[Title of Research]

Names

Dependent Variable

MPG

Weight (Ton)

Drive Ratio

Horsepower

Displacement (litres)

Cylinders

Minimum

15.50

1.92

2.26

65.00

85.00

4.00

Maximum

37.30

4.36

3.90

155.00

360.00

8.00

Mean

24.76

2.86

3.09

101.74

177.29

5.39

Median

24.25

2.69

3.08

100.00

148.50

4.50

Standard Deviation

6.55

0.71

0.52

26.44

88.88

1.60

Range

21.80

2.45

1.64

90.00

275.00

4.00

Number of Observations

38

38

38

38

38

38

Summary Statistics

(Explain summary statistics. For example, what does this statistics tell you about each variable? What is the shape of the distribution of each variable?)

Correlation Coefficients

(Find correlation coefficient between the dependent variable and each of the independent variables)

Dependent Variable 

MPG

Weight

(Ton)

Drive Ratio

Horsepower

Displacement

Cylinders

MPG (Miles)

1

 

Weight (Ton)

-0.90

1

 

Drive Ratio

0.42

-0.69

1

 

Horsepower

-0.87

0.92

-0.59

1

 

Displacement

-0.79

0.95

-0.80

0.87

1

 

Cylinders

-0.81

0.92

-0.69

0.86

0.94

1

(Explain the correlation coefficients. What does it tell you about the relationship between the dependent and each of the independent variables?)

Scatter Plots

(Explain the scatter plots. What does it tell you about the relationship between the dependent and each of the independent variables? Does there exist any outliers?)

Regression Results

Y = 69.22 – 11.38x – 3.35x + .45x + .03x - .53x

Dependent Variable 

Coefficients

t Stat

P-value

Intercept

69.22

14.96

0.00

Weight (Ton)

-11.38

-5.60

0.00

Drive Ratio

-3.35

-2.63

0.01

Horsepower

-0.04

-1.30

0.20

Displacement (liters)

0.03

1.65

0.11

Cylinders

-0.53

-0.78

0.44

(Interpret the coefficients for each of the independent variables, and t-statistic and p-value for each coefficient. For example, does Variable 1 have a significant impact on the dependent variable? Why or why not? How much impact does Variable 1 have on the dependent variable?)

Assess the Model’s Fit

[From Excel regression output, identify and interpret the measures for the fit of the model,

including the Standard Error of the Estimate (Se), Coefficient of Determination (Rsquared),

Adjusted R-squared, and F-statistic. What do these measures tell you about the

model’s fit?]

Regression Diagnosis

[Insert residual plots and histogram of residuals. Based on residual plots, explain

whether the required conditions for the residuals are satisfied. Comment on the

Goodness-of-Fit and validity of the model. Identify outliers if there exists any. Is your

model a valid model?]

Estimation

[Use the regression equation to estimate. For example, given certain values of the

independent variables, what is the predicted value for the dependent variable?]

Recommendations

[Based on the above regression analysis results, provide managerial decisions and/or

recommendations.]

Histogram

Frequency Below 60 60 - 120 120 -180 180 - 240 240 - 300 Above 300 1 151 43 21 3 2 7

MPG

Frequency

020400246

Weight (Ton)

Weight (Ton)020400246

Drive Ratio

Drive Ratio020400100200

Horsepower (hp)

Horsepower (hp)020400200400

Displacement

Displacement020400510

Cylinders

Cylinders

Language in Society

COMS 320 Sp15

Ch 7 Sections

Language Levels

Idiolect

Dialect

Language

Contact

Language in use

Lingua Francas

Pidgins & Creoles

Multilingualism

Idiolect

Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279)

Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects

450 to 850 million English idiolects

Unique language use in groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein)

Restricted codes

Shared set of assumptions

Predictable language, less expression needed

Elaborated codes

Unshared perspectives

Less predictable language, more elaboration needed

Research Moment: Data Gathering

On your own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend.

What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN?

What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why?

Research Moment: Data Analysis

Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data

For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings

How is the language similar?

How is the language different?

For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning

What language makes the meaning clear?

What language needs further explanation?

Results

In a restricted code situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language?

