[Title of Research]
Dependent Variable |
MPG |
Weight (Ton) |
Drive Ratio |
Horsepower |
Displacement (litres) |
Cylinders |
Minimum |
15.50 |
1.92 |
2.26 |
65.00 |
85.00 |
4.00 |
Maximum |
37.30 |
4.36 |
3.90 |
155.00 |
360.00 |
8.00 |
Mean |
24.76 |
2.86 |
3.09 |
101.74 |
177.29 |
5.39 |
Median |
24.25 |
2.69 |
3.08 |
100.00 |
148.50 |
4.50 |
Standard Deviation |
6.55 |
0.71 |
0.52 |
26.44 |
88.88 |
1.60 |
Range |
21.80 |
2.45 |
1.64 |
90.00 |
275.00 |
4.00 |
Number of Observations |
38 |
38 |
38 |
38 |
38 |
38 |
Summary Statistics
(Explain summary statistics. For example, what does this statistics tell you about each variable? What is the shape of the distribution of each variable?)
Correlation Coefficients
(Find correlation coefficient between the dependent variable and each of the independent variables)
Dependent Variable |
MPG |
Weight (Ton) |
Drive Ratio |
Horsepower |
Displacement |
Cylinders |
MPG (Miles) |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
Weight (Ton) |
-0.90 |
1 |
|
|
|
|
Drive Ratio |
0.42 |
-0.69 |
1 |
|
|
|
Horsepower |
-0.87 |
0.92 |
-0.59 |
1 |
|
|
Displacement |
-0.79 |
0.95 |
-0.80 |
0.87 |
1 |
|
Cylinders |
-0.81 |
0.92 |
-0.69 |
0.86 |
0.94 |
1 |
(Explain the correlation coefficients. What does it tell you about the relationship between the dependent and each of the independent variables?)
Scatter Plots
(Explain the scatter plots. What does it tell you about the relationship between the dependent and each of the independent variables? Does there exist any outliers?)
Regression Results
Y = 69.22 – 11.38x – 3.35x + .45x + .03x - .53x
Dependent Variable |
Coefficients |
t Stat |
P-value |
Intercept |
69.22 |
14.96 |
0.00 |
Weight (Ton) |
-11.38 |
-5.60 |
0.00 |
Drive Ratio |
-3.35 |
-2.63 |
0.01 |
Horsepower |
-0.04 |
-1.30 |
0.20 |
Displacement (liters) |
0.03 |
1.65 |
0.11 |
Cylinders |
-0.53 |
-0.78 |
0.44 |
(Interpret the coefficients for each of the independent variables, and t-statistic and p-value for each coefficient. For example, does Variable 1 have a significant impact on the dependent variable? Why or why not? How much impact does Variable 1 have on the dependent variable?)
Assess the Model’s Fit
[From Excel regression output, identify and interpret the measures for the fit of the model,
including the Standard Error of the Estimate (Se), Coefficient of Determination (Rsquared),
Adjusted R-squared, and F-statistic. What do these measures tell you about the
model’s fit?]
Regression Diagnosis
[Insert residual plots and histogram of residuals. Based on residual plots, explain
whether the required conditions for the residuals are satisfied. Comment on the
Goodness-of-Fit and validity of the model. Identify outliers if there exists any. Is your
model a valid model?]
Estimation
[Use the regression equation to estimate. For example, given certain values of the
independent variables, what is the predicted value for the dependent variable?]
Recommendations
[Based on the above regression analysis results, provide managerial decisions and/or
recommendations.]
Histogram
Frequency Below 60 60 - 120 120 -180 180 - 240 240 - 300 Above 300 1 151 43 21 3 2 7MPG
Frequency
020400246
Weight (Ton)
Weight (Ton)020400246
Drive Ratio
Drive Ratio020400100200
Horsepower (hp)
Horsepower (hp)020400200400
Displacement
Displacement020400510
Cylinders
Cylinders
Language in Society
COMS 320 Sp15
Ch 7 Sections
Language Levels
Idiolect
Dialect
Language
Contact
Language in use
Lingua Francas
Pidgins & Creoles
Multilingualism
Idiolect
Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279)
Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects
450 to 850 million English idiolects
Unique language use in groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein)
Restricted codes
Shared set of assumptions
Predictable language, less expression needed
Elaborated codes
Unshared perspectives
Less predictable language, more elaboration needed
Research Moment: Data Gathering
On your own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend.
