Who has to overcome the challenges?

23

Impacts of Standard dialect

Official language(s)

Language used by administration

X – Uganda: Swahili, English. US – state-level decision

Language planning

Purposeful, often administrative attempts to control language use and change

X – French Academie, British “received pronunciation,” revival of Hebrew in Israel, feminist movements against sexist language

Strongly impacts education

Language banning

Restriction or prohibition of unacceptable dialects or language forms

X – Language reform in Turkey in the 1930’s

Phonological Change 343

diagramming the reat owel hift on a vowel hart igure we an see that the high vowels i and u be ame the diphthongs aɪ and aʊ while the long vowels underwent an in rease in tongue height as if to fill in the spa e va ated b the high vowels n addition a was fronted to be ome e hese hanges are among the most dramati e amples of regular sound shift

he phonemi representation of man thousands of words hanged oda some refle tion of this vowel shift is seen in the alternating forms of morphemes in nglish please pleasant serene serenity sane sanity crime criminal sign signal and so on efore the reat owel hift the vowels in ea h pair were pronoun ed the same hen the vowels in the se ond word of ea h pair were shortened b the Early Middle English owel Shortening rule s a result the reat owel hift whi h o urred later and applied onl to long vowels affe ted onl the first word in ea h pair his is wh the vowels in the morphologi all related words are pronoun ed differentl toda as shown in able he reat owel hift is a primar sour e of man spelling in onsisten ies

of nglish be ause our spelling s stem still refle ts the wa words were pro noun ed before it o urred n general the written language is more onserva tive that is slower to hange than the spoken language

FIGURE 8.1 | The Great Vowel Shift.

TABLE 8.1 | Effect of Vowel Shift on Modern English

Middle English Shifted Short Word with Word with Vowel Vowel Vowel Shifted Vowel Short Vowel

aɪ ɪ divine divinity aʊ ʌ abound abundant i ɛ serene serenity u a fool folly e æ sane sanity

10686_ 08_ptg01_p337-393.indd 343 08/11/12 11:42 M

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THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005) CONSONANTS (PULMONIC)

´

A Å

i y È Ë ¨ u

Pe e∏ Ø o

E { ‰ ø O

a ” å

I Y U

Front Central Back

Close

Close-mid

Open-mid

Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.

œ ò

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal

Plosive p b t d Ê ∂ c Ô k g q G / Nasal m µ n = ≠ N – Trill ı r R Tap or Flap v | « Fricative F B f v T D s   z S Z ß Ω ç J x V X Â © ? h H Lateral fricative Ò L Approximant √ ® ’ j ˜ Lateral approximant l  ¥ K

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC)

SUPRASEGMENTALS

VOWELS

OTHER SYMBOLS

Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives

> Bilabial ∫ Bilabial ’ Examples: ˘ Dental Î Dental/alveolar p’ Bilabial ! (Post)alveolar ˙ Palatal t’ Dental/alveolar ¯ Palatoalveolar ƒ Velar k’ Velar ≤ Alveolar lateral Ï Uvular s’ Alveolar fricative

" Primary stress Æ Secondary stress

ÆfoUn´"tIS´n … Long e… Ú Half-long eÚ

* Extra-short e* ˘ Minor (foot) group ≤ Major (intonation) group . Syllable break ®i.œkt

≈ Linking (absence of a break)

TONES AND WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR

e _or â Extrahigh e

ˆ

or ä Rising e! ê High e$ ë Falling e@ î Mid e% ü Highrising e~ ô Low efi ï Lowrising e— û Extralow e& ñ$ Rising-falling Õ Downstep ã Global rise õ Upstep à Global fall

© 2005 IPA

DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g. N( 9 Voiceless n9 d9 ª Breathy voiced bª aª 1 Dental t 1 d1 3 Voiced s3 t 3 0 Creaky voiced b0 a0 ¡ Apical t ¡ d¡ Ó Aspirated tÓ dÓ £ Linguolabial t £  d£ 4 Laminal t 4 d4 7 More rounded O7 W Labialized tW dW ) Nasalized e) ¶ Less rounded O¶ ∆ Palatalized t∆ d∆ ˆ Nasal release dˆ ™ Advanced u™ ◊ Velarized t◊  d◊ ¬ Lateral release d¬ 2 Retracted e2 ≥ Pharyngealized t≥   d≥ } No audible release d}    · Centralized e· ù Velarized or pharyngealized : + Mid-centralized e+ 6 Raised e6  ( ®6 = voiced alveolar fricative) ` Syllabic n` § Lowered e§ ( B§ = voiced bilabial approximant) 8 Non-syllabic e8 5 Advanced Tongue Root e5 ± Rhoticity ´± a± ∞ Retracted Tongue Root e∞

∑ Voiceless labial-velar fricative Ç Û Alveolo-palatal fricatives w   Voiced labial-velar approximant » Voiced alveolar lateral flap Á Voiced labial-palatal approximant Í Simultaneous S and x Ì Voiceless epiglottal fricative  ¿  Voiced epiglottal fricative Affricates and double articulationscan be represented by two symbols  ÷   Epiglottal plosive joined by a tie bar if necessary.

kp ts (

(