In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect interfere with language comprehension?

Dialect

Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279)

All speakers speak at least one dialect

Language – collection of dialects

Max Weber – language is a dialect with an army and a navy

Language vs. dialect?

Dialect continuum

Dialect area – concentration of differences

Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area

Regional dialects often have geographical boundaries

Ethnic identity

Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence

Dialect Characteristics

How can we tell dialects apart?

Phonology: Accents

r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh (New England)

Ask vs. aks (AAVE)

r-final – idea vs. idear (Chinese, near Beijing)

Syntax: Verbs, usually

Then she come a-runnin’ (Appalachian)

He been married vs. He Been married! (which one is still married?) (AAVE)

Lexicon: Nouns

What would you call the food on the right?

How far away is San Diego from LA?

Social Dialects

Dialects can also result from social boundaries

Gender

Male and female language characteristics

Male and female dialects/languages

Social class

Vernacular

Prestige dialects

Diglossia – different languages for different purposes

English social dialects

AAE & ChE

Korean English? Armenian English?

Language in society

Styles/Registers

“Situational dialects”

Language use that depends on interactants and context

Can be competent in several styles

X – Formality/informality, high/low status

Slang

Creative, playful language that marks informal speech

Can become outdated quickly or adopted by society

X – groovy vs. cool vs. freshman

Language in society

Jargon and Argot

Jargon – specialized vocabulary of group, often technical

Can add to the common language

X – computer, law, medical terms

Argot – specialized vocabulary of group, often idiomatic

X – teenage slang, nerd speech, debate jargon

Both forms can result in exclusion of the uninitiated

Jargon – can become speaker’s everyday language

May need translating!

Argot – often created specifically for definite inclusion/exclusion boundaries

Cardiac arrest, respiratory system, digestive tract, colon, anus

Litigation, fraud, embezzlement

Input, output, memory, software, hardware

11

Language in society

Taboo words

Words considered inappropriate for use in “polite society”

Euphemisms

Language that replaces taboo words or avoids unpleasant or unmentionable subjects.

X – heck, darn, shoot

Most cultures have euphemisms for death

X – belly up, six feet under, kicked the bucket, laid to rest, bought the farm, one last curtain call

Language creativity at work: Bucket list

Speech Communities

Groups of people who have developed a social dialect

Interaction rules

Language norms

Example

Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers

Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories

Full medical names for diseases and disorders

Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus

& for “and” in all words, like st&

Language in Contact

COMS 320 Sp15

Communication Accommodation

Communication Accommodation Theory

Interactants will adapt their speaking style to each other to either reduce or increase social distance.

Relationship-based

Convergence – Emphasize group membership

Divergence – Reinforce social identity

Linguistic characteristics not yet researched

Language and accommodation

Convergence starts with comprehension

Divergence is developed through prestige

Exercise: Languages in Contact

+Ls, come up front, choose a slip of paper, read it, and put it back face down, then choose a partner from the 1Ls.

1Ls, you work at a local travel agency. +Ls, you are important visitors trying to purchase something to help you get around the city or country. You must communicate your needs to the 1Ls without losing your dignity.

+Ls may not purchase the item until 1Ls can understand your request and construct a sentence that confirms the item and tells you the price in your language, or after 10 minutes of struggling. Write down the final form of L1’s sentences.

No English or common language should be spoken during this exercise. Cheating will result in no extra credit.

Language in Contact

Lingua franca

Language that allows diverse language groups to understand each other

Set by common agreement between groups

If not native, will be spoken by most group members with an adequate level of competence

Often a trade language for conducting business

Roman Empire: Latin

Africa: Swahili

China: Putonghua

English: “Lingua franca of the whole world”

Pidgins

Language arising from limited contact between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages

Lexifier – source for lexicon, usually superstrate

Superstrate – dominant language

Substrate – native language

Conditions

Multilingual community (or interaction)

Relative isolation of substrate from superstrate

Proper forms of superstrate not learned by substrate speaker

L1 already acquired by both speakers

pigeon

Pidgin Characteristics

Characterized by impoverished language structures

Most common vowels

a (ah), i (ee), u (oo)

Telegraphic syntax

No articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions

Few function words

Pela – plural marker, adjective marker

Yu = you, yupela = you all

Circumlocution

Grass bilong het, Grass bilong fes

Mak bilong fet, Makmak

Irregular, non-rule-based usage – lots of idiolects!

