Social-Emotional Development
S ocial-emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others (Cohen and others 2005). It encompasses both intra- and inter personal processes.
The core features of emotional devel opment include the ability to identify and understand one’s own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner, to regu late one’s own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships. (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004, 2)
Infants experience, express, and per ceive emotions before they fully under stand them. In learning to recognize, label, manage, and communicate their emotions and to perceive and attempt to understand the emotions of others, children build skills that connect them with family, peers, teachers, and the community. These growing capacities help young children to become compe tent in negotiating increasingly com
plex social interactions, to participate effectively in relationships and group activities, and to reap the benefits of social support crucial to healthy human development and functioning.
Healthy social-emotional develop ment for infants and toddlers unfolds in an interpersonal context, namely that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar, nurturing adults. Young children are particularly attuned to social and emotional stimulation. Even newborns appear to attend more to stimuli that resemble faces (John son and others 1991). They also pre fer their mothers’ voices to the voices of other women (DeCasper and Fifer 1980). Through nurturance, adults support the infants’ earliest experi ences of emotion regulation (Bronson 2000a; Thompson and Goodvin 2005).
Responsive caregiving supports infants in beginning to regulate their emotions and to develop a sense of predictability, safety, and responsive ness in their social environments. Early relationships are so important to developing infants that research experts have broadly concluded that, in the early years, “nurturing, stable and consistent relationships are the
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key to healthy growth, development and learning” (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000, 412). In other words, high- quality relationships increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for young children (Shonkoff 2004). Experiences with family members and teachers provide an opportunity for young children to learn about social relationships and emotions through exploration and predictable interac tions. Professionals working in child care settings can support the social- emotional development of infants and toddlers in various ways, including interacting directly with young chil dren, communicating with families, arranging the physical space in the care environment, and planning and implementing curriculum.
Brain research indicates that emo tion and cognition are profoundly interrelated processes. Specifically, “recent cognitive neuroscience findings suggest that the neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation may be the same as those underlying cogni tive processes” (Bell and Wolfe 2004, 366). Emotion and cognition work together, jointly informing the child’s impressions of situations and influ encing behavior. Most learning in the early years occurs in the context of emotional supports (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000). “The rich interpenetrations of emotions and cognitions establish the major psychic scripts for each child’s life” (Panksepp 2001). Together, emo tion and cognition contribute to atten tional processes, decision making, and learning (Cacioppo and Berntson 1999). Furthermore, cognitive pro cesses, such as decision making, are affected by emotion (Barrett and oth
ers 2007). Brain structures involved in the neural circuitry of cognition influ ence emotion and vice versa (Barrett and others 2007). Emotions and social behaviors affect the young child’s abil ity to persist in goal-oriented activity, to seek help when it is needed, and to participate in and benefit from rela tionships.
Young children who exhibit healthy social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment are more likely to have good academic performance in elemen tary school (Cohen and others 2005; Zero to Three 2004). The sharp dis tinction between cognition and emo tion that has historically been made may be more of an artifact of scholar ship than it is representative of the way these processes occur in the brain (Barrett and others 2007). This recent research strengthens the view that early childhood programs support later positive learning outcomes in all domains by maintaining a focus on the promotion of healthy social emo tional development (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004; Raver 2002; Shonkoff 2004).
Interactions with Adults Interactions with adults are a fre
quent and regular part of infants’ daily lives. Infants as young as three months of age have been shown to be able to discriminate between the faces of unfamiliar adults (Barrera and Maurer 1981). The foundations that describe Interactions with Adults and Relationships with Adults are inter related. They jointly give a picture of healthy social-emotional development that is based in a supportive social environment established by adults. Children develop the ability to both
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respond to adults and engage with them first through predictable interac tions in close relationships with par ents or other caring adults at home and outside the home. Children use and build upon the skills learned through close relationships to inter act with less familiar adults in their lives. In interacting with adults, chil dren engage in a wide variety of social exchanges such as establishing con tact with a relative or engaging in sto rytelling with an infant care teacher.
Quality in early childhood programs is, in large part, a function of the interactions that take place between the adults and children in those programs. These interactions form the basis for the relationships that are established between teachers and children in the classroom or home and are related to children’s develop mental status. How teachers interact with children is at the very heart of early childhood education (Kontos and Wilcox-Herzog 1997, 11).
