images that help to create cultural definitions of beauty and attractiveness are often acknowledged as being among those factors contributing to the rise of eating disorders.
Dropping Out
Half a million students drop out of school each year
High school dropouts earn 42% less than high school graduates
Unemployment rate for dropouts is 50%
Illegal Drugs
Recent annual survey of nearly 50,000 U.S. students - indicated almost 50% of high school seniors and 20% of 8th graders reported having used marijuana within the past year.
Why do adolescents use drugs?
Pleasant feeling (“high”)
Escape pressures/ aversive feelings
Thrill of doing something illegal
Peer pressure
Dangers of illegal drug use:
Addiction – many illegal drugs are addictive drugs – produce a biological or psychological dependence in users, leading to powerful cravings
Addiction causes physical changes to the nervous system
Dependency – adolescents become dependent on drugs and need them to cope with the stresses of everyday life
Drug use prevents them from confronting and resolving problems in their lives
Casual users may turn to more dangerous forms of substance use
Alcohol: Use and Abuse
Binge drinking
For men – 5 or more drinks in one sitting
For women – 4 or more drinks in one sitting
Facts about binge drinking:
Frequent binge drinkers are eight times more likely than non-binge drinkers to miss a class, fall behind in schoolwork, get hurt or injured, and damage property.
Nearly one out of every five teenagers (16 percent) has experienced “black out” spells where they could not remember what happened the previous evening because of heavy binge drinking.
More than 60 % of college men and almost 50 % of college women who are frequent binge drinkers report that they drink and drive.
Binge drinking during high school, especially among males, is strongly predictive of binge drinking in college.
Binge drinking during college may be associated with mental health disorders such as compulsiveness, depression or anxiety, or early deviant behavior.
In a national study, 91 percent of women and 78 percent of the men who were frequent binge drinkers considered themselves to be moderate or light drinkers.
Consequences of Binge Drinking
Brain Effects
Subtle changes in the brain may be difficult to detect but still have a significant impact on long-term thinking and memory skills.
Research has shown that animals fed alcohol during this critical developmental stage continue to show long-lasting impairment from alcohol as they age
Liver Effects
Elevated liver enzymes, indicating some degree of liver damage, have been found in some adolescents who drink alcohol
Young drinkers who are overweight or obese showed elevated liver enzymes even with only moderate levels of drinking
Growth and Endocrine Effects
Drinking alcohol during this period of rapid growth and development (i.e., prior to or during puberty) may upset the critical hormonal balance necessary for normal development of organs, muscles, and bones.
The Dangers of Smoking: The leading preventable cause of death in the US
Cigarette smoking among adolescents is one of the 10 Leading Health Indicators that reflect the major health concerns in the United States
Cigarette smoking during childhood and adolescence produces significant health problems among young people, including:
cough and phlegm production
an increase in the number and severity of respiratory illnesses
decreased physical fitness
an unfavorable lipid profile
potential retardation in the rate of lung growth and the level of maximum lung function.
An estimated 440,000 Americans die each year from diseases caused by smoking.
Facts about adolescent smoking
Each day, nearly 6,000 children under 18 years of age start smoking; of these, nearly 2,000 will become regular smokers. That is almost 800,000 annually.
It is estimated that at least 4.5 million U.S. adolescents are cigarette smokers.
Approximately 90 % of smokers begin smoking before the age of 21.
If current tobacco use patterns persist, an estimated 6.4 million children will die prematurely from a smoking-related disease.
According to a 2001 national survey of high school students, the overall prevalence of current cigarette use was 28 percent.
Tobacco use in adolescence is associated with a range of health-compromising behaviors, including being involved in fights, carrying weapons, engaging in high-risk sexual behavior and using alcohol and other drugs.
What about sex?
Curiosity—chief reason teens start having sex
Average age of onset for girls: 16; boys: 14
40% all females pregnant before age 18!
1/3 all abortions performed on teens
Higher rate of miscarriage
50% pregnant teens drop out of high school
1/3-1/2 of all sexually active teens don’t use contraceptives
1/6 contract an STI during teen years
Factors Contributing to Early Sexual Activity
Sexually active peers
Physically mature
Overweight teens have earlier sexual experiences (reach puberty faster)
Larger family
Older brothers and sisters who are sexually active
Lower academic aspirations
Doing poorly in school
Parental separation and divorce
HPV: More than you wanted to know…
Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI). The virus infects the skin and mucous membranes. There are more than 40 HPV types that can infect the genital areas of men and women, including the skin of the penis, vulva (area outside the vagina), and anus, and the linings of the vagina, cervix, and rectum.