Creoles

Pidgin that becomes a native language of at least one generation of speakers

Children develop pidgin into language with rules and uniformity among speakers, but with own characteristics

Syntax

Simplified grammar

No auxiliary verbs such as “will,” no tense inflection on verbs

“A gon full Angela bucket”

Lexicon

Sophisticated pronoun systems

Different pronouns for number in group, inclusion-exclusion

Compounding

“Sweat.” Pidgin: wara bilong skin, Creole: skinwara

TOK Pisin

One of New Guinea’s national languages

Superstrate - Indo-European, esp. English

Substrate - several Melanesian dialects

Status is debated

Creole – native speakers

Pidgin – 90% of speakers have other native languages

TRANSLITERAtion

Work at street

all car must stop

if you see

red (adj) mark

Language prestige

The assignment of relative status or importance to languages

Standard dialect

Socially chosen ideal dialect among dialect varieties

Unrealistic: no one actually speaks it

US: Standard American English

AKA Broadcast Standard

Where did it originate?

What might be some consequences

of having no standard dialect?

Who has to overcome the challenges?

23

Impacts of Standard dialect

Official language(s)

Language used by administration

X – Uganda: Swahili, English. US – state-level decision

Language planning

Purposeful, often administrative attempts to control language use and change

X – French Academie, British “received pronunciation,” revival of Hebrew in Israel, feminist movements against sexist language

Strongly impacts education

Language banning

Restriction or prohibition of unacceptable dialects or language forms

X – Language reform in Turkey in the 1930’s

Perpetuation of prestige

Prestige is often perpetuated (consciously or unconsciously) by the attitudes of dominant and non-dominant language speakers toward the relative status of languages.

https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSvp- 5JLKdQ

1. How is language contact being encouraged?

2. What kind of language would develop between the two groups of speakers if contact were continued?

3. How is language prestige being perpetuated?

Language Change

COMS 320 Sp15

Language Change

Language is dynamic

Constantly in flux

Left to itself, changes relatively slowly

Living generations can communicate

Most noticeable when past language has been preserved

What words can you recognize in the following sentence?

􏰖Wolde guman findan þ􏱿one 􏱿þe him on sweofote sare geteode􏰇

Chronology!

Divide into groups of two to three people. Set the stack of papers in the middle. Take the top paper, read it aloud, and set it where everyone can see it.

Taking turns, each person takes the next paper, reads it aloud, and tries to decide whether it belongs before, after, or in between two papers.

The goal is to arrange all papers in correct chronological order based on their linguistic features. Take notes on the features which distinguish the era of each sample.

The Study of Change

Historical: change in particular language over time

Comparative: change between and across languages

Language contact

Language inheritance

Does communication studies study language change?

Phonological Change

Regular sound correspondence

Systematic replacement of one sound for another

Rule-based change – will happen in all instances

X – Northern ah for er, as in cah for car

X – Southern aah for ai, as in paah for pie

Sound shift

“Historical phonological change”

Phonological restructuring where phoneme production moves systematically around the places of articulation

Great Vowel Shift – 1400 AD

California Accent

California Vowel Placement

IPA Vowel Placement

Lexical Changes: Class, Names, Blends

Lexical change: Addition of new words into language

Word category

Words that change meaning by changing word class

Walk, run, email, text, message, input,

Names

Proper nouns that become part of the lexicon

Sandwich, lazy susan, gargantuan

Blends (aka portmanteau words)

Words made from parts of at least two words

Smog, brunch, motel, neither, electrocute, infomercial, podcast, carmageddon, bit

Lexical Changes: Coinage

Coinage

Construction or invention of new words that then become part of the lexicon

Advertising – Kleenex, Bandaid

Science & technology – television, computer

A healthy language is able to adapt to new input

Lexical gaps – google, bling

Borrowed roots – -ology, -phobia

Lexical Changes: Reduction

Reduction

Clippings

Abbreviation of longer words into shorter words that may or may not retain the same meaning