What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN?
What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why?
Research Moment: Data Analysis
Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data
For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings
How is the language similar?
How is the language different?
For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning
What language makes the meaning clear?
What language needs further explanation?
Results
In a restricted code situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language?
In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect interfere with language comprehension?
Dialect
Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279)
All speakers speak at least one dialect
Language – collection of dialects
Max Weber – language is a dialect with an army and a navy
Language vs. dialect?
Dialect continuum
Dialect area – concentration of differences
Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area
Regional dialects often have geographical boundaries
Ethnic identity
Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence
Dialect Characteristics
How can we tell dialects apart?
Phonology: Accents
r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh (New England)
Ask vs. aks (AAVE)
r-final – idea vs. idear (Chinese, near Beijing)
Syntax: Verbs, usually
Then she come a-runnin’ (Appalachian)
He been married vs. He Been married! (which one is still married?) (AAVE)
Lexicon: Nouns
What would you call the food on the right?
How far away is San Diego from LA?
Social Dialects
Dialects can also result from social boundaries
Gender
Male and female language characteristics
Male and female dialects/languages
Social class
Vernacular
Prestige dialects
Diglossia – different languages for different purposes
English social dialects
AAE & ChE
Korean English? Armenian English?
Language in society
Styles/Registers
“Situational dialects”
Language use that depends on interactants and context
Can be competent in several styles
X – Formality/informality, high/low status
Slang
Creative, playful language that marks informal speech
Can become outdated quickly or adopted by society
X – groovy vs. cool vs. freshman
Language in society
Jargon and Argot
Jargon – specialized vocabulary of group, often technical
Can add to the common language
X – computer, law, medical terms
Argot – specialized vocabulary of group, often idiomatic
X – teenage slang, nerd speech, debate jargon
Both forms can result in exclusion of the uninitiated
Jargon – can become speaker’s everyday language
May need translating!
Argot – often created specifically for definite inclusion/exclusion boundaries
Cardiac arrest, respiratory system, digestive tract, colon, anus
Litigation, fraud, embezzlement
Input, output, memory, software, hardware
11
Language in society
Taboo words
Words considered inappropriate for use in “polite society”
Euphemisms
Language that replaces taboo words or avoids unpleasant or unmentionable subjects.
X – heck, darn, shoot
Most cultures have euphemisms for death
X – belly up, six feet under, kicked the bucket, laid to rest, bought the farm, one last curtain call
Language creativity at work: Bucket list
Speech Communities
Groups of people who have developed a social dialect
Interaction rules
Language norms
Example
Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers
Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories
Full medical names for diseases and disorders
Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus
& for “and” in all words, like st&
Language in Contact
COMS 320 Sp15
Communication Accommodation
Communication Accommodation Theory
Interactants will adapt their speaking style to each other to either reduce or increase social distance.
Relationship-based
Convergence – Emphasize group membership
Divergence – Reinforce social identity
Linguistic characteristics not yet researched
Language and accommodation
Convergence starts with comprehension
Divergence is developed through prestige
Exercise: Languages in Contact
+Ls, come up front, choose a slip of paper, read it, and put it back face down, then choose a partner from the 1Ls.
1Ls, you work at a local travel agency. +Ls, you are important visitors trying to purchase something to help you get around the city or country. You must communicate your needs to the 1Ls without losing your dignity.
+Ls may not purchase the item until 1Ls can understand your request and construct a sentence that confirms the item and tells you the price in your language, or after 10 minutes of struggling. Write down the final form of L1’s sentences.
No English or common language should be spoken during this exercise. Cheating will result in no extra credit.