You cannot see HPV. Most people who become infected with HPV do not even know they have it.
Certain types of HPV can cause genital warts in men and women.
Warts can appear on the vulva, in or around the vagina or anus, on the cervix, and on the penis, scrotum, groin, or thigh. Warts may appear within weeks or months after sexual contact with an infected person. Or, they may not appear at all
HPV: More than you wanted to know…
Other HPV types can cause cervical cancer and other less common cancers, such as cancers of the vulva, vagina, anus, and penis.
Cervical cancer does not have symptoms until it is quite advanced. For this reason, it is important for women to get screened regularly for cervical cancer.
HPV is passed on through genital contact, most often during vaginal and anal sex. A person can have HPV even if years have passed since he or she had sex. Most infected persons do not realize they are infected or that they are passing the virus to a sex partner.
Very rarely, a pregnant woman with genital HPV can pass HPV to her baby during vaginal delivery.
Genital Herpes: More than you wanted to know.
Genital Herpes - Genital herpes is a common, highly infectious disease caused by a virus.
It causes blisters or groups of small ulcers (open sores) on and around the genitals in both men and women.
It cannot be cured, only controlled.
Genital herpes is extremely widespread, largely because it is so contagious. Carriers can transmit the disease without having any symptoms themselves of active infection.
There are two types: HSV-1 (herpes simplex virus) and HSV-2.
Most genital herpes infections are caused by HSV-2.
HSV-1 is the usual cause of what most people call "fever blisters" in and around the mouth and can be transmitted from person to person through kissing.
Less often, HSV-1 can cause genital herpes infections through oral sexual contact. The genital sores caused by either virus look the same.
Identity Formation during Adolescence
According to Erikson’s theory, adolescents strive to:
discover what makes them unique and distinctive
identify their strengths and weaknesses
determine the roles they can best play in their future
Identity vs. role confusion (identity confusion)
Adolescents “try on” different roles
They seek to make choices about their personal, occupational, sexual and political commitments
Cognitive Changes: Adolescence
Capacity to plan ahead in a logical fashion
Systematic thinking
Combine ideas—can plan and organize more efficiently
Still has difficulty translating theory into practice
Multitask well (may appear unfocused, but can generally do two things at once)
Development of morality & empathy
Questions authority and societal standards. Why is this a good trait?
Re-emergence of egocentrism
Paranoia—imaginary audience
Principle of invincibility—takes greater risks
Apparent Hypocrisy—” I can do it but you can’t.”
Psychological Difficulties During Adolescence
Depression in Adolescence:
Everyone experiences bad moods and periods of sadness
More than 25% of adolescents report feeling so sad or helpless for two or more weeks in a row that they stop doing normal activities
Left untreated, teen depression can lead to problems at home and school, drug abuse, self-loathing—even irreversible tragedy such as homicidal violence or suicide.
Signs and Symptoms of Depression in Adolescents
Sadness or hopelessness
Irritability, anger, or hostility
Tearfulness or frequent crying
Withdrawal from friends and family
Loss of interest in activities
Changes in eating and sleeping habits
Restlessness and agitation
Feelings of worthlessness and guilt
Lack of enthusiasm and motivation
Fatigue or lack of energy
Difficulty concentrating
Thoughts of death or suicide
Suicide warning signs in teenagers
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), suicide is the third leading cause of death for 15- to 24-year-olds.
For the overwhelming majority of suicidal teens, depression or another psychological disorder plays a primary role. In depressed teens who also abuse alcohol or drugs, the risk of suicide is even greater.
Teenagers who are depressed should be watched closely for any signs of suicidal thoughts or behavior. The warning signs include:
Talking or joking about committing suicide.
Saying things like, “I’d be better off dead,” “I wish I could disappear forever”
Speaking positively about death or romanticizing dying (“If I died, people might love me more”).
Writing stories and poems about death, dying, or suicide.
Engaging in reckless behavior or having a lot of accidents resulting in injury.
Giving away prized possessions.
Saying goodbye to friends and family as if for good.
Seeking out weapons, pills, or other ways to kill themselves.
Sexual Orientation
One important aspect of adolescence is forming one's sexual identity.
All teens explore and experiment sexually as part of normal development.
This sexual behavior may be with members of the same or opposite sex.
For many adolescents, thinking about and/or experimenting with people of the same sex may cause concerns and anxiety regarding their sexual orientation.
For others, even thoughts or fantasies may cause anxiety. These feelings and behavior do not necessarily mean an individual is homosexual or bisexual.