Cami, fax, phone, flu, porn, droid, phone, fridge, pro, memo, phenom, fan

Acronyms

Words made from the initial sounds of several words and pronounced as a word

May be pronounced phonetically or spelled out

Lexical Change: Acronyms

Phonetically pronounced

NASA – National Aeronautics & Space Association

Laser – Lightwave amplification stimulated by radiation

Radar – Radio detecting and ranging

Sonar – Sound navigation and ranging

CSUN – California State University, Northridge

Spelled

US, LAX, UCLA, NFL, MRI

Lexical Change: Borrowings/Loan Words

Word or morpheme added to the lexicon from another language

Native word – traceable back to earliest stages of language

Direct borrowing – borrowed word is native in loaner language

Feast, lieutenant, ensemble, fry, boil, stew, menage a trois

Usually altered to fit new language’s phonological rules

Indirect borrowing – word was initially borrowed from another language

Algebra: Arabic – Spanish - English

Semantic Change

Change in semantic representation

Broadening

Original meaning plus new meaning

Dog – specific breed to class noun; Manage – “handle a horse” to “take charge of”

Narrowing

Broad meaning reduced to specific meaning

Deer – all beasts to specific type of animal; Skyline – horizon to city outline at sunset

Meaning shift

Original meaning is lost in favor of different meaning

Nice – ignorant to pleasant

Morphological Change

Changes in the rules that govern word formation

Rules can be adopted, lost, or changed

Over time, English dropped Latin case endings in favor of word order and prepositions

-em – canem quidem esurit (The dog is hungry)

-is – pavi canis (I fed the dog)

Only kept possessives and 3P singular present

Jane’s dog runs away.

AAVE

African American Vernacular English

Dialect in development

Origins during slavery unclear; current theories propose creole

W African substrate, English lexifier => Pidgin

Isolation from English learning => Creole

Isolation produced rich dialect!

Still have lots of regional and individual variation

Unique AAVE Characteristics

Syntax/morphology = leveling of inflection, aux verbs

I don't care what he say, you gon laugh!

Meaning shifts in auxiliary verbs = habitual “be”

Pragmatics = discourse & narrative conventions, probably from Africa

Call-response – active listening style

Interactive, not backchanneling!

Talk-singing – rhetorical, layers of meaning

Ritualized greetings

Sample of Early AAVE

“One day atter Brer Rabbit fool 'im wid dat calamus root, Brer Fox went ter wuk en got 'im some tar, en mix it wid some turkentime, en fix up a contrapshun w'at he call a Tar-Baby, en he tuck dish yer Tar-Baby en he sot 'er in de big road, en den he lay off in de bushes fer to see what de news wuz gwine ter be. En he didn't hatter wait long, nudder, kaze bimeby here come Brer Rabbit pacin’ down de road--lippity-clippity, clippity -lippity--dez ez sassy ez a jay-bird. Brer Fox, he lay low. Brer Rabbit come prancin' 'long twel he spy de Tar-Baby, en den he fotch up on his behime legs like he wuz 'stonished. De Tar Baby, she sot dar, she did, en Brer Fox, he lay low.

- Joel Chandler Harris

Syntactic Change

Change can takes centuries - affects deep language structure

English - word order replaced Latin case endings

Native English speakers have to learn grammar when trying to learn other languages!

Language Families

Proto-languages

Ancestral languages

English and German come from Proto-Indo-European

Language & Writing

COMS 320 Sp15

Written Language

Visual system for representing language

Allows spoken language to be recorded and preserved

Replaces memory as a means of retaining important information

History of Writing

Origins of writing

Practical uses

Uncertain whether commerce or proper names came first

Development of writing sytems

Pictogram –1-to-1 representation between image & object

Ideogram – picture represents concept

Logogram – picture represents linguistic word, becomes writing system b/c working with language system