Language in Contact
Lingua franca
Language that allows diverse language groups to understand each other
Set by common agreement between groups
If not native, will be spoken by most group members with an adequate level of competence
Often a trade language for conducting business
Roman Empire: Latin
Africa: Swahili
China: Putonghua
English: “Lingua franca of the whole world”
Pidgins
Language arising from limited contact between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages
Lexifier – source for lexicon, usually superstrate
Superstrate – dominant language
Substrate – native language
Conditions
Multilingual community (or interaction)
Relative isolation of substrate from superstrate
Proper forms of superstrate not learned by substrate speaker
L1 already acquired by both speakers
pigeon
Pidgin Characteristics
Characterized by impoverished language structures
Most common vowels
a (ah), i (ee), u (oo)
Telegraphic syntax
No articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions
Few function words
Pela – plural marker, adjective marker
Yu = you, yupela = you all
Circumlocution
Grass bilong het, Grass bilong fes
Mak bilong fet, Makmak
Irregular, non-rule-based usage – lots of idiolects!
Creoles
Pidgin that becomes a native language of at least one generation of speakers
Children develop pidgin into language with rules and uniformity among speakers, but with own characteristics
Syntax
Simplified grammar
No auxiliary verbs such as “will,” no tense inflection on verbs
“A gon full Angela bucket”
Lexicon
Sophisticated pronoun systems
Different pronouns for number in group, inclusion-exclusion
Compounding
“Sweat.” Pidgin: wara bilong skin, Creole: skinwara
TOK Pisin
One of New Guinea’s national languages
Superstrate - Indo-European, esp. English
Substrate - several Melanesian dialects
Status is debated
Creole – native speakers
Pidgin – 90% of speakers have other native languages
TRANSLITERAtion
Work at street
all car must stop
if you see
red (adj) mark
Language prestige
The assignment of relative status or importance to languages
Standard dialect
Socially chosen ideal dialect among dialect varieties
Unrealistic: no one actually speaks it
US: Standard American English
AKA Broadcast Standard
Where did it originate?
What might be some consequences
of having no standard dialect?
Who has to overcome the challenges?
23
Impacts of Standard dialect
Official language(s)
Language used by administration
X – Uganda: Swahili, English. US – state-level decision
Language planning
Purposeful, often administrative attempts to control language use and change
X – French Academie, British “received pronunciation,” revival of Hebrew in Israel, feminist movements against sexist language
Strongly impacts education
Language banning
Restriction or prohibition of unacceptable dialects or language forms
X – Language reform in Turkey in the 1930’s
Perpetuation of prestige
Prestige is often perpetuated (consciously or unconsciously) by the attitudes of dominant and non-dominant language speakers toward the relative status of languages.
https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSvp- 5JLKdQ
1. How is language contact being encouraged?
2. What kind of language would develop between the two groups of speakers if contact were continued?
3. How is language prestige being perpetuated?
Language Change
COMS 320 Sp15
Language Change
Language is dynamic
Constantly in flux
Left to itself, changes relatively slowly
Living generations can communicate
Most noticeable when past language has been preserved
What words can you recognize in the following sentence?
Wolde guman findan þone þe him on sweofote sare geteode
Chronology!
Divide into groups of two to three people. Set the stack of papers in the middle. Take the top paper, read it aloud, and set it where everyone can see it.
Taking turns, each person takes the next paper, reads it aloud, and tries to decide whether it belongs before, after, or in between two papers.
The goal is to arrange all papers in correct chronological order based on their linguistic features. Take notes on the features which distinguish the era of each sample.
The Study of Change
Historical: change in particular language over time
Comparative: change between and across languages
Language contact
Language inheritance
Does communication studies study language change?