Homosexuality is the persistent sexual and emotional attraction to someone of the same sex. It is part of the range of sexual expression.
Many gay, lesbian and bisexual individuals first become aware of and experience their sexual thoughts and feelings during childhood and adolescence.
Recent changes in society's attitude toward sexuality have helped gay, lesbian, and bisexual teens feel more comfortable with their sexual orientation.
Concerns about Homosexual/Bisexual Feelings
Despite increased knowledge and information, gay, lesbian and bisexual teens still have many concerns. These include:
feeling different from peers
feeling guilty about their sexual orientation
worrying about the response from their families and loved ones
being teased and ridiculed by their peers
worrying about AIDS, HIV infection, and other sexually transmitted diseases
fearing discrimination when joining clubs, sports, seeking admission to college, and finding employment
being rejected and harassed by others
Gay, lesbian, and bisexual teens can become socially isolated, withdraw from activities and friends, have trouble concentrating, and develop low self-esteem.
Some may develop depression and think about suicide or attempt it.
Unit 2
EARLY CHILDHOOD THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
Unit II
Unit II (Early Childhood-Adolescence)
Early Childhood (2-7): Physical Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Middle Childhood (7-12): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Adolescence (12-21): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
The middle childhood years (7-12)
Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional
The Middle Childhood Years (7-12)
Physical Development
Changes in Height and Weight
Children in elementary school grow 2-3 inches per year (on average)
This is the only time throughout the lifespan when girls (on average) are taller than boys
Girls and boys gain approximately 5-7 pounds per year
Weight redistributed, bodies more muscular and strength increases
Nutrition
Nutrition does not affect size only, also affects:
Social and emotional functioning – proper nutritional leads to more involvement with peers, more positive emotion, higher energy levels and less anxiety
Childhood Obesity
Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average for a person of a given age and height.
Obese children and adolescents are at risk for health problems during their youth and as adults.
For example, during their youth, obese children and adolescents are more likely to have risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease (such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes) than are other children and adolescents.
Obesity is caused by a combination of genetic and social characteristics, as well as diet.
Adopted children tend to have weights and body types more similar to biological parents that adoptive parents.
What social factors can lead to obesity??
Cognitive Advancements
Logic:
Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic.
Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle.
On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic
This involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
Reversibility:
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed.
An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories.
For example, a child might be able to recognize that 3+5 = 8, 5+ 3 = 8 and 8-3 = 5.
Education in Middle Childhood
Virtually all children in the United States are entitled to receive a free education through the 12th grade.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, Individuals classified with a disability by the Committee on Special Education or under Section 504 of The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are entitled to receive a free and appropriate education, sometimes until the age of 21.
An appropriate education may comprise education in regular classes, education in regular classes with the use of related aids and services, or special education and related services in separate classrooms for all or portions of the school day.
Special education may include specially designed instruction in classrooms, at home, or in private or public institutions, and may be accompanied by related services such as speech therapy, occupational and physical therapy, psychological counseling, and medical diagnostic services necessary to the child’s education.
Measuring IQ
Intelligence is defined as the capacity to understand the world, to think rationally, and using resources effectively
There are currently several standardized intelligence tests
These modern tests are rooted in the work of Binet.
Binet linked intelligence with success in school
Binet linked each intelligence test score with a mental age
6-yr old – test score of 30
30 = average score of 10 year olds
6-yr old’s mental age would be 10 years
IQ score = (MA/CA) x 100
Modern IQ testing
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Ed:
Began as American revision of Binet’s original test
The test consists of a series of items that vary according to the person’s age
Binet developed the first intelligence test.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Ed (WISC-IV):
Separate verbal and nonverbal performance skills
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Ed:
Children are tested on their ability to integrate different types of stimuli simultaneously and use step-by-step thinking
Below and Above the Norm
Mental Retardation: According to the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), Mental Retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning as well as adaptive behavior (conceptual, social and practical skills)
Mild retardation: IQ scores of 50 or 55 - 70
Moderate retardation: IQ scores of 35 or 40 – 50 or 55
Severe retardation: IQ scores of 20 or 25 – 35 or 40
Profound retardation: IQ scores fall below 20 or 25
The Gifted and Talented: Children who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capability or specific academic fields.
Psychosocial Development: Middle Childhood
Industry-versus-inferiority stage
Age 7-12
Children are faced with the complexities of the modern world
They not only focus on mastering the academic work they are presented with, they are also making a place for themselves in the social world
Success at this stage is accomplished by proficiency at tasks and a growing sense of competence
Difficulties may lead to feeling inadequate and withdrawing from academic pursuits as well as interactions with peers.
Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem is an individual’s overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation.
Self-concept reflects beliefs about the self (e,g, I am good at math) whereas self-esteem is emotionally-oriented (e.g. no one likes me)
Children increasingly compare themselves to others
Children with low self-esteem may become enmeshed in a cycle of failure that is difficult to break
Low self esteem tends to remain low into adulthood
The two main ways that children identify their esteems is:
(1) looks (2) popularity.
Building Friendships in Middle Childhood
Friendships influence children’s development in many ways…
Friends provide information about the world and other people
Friends provide emotional support and help kids handle stress
Friends teach children how to manage and control their emotions
Friends teach about communication with others
Friends foster intellectual growth
Friends allow children to practice relationship skills
Stages of Friendship
According to William Damon, children’s friendships go through three stages:
Stage 1 (ages 4-7)
Children see friends as others who they spend most of their time with
They see friends as children they share toys and other activities with
They do not take personal traits into account
Stage 2 (ages 8-10)
Children now begin to consider personal traits in selecting friends
Friends are viewed in terms of the rewards they provide
The centerpiece of friendship is mutual trust
Stage 3 (ages 11-15)
Friendships have become based on intimacy and loyalty
Friendships involve psychological closeness, mutual disclosure, and exclusivity
This stage will be discussed in further detail during discussion of adolescence
Bullying
What is bullying?
Bullying is when someone hurts or scares another person on purpose and the person being bullied has a hard time defending himself or herself. Usually, bullying happens over and over.
Bullying can be defined as:
Punching, shoving and other acts that hurt people physically
Spreading bad rumors about people
Keeping certain people out of a "group"
Teasing people in a mean way
Getting certain people to "gang up" on others
**According to the National Association of School Psychologists, 160,000 U.S. schoolchildren stay home from school each day because they are afraid of being bullied**
Cyberbullies
Bullying also can happen on-line or electronically. cyber bullying is when children or teens bully each other using the Internet, mobile phones or other cyber technology.
This can include:
Sending mean text, e-mail, or instant messages;
Posting nasty pictures, doctored photos or messages about others in blogs or on Web sites;
Using someone else's user name to spread rumors or lies about someone.
Why Kids Bully
Approximately 10-15% of students bully at one time or another
Characteristics of bullies:
Approximately 50% of bullies come from abusive homes
They are exposed to media (TV shows, Video Games) that contain violence
They may try to lie their way out of accepting responsibility when they are caught
They show little (if any) remorse for their victims
Some of the reasons why kids bully:
They see others doing it
It's what you do if you want to hang out with the right crowd (to become popular)
It makes them feel, stronger, smarter, or better than the person they are bullying
It prevents others from bullying them
Long-term effects
It can mess up a kid's future.
Young people who bully are more likely than those who don't bully to skip school and drop out of school. They are also more likely to smoke, drink alcohol and get into fights (Nansel et al, 2003; Olweus, 1993).
It scares some people so much that they skip school.
As many as 160,000 students may stay home on any given day because they're afraid of being bullied (Pollack, 1998).
It can lead to huge problems later in life.
Children who bully are more likely to get into fights, vandalize property, and drop out of school.
Approximately 60% of boys who were bullies in middle school had at least one criminal conviction by the age of 24 (Olweus, 1993).
Changes in the Family Environment
Last few decades – changing in the structure of a “typical family”
↑ in # of families with 2 parents working
↑ in divorce rate
↑ in # of single-parent families
One of the biggest challenges of middle childhood – increasing independence
Children move from being completely controlled by their parents to increasingly controlling their own lives
Coregulation – A period during which parent and child jointly control the child’s behavior.
Effects of family environment
Both parents working outside of the home – what is the impact on the children?
In most cases, children do very well
The parents’ schedule seems less important than other factors…
Children have best adjustment when parents are:
Loving
Sensitive to their children’s needs
Providing appropriate substitute care
20
Effects of Family Environment
Children who are home alone:
Self-care children are children who let themselves into their homes after school and wait alone until their caretakers return from work (“latchkey kids”)
Some children report negative experiences while at home alone (such as loneliness)
Alone time at home is viewed as less detrimental than “hanging out” unsupervised with peers
This is an opportunity for enhanced independence and competence, as well as an opportunity for “down time”
Many self-care children develop strong self-esteem as a result of the opportunity to take care of homework, personal projects, and contribute to the house
Effects of Divorce
Only about 50% of children will grow up with married parents living in the same home
Other family dynamics – single-parent, stepparents, raised by grandparents, living with other relatives, or foster care
Impact of divorce?