Writing Systems

Based on characteristics of spoken language

Logographic – symbols represent words

For languages with little to no inflection, like Chinese

Syllabic – symbols represent syllables

For languages with standard syllable structures, like Japanese

Consonental – symbols represent consonants

For languages where vowels aren’t vital to meaning, like Arabic

Phonemic or alphabetic – symbols represent phonemes

For languages where each element matters, like English

Most languages use an alphabetic system

Writing & Language

Slows language change

Language can be repeated with fewer individual changes

Motivates language preservation

Prescriptive grammar – language standard

Descriptive grammar – language in use

Prescriptive grammar becomes only acceptable version

Language & Communication

Rhetoricians hold that writing influenced early Greek society in ways that spoken language couldn’t because spoken language is dependent on memory

Room for manipulation of concepts

Lessening of human interaction

Distancing of language from self

Move from event-driven narratives to permanent condition of being

Phonological Change 343

diagramming the reat owel hift on a vowel hart igure we an see that the high vowels i and u be ame the diphthongs aɪ and aʊ while the long vowels underwent an in rease in tongue height as if to fill in the spa e va ated b the high vowels n addition a was fronted to be ome e hese hanges are among the most dramati e amples of regular sound shift

he phonemi representation of man thousands of words hanged oda some refle tion of this vowel shift is seen in the alternating forms of morphemes in nglish please pleasant serene serenity sane sanity crime criminal sign signal and so on efore the reat owel hift the vowels in ea h pair were pronoun ed the same hen the vowels in the se ond word of ea h pair were shortened b the Early Middle English owel Shortening rule s a result the reat owel hift whi h o urred later and applied onl to long vowels affe ted onl the first word in ea h pair his is wh the vowels in the morphologi all related words are pronoun ed differentl toda as shown in able he reat owel hift is a primar sour e of man spelling in onsisten ies

of nglish be ause our spelling s stem still refle ts the wa words were pro noun ed before it o urred n general the written language is more onserva tive that is slower to hange than the spoken language

FIGURE 8.1 | The Great Vowel Shift.

TABLE 8.1 | Effect of Vowel Shift on Modern English

Middle English Shifted Short Word with Word with Vowel Vowel Vowel Shifted Vowel Short Vowel

aɪ ɪ divine divinity aʊ ʌ abound abundant i ɛ serene serenity u a fool folly e æ sane sanity

10686_ 08_ptg01_p337-393.indd 343 08/11/12 11:42 M

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005) CONSONANTS (PULMONIC)

´

A Å

i y È Ë ¨ u

Pe e∏ Ø o

E { ‰ ø O

a ” å

I Y U

Front Central Back

Close

Close-mid

Open-mid

Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.

œ ò

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal

Plosive p b t d Ê ∂ c Ô k g q G / Nasal m µ n = ≠ N – Trill ı r R Tap or Flap v | « Fricative F B f v T D s   z S Z ß Ω ç J x V X Â © ? h H Lateral fricative Ò L Approximant √ ® ’ j ˜ Lateral approximant l  ¥ K

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC)

SUPRASEGMENTALS

VOWELS

OTHER SYMBOLS

Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives

> Bilabial ∫ Bilabial ’ Examples: ˘ Dental Î Dental/alveolar p’ Bilabial ! (Post)alveolar ˙ Palatal t’ Dental/alveolar ¯ Palatoalveolar ƒ Velar k’ Velar ≤ Alveolar lateral Ï Uvular s’ Alveolar fricative

" Primary stress Æ Secondary stress

ÆfoUn´"tIS´n … Long e… Ú Half-long eÚ

* Extra-short e* ˘ Minor (foot) group ≤ Major (intonation) group . Syllable break ®i.œkt

≈ Linking (absence of a break)

TONES AND WORD ACCENTS LEVEL CONTOUR

e _or â Extrahigh e

ˆ

or ä Rising e! ê High e$ ë Falling e@ î Mid e% ü Highrising e~ ô Low efi ï Lowrising e— û Extralow e& ñ$ Rising-falling Õ Downstep ã Global rise õ Upstep à Global fall