Phonological Change
Regular sound correspondence
Systematic replacement of one sound for another
Rule-based change – will happen in all instances
X – Northern ah for er, as in cah for car
X – Southern aah for ai, as in paah for pie
Sound shift
“Historical phonological change”
Phonological restructuring where phoneme production moves systematically around the places of articulation
Great Vowel Shift – 1400 AD
California Accent
California Vowel Placement
IPA Vowel Placement
Lexical Changes: Class, Names, Blends
Lexical change: Addition of new words into language
Word category
Words that change meaning by changing word class
Walk, run, email, text, message, input,
Names
Proper nouns that become part of the lexicon
Sandwich, lazy susan, gargantuan
Blends (aka portmanteau words)
Words made from parts of at least two words
Smog, brunch, motel, neither, electrocute, infomercial, podcast, carmageddon, bit
Lexical Changes: Coinage
Coinage
Construction or invention of new words that then become part of the lexicon
Advertising – Kleenex, Bandaid
Science & technology – television, computer
A healthy language is able to adapt to new input
Lexical gaps – google, bling
Borrowed roots – -ology, -phobia
Lexical Changes: Reduction
Reduction
Clippings
Abbreviation of longer words into shorter words that may or may not retain the same meaning
Cami, fax, phone, flu, porn, droid, phone, fridge, pro, memo, phenom, fan
Acronyms
Words made from the initial sounds of several words and pronounced as a word
May be pronounced phonetically or spelled out
Lexical Change: Acronyms
Phonetically pronounced
NASA – National Aeronautics & Space Association
Laser – Lightwave amplification stimulated by radiation
Radar – Radio detecting and ranging
Sonar – Sound navigation and ranging
CSUN – California State University, Northridge
Spelled
US, LAX, UCLA, NFL, MRI
Lexical Change: Borrowings/Loan Words
Word or morpheme added to the lexicon from another language
Native word – traceable back to earliest stages of language
Direct borrowing – borrowed word is native in loaner language
Feast, lieutenant, ensemble, fry, boil, stew, menage a trois
Usually altered to fit new language’s phonological rules
Indirect borrowing – word was initially borrowed from another language
Algebra: Arabic – Spanish - English
Semantic Change
Change in semantic representation
Broadening
Original meaning plus new meaning
Dog – specific breed to class noun; Manage – “handle a horse” to “take charge of”
Narrowing
Broad meaning reduced to specific meaning
Deer – all beasts to specific type of animal; Skyline – horizon to city outline at sunset
Meaning shift
Original meaning is lost in favor of different meaning
Nice – ignorant to pleasant
Morphological Change
Changes in the rules that govern word formation
Rules can be adopted, lost, or changed
Over time, English dropped Latin case endings in favor of word order and prepositions
-em – canem quidem esurit (The dog is hungry)
-is – pavi canis (I fed the dog)
Only kept possessives and 3P singular present
Jane’s dog runs away.
AAVE
African American Vernacular English
Dialect in development
Origins during slavery unclear; current theories propose creole
W African substrate, English lexifier => Pidgin
Isolation from English learning => Creole
Isolation produced rich dialect!
Still have lots of regional and individual variation
Unique AAVE Characteristics
Syntax/morphology = leveling of inflection, aux verbs
I don't care what he say, you gon laugh!
Meaning shifts in auxiliary verbs = habitual “be”
Pragmatics = discourse & narrative conventions, probably from Africa
Call-response – active listening style
Interactive, not backchanneling!
Talk-singing – rhetorical, layers of meaning
Ritualized greetings
Sample of Early AAVE
“One day atter Brer Rabbit fool 'im wid dat calamus root, Brer Fox went ter wuk en got 'im some tar, en mix it wid some turkentime, en fix up a contrapshun w'at he call a Tar-Baby, en he tuck dish yer Tar-Baby en he sot 'er in de big road, en den he lay off in de bushes fer to see what de news wuz gwine ter be. En he didn't hatter wait long, nudder, kaze bimeby here come Brer Rabbit pacin’ down de road--lippity-clippity, clippity -lippity--dez ez sassy ez a jay-bird. Brer Fox, he lay low. Brer Rabbit come prancin' 'long twel he spy de Tar-Baby, en den he fotch up on his behime legs like he wuz 'stonished. De Tar Baby, she sot dar, she did, en Brer Fox, he lay low.
- Joel Chandler Harris
Syntactic Change
Change can takes centuries - affects deep language structure
English - word order replaced Latin case endings
Native English speakers have to learn grammar when trying to learn other languages!