Age of children at the time of divorce is an important factor
During the early stages of middle childhood, children tend to blame themselves for the divorce
By the age of 10, children feel pressure to choose sides and therefore may have divided loyalty
Children and parents take time to adjust – typically 6 months to 2 years
Most children live with their mothers after divorce
Parent-child relationships are strained due to children being “caught in the middle”
Single Parents
Single-parent families
1 in every 2 children live in a single parent home (under the age of 18)
In rare cases, this situation is a result of death
In most cases, there either was never a spouse, parents have divorced, or one parent has been absent
Impact of single-parent family depends on a number of factors:
Was 2nd parent present earlier?
What is the socioeconomic status of the single parent?
Who is caring for the child while single parent is working?
Blended Families
The aftermath of divorce often results in at least one parent remarrying
“Blended families” refers to a remarried couple who has at least one stepchild living with them
17% of all children in the U.S. living in a blended family
Role ambiguity often occurs – roles and expectations for family members are unclear:
Children may be uncertain about their responsibilities
Children may be unsure of how to act towards stepparents or stepsiblings
Children may have to decide which family to spend a holiday with
Children may get conflicting advice from biological parent and stepparent
Unit 2
EARLY CHILDHOOD THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
Unit II
Unit II (Early Childhood-Adolescence)
Early Childhood (2-7): Physical Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Middle Childhood (7-12): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
Adolescence (12-21): Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional Development
The childhood Years (Early childhood 2-7) & (Middle Childhood 7-12)
Physical, Cognitive & Socioemotional
Physical Development During Early Childhood (2-7)
Physical Growth:
Children grow steadily during the preschool period
The average 6-year old weighs 46 pounds and is 46 inches tall
By age 6, boys are taller and heavier (on average) than girls
Arms and legs lengthen
Muscle size increases
Bones become sturdier
Enuresis (bedwetting): More common in boys, some may continue until early teen years.
Most common cause of death are accidents
Motor Development
Both gross and fine motor skills become increasingly fine-tuned during this age
Boys tend to be somewhat stronger and have greater overall physical activity level than girls due to increased muscle strength
Girls tend to be more dexterous and have greater coordination of limbs
Fine motor skills develop:
Cutting with scissors
Tying shoes
Playing piano
Handedness also begins to emerge
Ready for Formal Education?
Fun Fact: A child’s brain is 90% developed by age 3
A child’s corpus callosum is shaped by age 10, slowing learning by 50%
Not until about age 6 are most children ready for formal instruction
Can be late—even 8 years of age
Need to be able to
sit still for more than an hour
scan a page of print
draw and write with one hand
listen and think before talking
remember important facts
control emotions
Did you know?
The best time to learn a second language is during the first 4 years of life?
| 2-3 | 3-4 | 4-5 | 5-7 | 7-11 | |
| Learning | Exploration Imitation Rules through praise and reward | Observation Adult Explanation | Wordplay Right from wrong Fears | Start reading, writing, math Eager | Problem solving Ideas Regulated thinking |
| Abilities | Simple directions Name pictured objects Group by category | Group and match Identify parts of a whole 15 min. activities Awareness | Names colors Artistic Story telling More awareness | Understanding time Who, what, when, where, and why | |
| Social | Start playing with other children Imagination develops | Please adults Objects have feelings | Lose egocentrism |
Edit Master text styles
Second level
Third level
Fourth level
Fifth level
7
Cognitive Development in Children
2-3
Learning through exploration
Respond to simple directions
Name pictured objects
Group by category
Stack by size
Id themselves
Imitate adults
Understand simple stories
Imagination develops (dolls, imaginary friends, stuffed animals
Can do simple puzzles (3-4 piece)
Start to count
Rules can be enforced using praise and reward
Start playing with other children
Identify themselves
Understand simple stories
Start to count
Puzzles
3-4
Group and match objects (color and size)
Id parts of a whole (piece of a pie)
Seek info by “why” and “how”
Tell name and age
Attend activities for up to 15 minutes
Learn by observing and adult’s explanation
Awareness of past and present
4-5
Play with words, rhymes, mimics, sounds
Name colors
Draw person w/ detail
Draw, name, and describe picture
Count
Tell street and town
Can tell stories with beginning, middle, and end
Know right from wrong- with firm consistent limits
Difficult time differentiating between fantasy and reality
Fears may develop associated with unfamiliar sights and sounds
Influenced by television
5-7
Learning reading, writing, and math
Strong desire to please adults
Eager to learn
May feel objects have feelings
Understand today, tomorrow, yesterday
Can answer the who, what, when, where and why of questions
Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thinking
Ages 2 - 7
Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period.