© 2005 IPA

DIACRITICS Diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g. N( 9 Voiceless n9 d9 ª Breathy voiced bª aª 1 Dental t 1 d1 3 Voiced s3 t 3 0 Creaky voiced b0 a0 ¡ Apical t ¡ d¡ Ó Aspirated tÓ dÓ £ Linguolabial t £  d£ 4 Laminal t 4 d4 7 More rounded O7 W Labialized tW dW ) Nasalized e) ¶ Less rounded O¶ ∆ Palatalized t∆ d∆ ˆ Nasal release dˆ ™ Advanced u™ ◊ Velarized t◊  d◊ ¬ Lateral release d¬ 2 Retracted e2 ≥ Pharyngealized t≥   d≥ } No audible release d}    · Centralized e· ù Velarized or pharyngealized : + Mid-centralized e+ 6 Raised e6  ( ®6 = voiced alveolar fricative) ` Syllabic n` § Lowered e§ ( B§ = voiced bilabial approximant) 8 Non-syllabic e8 5 Advanced Tongue Root e5 ± Rhoticity ´± a± ∞ Retracted Tongue Root e∞

∑ Voiceless labial-velar fricative Ç Û Alveolo-palatal fricatives w   Voiced labial-velar approximant » Voiced alveolar lateral flap Á Voiced labial-palatal approximant Í Simultaneous S and x Ì Voiceless epiglottal fricative  ¿  Voiced epiglottal fricative Affricates and double articulationscan be represented by two symbols  ÷   Epiglottal plosive joined by a tie bar if necessary.

kp ts (

(

Language in Society

COMS 320 Sp15

Ch 7 Sections

Language Levels

Idiolect

Dialect

Language

Contact

Language in use

Lingua Francas

Pidgins & Creoles

Multilingualism

Idiolect

Unique language characteristics of individual speakers (p. 279)

Imitation is not normal, nor does it show individual aspects

450 to 850 million English idiolects

Unique language use in groups depends on the degree of anticipation of shared meaning (Bernstein)

Restricted codes

Shared set of assumptions

Predictable language, less expression needed

Elaborated codes

Unshared perspectives

Less predictable language, more elaboration needed

Research Moment: Data Gathering

On your own, on scratch paper, take about 5 minutes to write down paragraph responses to the following questions. Write as if you were talking to a friend.

What is the biggest problem with parking at CSUN?

What is one of your favorite movies or books, and why?

Research Moment: Data Analysis

Now, in groups of 2 or 3, compare your data

For Q1, analyze sentences w/similar meanings

How is the language similar?

How is the language different?

For Q2, analyze the attempt at conveying meaning

What language makes the meaning clear?

What language needs further explanation?

Results

In a restricted code situation, how does an idiolect soften strictly repetitive language?

In an elaborated code situation, how does an idiolect control linguistic expression?

Dialect

Mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways (p. 279)

All speakers speak at least one dialect

Language – collection of dialects

Language vs. dialect

Dialect continuum

Dialect area – concentration of differences

Isogloss – estimated boundary of dialect area

Ethnic identity

Dialects tend to increase, even with media influence

Dialect Characteristics

How can you tell that someone speaks a different dialect?

Phonology

Accents – tomato

r-drop – fath-er vs. fath-uh

Syntax

Verbs

Then he come a-runnin’ round the corner and there she was!

Lexicon

Nouns

What do you call shoes for sports?

Social Dialects

Dialects that result from social boundaries

Gender

Male and female language characteristics

Male and female dialects/languages

Social class

Prestige

English dialects

AAE

ChE

Speech Communities

Groups of people who have developed a social dialect

Interaction rules

Language norms

Example

Online support blog for chronic pain sufferers

Lots of personal pronouns and personal stories

Full medical names for diseases and disorders

Lupus vs. lupus erythematosus

& for “and” in all words, like s&d

Language in Contact

Lingua franca

Language for between-group communication

Set by common agreement

Trade language

X – Aramaic, French, English

Exercise: L in Contact

Pidgins

Pidgin

Contact between two languages

Superstrate – dominant language

Substrate – speaker’s native language

Usually temporary and/or fleeting

Characterized by impoverished language forms

Very little syntax

Overextension of meaning

Creole

Pidgin that becomes a native language for the children

Eventually develops into full-fledged language

Get help from top-rated tutors in any subject.

Efficiently complete your homework and academic assignments by getting help from the experts at homeworkarchive.com