Language Families
Proto-languages
Ancestral languages
English and German come from Proto-Indo-European
Language & Writing
COMS 320 Sp15
Written Language
Visual system for representing language
Allows spoken language to be recorded and preserved
Replaces memory as a means of retaining important information
History of Writing
Origins of writing
Practical uses
Uncertain whether commerce or proper names came first
Development of writing sytems
Pictogram –1-to-1 representation between image & object
Ideogram – picture represents concept
Logogram – picture represents linguistic word, becomes writing system b/c working with language system
Writing Systems
Based on characteristics of spoken language
Logographic – symbols represent words
For languages with little to no inflection, like Chinese
Syllabic – symbols represent syllables
For languages with standard syllable structures, like Japanese
Consonental – symbols represent consonants
For languages where vowels aren’t vital to meaning, like Arabic
Phonemic or alphabetic – symbols represent phonemes
For languages where each element matters, like English
Most languages use an alphabetic system
Writing & Language
Slows language change
Language can be repeated with fewer individual changes
Motivates language preservation
Prescriptive grammar – language standard
Descriptive grammar – language in use
Prescriptive grammar becomes only acceptable version
Language & Communication
Rhetoricians hold that writing influenced early Greek society in ways that spoken language couldn’t because spoken language is dependent on memory
Room for manipulation of concepts
Lessening of human interaction
Distancing of language from self
Move from event-driven narratives to permanent condition of being
Phonological Change 343
diagramming the reat owel hift on a vowel hart igure we an see that the high vowels i and u be ame the diphthongs aɪ and aʊ while the long vowels underwent an in rease in tongue height as if to fill in the spa e va ated b the high vowels n addition a was fronted to be ome e hese hanges are among the most dramati e amples of regular sound shift
he phonemi representation of man thousands of words hanged oda some refle tion of this vowel shift is seen in the alternating forms of morphemes in nglish please pleasant serene serenity sane sanity crime criminal sign signal and so on efore the reat owel hift the vowels in ea h pair were pronoun ed the same hen the vowels in the se ond word of ea h pair were shortened b the Early Middle English owel Shortening rule s a result the reat owel hift whi h o urred later and applied onl to long vowels affe ted onl the first word in ea h pair his is wh the vowels in the morphologi all related words are pronoun ed differentl toda as shown in able he reat owel hift is a primar sour e of man spelling in onsisten ies
of nglish be ause our spelling s stem still refle ts the wa words were pro noun ed before it o urred n general the written language is more onserva tive that is slower to hange than the spoken language
FIGURE 8.1 | The Great Vowel Shift.
TABLE 8.1 | Effect of Vowel Shift on Modern English
Middle English Shifted Short Word with Word with Vowel Vowel Vowel Shifted Vowel Short Vowel
aɪ ɪ divine divinity aʊ ʌ abound abundant i ɛ serene serenity u a fool folly e æ sane sanity
10686_ 08_ptg01_p337-393.indd 343 08/11/12 11:42 M
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005) CONSONANTS (PULMONIC)
´
A Å
i y È Ë ¨ u
Pe e∏ Ø o
E { ‰ ø O
a ” å
I Y U
Front Central Back
Close
Close-mid
Open-mid
Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.