Piaget noted that children in this stage:
Do not yet understand concrete logic
Cannot distinguish reality from fantasy
Are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.
During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.
For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.
Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage.
Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.
Egocentrism
Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of children.
Most famous technique – 3-D display of a mountain scene.
Children asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed.
Most children are able to do this with little difficulty.
Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.
Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain scene.
According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take on another person's perspective.
Conservation
In one well-known conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two identical containers.
The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup.
Children are then asked which cup holds the most liquid.
Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller.
Piaget found that few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
Preschoolers’ Understanding of Numbers
One critical flaw in Piaget’s theory – Preschoolers have a greater understanding of numbers than he thought
The average preschooler can count in a fairly consistent, systematic manner
By age 4, most preschool-aged children can carry out simple addition and subtraction problems by counting
They also can compare different quantities quite successfully
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development
Social interaction plays an important role in the development of cognitive skills.
The development of cognitive skills depends upon the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
ZPD is the level at which children can almost, but not quit fully, perform a task independently. They can perform the task with the assistance of someone more competent or skilled.
When appropriate instruction is offered within the ZPD, children are able to increase their understanding and master new skills.
Scaffolding is a key idea derived from Vygotsky's view.
The assistance provided by others is called SCAFFOLDING - the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth.
The aid that more accomplished individuals provide to learners comes in the form of cultural tools (the actual physical items such as pencils, paper, calculators, and computers)
Forming a Sense of Self
Psychosocial Development
Erikson
Changes in understanding of self as well as others’ behaviors
Preschool years
Ending of autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Children either become more independent as a result of parental encouragement of exploration or they experience shame and doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
Beginning of initiative vs. guilt stage
Initiative vs. Guilt
Age 3 – 6
“Let me do it”
Conflict at this stage is the struggle between wanting to do things independently (without help from mom and dad) and the guilt that comes with failure
To support positive resolution, parents should:
Provide opportunities for decision-making and self-reliance
Offer direction and guidance
Encourage children’s initiative
Parents who discourage children’s efforts toward initiative make contribute toward child’s feelings of guilt and may negatively impact their self-concept
14
Development of Self-Concept
What is self-concept?
A person’s identity – a set up beliefs about a person and what they are like as an individual – what sets them apart from everyone else
Preschooler’s tend to have an optimistic, yet unrealistic self-concepts until the age of 5 or 6
They tend to overestimate their skills and knowledge
Part of their optimism is that they are only beginning to compare themselves to what their peers can do
Their optimistic view enables them take chances and try new things
Cultural Impact on Development of the Self
The way a particular culture views the self impacts the way preschoolers develop their own self concept
In a collectivist society, family and clan ties are regarded as critical and people in these societies are expected to put their own dreams and beliefs to one side for "the greater good" of the whole community.
Group, rather than the individual, is the fundamental unit of political, social, and economic concern.
Examples of collectivist societies include Latin America, the Far East and the Islamic world.
In an individualist society, the individual is regarded as sovereign, and it is their wishes that should be the ultimate decider of action.
Individualism holds that a human being should think and judge independently, respecting nothing more than the sovereignty of his or her mind; thus, it is intimately connected with the concept of autonomy.
Examples of individualist societies are Europe, North America and Australia-New Zealand.
Children in Western cultures are more likely to focus on their uniqueness - what sets them apart from others
Racial and Ethnic Awareness
A child becomes aware of racial difference during pre-school years.
As they look at other children, they recognize that some have light skin and others dark skin, some have straight hair and others curly hair, some have rounded eyes and others narrow eyes.
They begin to compare their own appearance to other children.
Children at this age have learned to “classify”
They tend to sort things based on color and size.
They can't yet deal with multiple classification, so they get confused about the names of racial groups and the actual color of their skin.
They wonder why two people with different skin tones are considered part of the same racial group.
Preschoolers begin to identify themselves as a member of a particular group such as “Hispanic”, however, they do not yet understand the significance society places on ethnic and racial membership
Gender Identity
Differences in the way we treat boys and girls begin at birth (often even in the womb!)
Gender differences manifest in children’s play
Boys - more rough-housing, wrestling
Girls – more time in structured activities and role-playing
Girls prefer same sex playmates at approximately 2; boys typically do not begin the show preference until age 3
Sexuality is largely determined by the hormones presented prenatally.
Gender expectation
Preschoolers begin to have ideas about what types of behaviors are appropriate for males and females
Preschoolers expectations and gender stereotypes are less flexible in this phase of life than any other period throughout the lifespan
Several theoretical explanations for the influence of gender during the preschool years…
Biological Perspectives
Our sex (male or female) refers to the physical characteristics that differentiate the two
Some research suggests that there are biological differences in the structure of male and female brains
Corpus callosum (nerves connecting hemispheres of brain) larger in women
Gender differences can be produced by hormones
Studies of males and females with atypical levels of hormones
Girls with unusually high levels of androgen preferred males as playmates and spent more time than other girls (hormones within normal ranges) playing with trucks and cars.
Impact of evolution on gender differences – Stereotypical characteristics attracted mates and promoted their survival
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context.
It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
Albert Bandura is considered one of the most influential theorists in this area.
General principles of social learning theory follows:
1. People can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
Cognitive Approaches
Preschoolers begin to establish their gender identity through the formation of gender schemas – cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender
Children at this age begin to develop “rules” about what is acceptable and what is inappropriate for males and females
Because preschoolers are so rigid in their thinking, they may apply these “rules” very strictly
Ex: A little girl who things pants are inappropriate for girls may refuse to wear anything but dresses
Cognitive Approaches
The Purpose of Play
Developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky thought that, in the preschool years, play is the leading source of development.
Through play children learn and practice many basic social skills.
They develop a sense of self, learn to interact with other children, how to make friends, how to lie and how to role-play.
Categorizing Play
At the beginning of preschool years (age 3), children engage in functional play – simple, repetitive activities
Pushing a car, rolling and unrolling clay, skipping
Playing for the purpose of being active rather than working towards an end result
By approximately age 4, children will begin to involve themselves in constructive play – manipulating objects to produce or build something
Putting a puzzle together, building a house out of Legos
The Social Aspects of Play (According to Mildred Parten (1932)
Parallel play – Children using similar toys, playing in a similar manner, but not interacting with one another.
Onlooker play – Children simply watch others play, but do not engage in the activity or participate themselves.
Associative play – Two or more children interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they are not doing the same thing.
Cooperative play – Children are genuinely playing with one another by taking turns, playing games, or devising contests.
Play Therapy
Children have a difficult time trying to articulate their feelings through words.
Psychologists have determined that a child expresses a great deal through play.
This determination led to the development and use of play therapy.
Play therapy allows the child to play in a controlled environment and the therapist can observe their behavior.
This also allows a child to work through some internal conflicts you may not be aware of.
Observing their play may provide insight into the inner feelings or concerns. This may help you as you attempt to understand why your child is behaving a certain way.
Sand therapy
Sand-tray therapy :
A method of psychoanalytic therapy
Used to assess the mental health and well-being of children and adults
The therapist analyzes how they express themselves through the manipulation of objects in small, tabletop sand-trays.
Clients are asked to create a diorama (a story or miniature world) by arranging toy people, animals, cars, plants, etc. in the sand tray.
The therapist evaluates the client's choice and use of the objects to help the participant to recognize their deeper "symbolic" natures, and to draw various conclusions about their psychological health.
Sand Tray is a non-invasive therapeutic method that works especially well with those individuals who are young or have trouble comprehending and talking about difficult issues, such as domestic abuse or child abuse, incest, or the death of a family member.
Parenting styles
. There are many ideas about how to raise children.
Some parents adopt the ideas their own parents used.
Some talk to their child’s pediatrician.
Others get advice from friends.
Some read books about parenting.
Others take parenting classes.
Psychologists have determined the parenting practices are most effective and are more likely to lead to positive outcomes for children
Parenting styles can be grouped into three categories:
Authoritarian, Permissive, and Authoritative
Also a 4th category – Uninvolved Parents
Authoritarian
Authoritarian parents always try to be in control and exert their control on the children.
These parents are punitive, rigid, and cold.
Authoritarian parents set strict rules to try to keep order, and they usually do this without much expression of warmth and affection.
They attempt to set strict standards of conduct and are usually very critical of children for not meeting those standards.
Authoritarian parents typically do not tolerate expressions of disagreement.
They tell children what to do, they try to make them obey and they usually do not provide children with choices or options.