œ ò
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
Plosive p b t d Ê ∂ c Ô k g q G / Nasal m µ n = ≠ N – Trill ı r R Tap or Flap v | « Fricative F B f v T D s z S Z ß Ω ç J x V X Â © ? h H Lateral fricative Ò L Approximant √ ® ’ j ˜ Lateral approximant l ¥ K
Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC)
SUPRASEGMENTALS
VOWELS
OTHER SYMBOLS
Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives
> Bilabial ∫ Bilabial ’ Examples: ˘ Dental Î Dental/alveolar p’ Bilabial ! (Post)alveolar ˙ Palatal t’ Dental/alveolar ¯ Palatoalveolar ƒ Velar k’ Velar ≤ Alveolar lateral Ï Uvular s’ Alveolar fricative
" Primary stress Æ Secondary stress
ÆfoUn´"tIS´n … Long e… Ú Half-long eÚ
* Extra-short e* ˘ Minor (foot) group ≤ Major (intonation) group . Syllable break ®i.œkt
≈ Linking (absence of a break)
TONES AND WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR
e _or â Extrahigh e
ˆ
or ä Rising e! ê High e$ ë Falling e@ î Mid e% ü Highrising e~ ô Low efi ï Lowrising e— û Extralow e& ñ$ Rising-falling Õ Downstep ã Global rise õ Upstep à Global fall
© 2005 IPA
DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g. N( 9 Voiceless n9 d9 ª Breathy voiced bª aª 1 Dental t 1 d1 3 Voiced s3 t 3 0 Creaky voiced b0 a0 ¡ Apical t ¡ d¡ Ó Aspirated tÓ dÓ £ Linguolabial t £ d£ 4 Laminal t 4 d4 7 More rounded O7 W Labialized tW dW ) Nasalized e) ¶ Less rounded O¶ ∆ Palatalized t∆ d∆ ˆ Nasal release dˆ ™ Advanced u™ ◊ Velarized t◊ d◊ ¬ Lateral release d¬ 2 Retracted e2 ≥ Pharyngealized t≥ d≥ } No audible release d} · Centralized e· ù Velarized or pharyngealized : + Mid-centralized e+ 6 Raised e6 ( ®6 = voiced alveolar fricative) ` Syllabic n` § Lowered e§ ( B§ = voiced bilabial approximant) 8 Non-syllabic e8 5 Advanced Tongue Root e5 ± Rhoticity ´± a± ∞ Retracted Tongue Root e∞
∑ Voiceless labial-velar fricative Ç Û Alveolo-palatal fricatives w Voiced labial-velar approximant » Voiced alveolar lateral flap Á Voiced labial-palatal approximant Í Simultaneous S and x Ì Voiceless epiglottal fricative ¿ Voiced epiglottal fricative Affricates and double articulationscan be represented by two symbols ÷ Epiglottal plosive joined by a tie bar if necessary.
kp ts (
(
Language in Society
COMS 320 Sp15
Ch 7 Sections
Language Levels
Idiolect
Dialect
Language
Contact
Language in use
Lingua Francas
Pidgins & Creoles
Multilingualism
Idiolect
Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279)
Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects
450 to 850 million English idiolects
Unique language use in groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein)
Restricted codes
Shared set of assumptions
Predictable language, less expression needed
Elaborated codes
Unshared perspectives
Less predictable language, more elaboration needed
Research Moment: Data Gathering
On your own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend.
What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN?
What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why?
Research Moment: Data Analysis
Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data
For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings
How is the language similar?
How is the language different?
For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning
What language makes the meaning clear?
What language needs further explanation?
Results
In a restricted code situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language?
In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect control linguistic expression?
Dialect
Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279)
All speakers speak at least one dialect
Language – collection of dialects
Language vs. dialect
Dialect continuum
Dialect area – concentration of differences
Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area
Ethnic identity
Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence
Dialect Characteristics
How can you tell that someone speaks a different dialect?
Phonology
Accents – tomato
r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh
Syntax
Verbs
Then he come a-runnin’ round the corner and there she was!
Lexicon
Nouns
What do you call shoes for sports?
Social Dialects
Dialects that result from social boundaries
Gender
Male and female language characteristics
Male and female dialects/languages
Social class
Prestige
English dialects
AAE
ChE
Speech Communities
Groups of people who have developed a social dialect
Interaction rules
Language norms
Example
Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers
Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories
Full medical names for diseases and disorders
Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus
& for “and” in all words, like s&d
Language in Contact
Lingua franca
Language for between-group communication
Set by common agreement
Trade language
X – Aramaic, French, English
Exercise: L in Contact
Pidgins
Pidgin
Contact between two languages
Superstrate – dominant language
Substrate – speaker’s native language
Usually temporary and/or fleeting
Characterized by impoverished language forms
Very little syntax
Overextension of meaning
Creole
Pidgin that becomes a native language for the children
Eventually develops into full-fledged language

Get help from top-rated tutors in any subject.
Efficiently complete your homework and academic assignments by getting help from the experts at homeworkarchive.com