Impact on Children
Children of authoritarian parents:
Tend to be withdrawn
Lack social skills
Are typically not friendly
Often appear uneasy around their peers
Girls tend to be overly dependent on their parents
Boys tend to be unusually hostile
Permissive
Permissive parents give up most control to their children.
They do not see themselves as holding much responsibility for how their children turn out.
They provide lax and inconsistent feedback
Parents make few, if any, rules, and the rules that they make are usually not consistently enforced.
They don't want to be tied down to routines. They want their children to feel free.
They do not set clear boundaries or expectations for their children's behavior
They tend to accept in a warm and loving way, however the child behaves.
Impact on Children
Least Exploratory
Authoritative
Authoritative parents help children learn to be responsible for themselves and to think about the consequences of their behavior.
Parents do this by providing clear, reasonable expectations for their children and explanations for why they expect their children to behave in a particular manner.
Authoritative parents set clear, firm and consistent limits
They monitor their children's behavior to make sure that they follow through on rules and expectations.
They do this in a warm and loving manner.
They often, "try to catch their children being good" and reinforcing the good behavior, rather than focusing on the bad.
Impact on Children
Children of authoritative parents:
Are generally independent
Are friendly with and are well-liked by their peers
Are self-assertive
Have strong motivation to achieve
Are typically successful
Regulate their own behavior effectively
Uninvolved parents
Uninvolved parents show no interest in their children.
They display indifferent behavior towards their children, rejecting them
They are detached emotionally – their “parenting” encompasses simply supplying food, clothing and shelter
Uninvolved parenting is often considered “neglect”, which is a form of child abuse
Child Abuse
Child abuse happens in many different ways, but the result is the same- serious physical or emotional harm.
Abuse can be physical, psychological or emotional, sexual or can be in the form of neglect
Physical or sexual abuse may be the most striking types of abuse, since they often unfortunately leave physical evidence behind.
However, emotional abuse and neglect are serious types of child abuse that are often more subtle and difficult to spot.
Child neglect is the most common type of child abuse.
Forms of abuse
Physical abuse is any injury purposely inflicted upon a child.
This can include kicking, biting, violent shaking, hair pulling, choking, burning or beating.
If a child has numerous fractures, welts or bruises in various stages of healing, then there is good reason to be suspicious.
Sexual abuse is any sexual act between a child and an adult.
Actual intercourse does not have to occur for a child to be considered sexually abused.
Children can be forced to observe or participate in various sexual acts.
This form of abuse is more difficult to reveal.
Emotional abuse is verbal abuse or an attitude that is degrading a child.
This can include name calling, screaming, shaming or negatively comparing a child to another "good" child.
Emotional abuse can have long lasting effects on the social and mental health development of a child.
Neglect is failing to provide for a child's basic needs.
This can include inappropriate clothing for the weather, unhealthy food (or no food at all), lack of supervision, denial of medical care to a sick or injured child or denial of love and affection.
How can child abuse happen?
History of child abuse.
Unfortunately, patterns we learn in childhood are often what we use as parents.
Without treatment and insight, the cycle of child abuse often continues.
Stress and lack of support.
Parenting can be a very time intensive, difficult job.
Parents caring for children without support from family, friends or the community can be under a lot of stress.
Teen parents often struggle with the maturity and patience needed to be a parent.
Caring for a child with a disability, special needs or difficult behaviors is also a challenge.
Caregivers who are under financial or relationship stress are at risk as well.
Alcohol or drug abuse.
Alcohol and drug abuse lead to serious lapses in judgment – this can interfere with impulse control making emotional and physical abuse more likely.
Due to impairment caused by being intoxicated, alcohol and drug abuse frequently lead to child neglect
Domestic violence.
Witnessing domestic violence in the home, as well as the chaos and instability that is the result, is emotional abuse to a child.
Domestic violence often escalates to physical violence against the child as well.
Warning Signs
In most cases, abused children will not just come out and tell you that they are being abused.
There is a fear of with might happen to them if they tell and possibly even a feeling of betraying the abuser.
Some children are lead to believe that the abuse is their fault and so they feel ashamed to tell anyone.
Some warning signs:
Withdrawal from family and friends
Sleeplessness
Irrational fears
Depression or anxiety
Burns, bite marks or multiple bruises
Change in weight
Nightmares
Anger
Low self-esteem
Privacy issues.
This list includes only a few signs that can point to abuse. If a child has a couple of these signs, that does not necessarily mean that a child is being abused. Also, all abused children do not exhibit these signs.
Get help from top-rated tutors in any subject.
Efficiently complete your homework and academic assignments by getting help from the experts at homeworkarchive.com