Relationships with Adults Close relationships with adults
who provide consistent nurturance strengthen children’s capacity to learn and develop. Moreover, relation ships with parents, other family mem bers, caregivers, and teachers provide the key context for infants’ social- emotional development. These special relationships influence the infant’s emerging sense of self and under standing of others. Infants use rela tionships with adults in many ways: for reassurance that they are safe, for assistance in alleviating distress, for help with emotion regulation, and for social approval or encouragement. Establishing close relationships with
adults is related to children’s emo tional security, sense of self, and evolv ing understanding of the world around them. Concepts from the literature on attachment may be applied to early childhood settings, in considering the infant care teacher’s role in separa tions and reunions during the day in care, facilitating the child’s explora tion, providing comfort, meeting physi cal needs, modeling positive relation ships, and providing support during stressful times (Raikes 1996).
Interactions with Peers In early infancy children interact
with each other using simple behav iors such as looking at or touching another child. Infants’ social interac tions with peers increase in complexity from engaging in repetitive or routine back-and-forth interactions with peers (for example, rolling a ball back and forth) to engaging in cooperative activi ties such as building a tower of blocks together or acting out different roles during pretend play. Through inter actions with peers, infants explore their interest in others and learn about social behavior/social interac tion. Interactions with peers provide the context for social learning and problem solving, including the experi ence of social exchanges, cooperation, turn-taking, and the demonstration of the beginning of empathy. Social interactions with peers also allow older infants to experiment with different roles in small groups and in different situations such as relating to familiar versus unfamiliar children. As noted, the foundations called Interactions with Adults, Relationships with Adults, Interactions with Peers, and Rela tionships with Peers are interrelated.
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Interactions are stepping-stones to relationships. Burk (1996, 285) writes:
We, as teachers, need to facilitate the development of a psychologically safe environment that promotes posi tive social interaction. As children interact openly with their peers, they learn more about each other as indi viduals, and they begin building a history of interactions.
Relationships with Peers Infants develop close relationships
with children they know over a period of time, such as other children in the family child care setting or neighbor hood. Relationships with peers provide young children with the opportunity to develop strong social connections. Infants often show a preference for playing and being with friends, as compared with peers with whom they do not have a relationship. Howes’ (1983) research suggests that there are distinctive patterns of friendship for the infant, toddler, and preschooler age groups. The three groups vary in the number of friendships, the stability of friendships, and the nature of inter action between friends (for example, the extent to which they involve object exchange or verbal communication).
Identity of Self in Relation to Others
Infants’ social-emotional develop ment includes an emerging awareness of self and others. Infants demon strate this foundation in a number of ways. For example, they can respond to their names, point to their body parts when asked, or name members of their families. Through an emerg ing understanding of other people in their social environment, children gain
an understanding of their roles within their families and communities. They also become aware of their own prefer ences and characteristics and those of others.
Recognition of Ability Infants’ developing sense of self-
efficacy includes an emerging under standing that they can make things happen and that they have particular abilities. Self-efficacy is related to a sense of competency, which has been identified as a basic human need (Connell 1990). The development of children’s sense of self-efficacy may be seen in play or exploratory behaviors when they act on an object to pro duce a result. For example, they pat a musical toy to make sounds come out. Older infants may demonstrate recog nition of ability through “I” statements, such as “I did it” or “I’m good at draw ing.”
Expression of Emotion Even early in infancy, children
express their emotions through facial expressions, vocalizations, and body language. The later ability to use words to express emotions gives young children a valuable tool in gaining the assistance or social support of oth ers (Saarni and others 2006). Tem perament may play a role in children’s expression of emotion. Tronick (1989, 112) described how expression of emotion is related to emotion regula tion and communication between the mother and infant: “the emotional expressions of the infant and the care taker function to allow them to mutu ally regulate their interactions . . . the infant and the adult are participants in an affective communication system.”
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Both the understanding and expres sion of emotion are influenced by cul ture. Cultural factors affect children’s growing understanding of the meaning of emotions, the developing knowl edge of which situations lead to which emotional outcomes, and their learn ing about which emotions are appro priate to display in which situations (Thompson and Goodvin 2005). Some cultural groups appear to express cer tain emotions more often than other cultural groups (Tsai, Levenson, and McCoy 2006). In addition, cultural groups vary by which particular emo tions or emotional states they value (Tsai, Knutson, and Fung 2006). One study suggests that cultural differ ences in exposure to particular emo tions through storybooks may contrib ute to young children’s preferences for particular emotional states (for exam ple, excited or calm) (Tsai and others 2007).
Young children’s expression of posi tive and negative emotions may play a significant role in their development of social relationships. Positive emotions appeal to social partners and seem to enable relationships to form, while problematic management or expression of negative emotions leads to difficulty in social relationships (Denham and Weissberg 2004). The use of emotion- related words appears to be associ ated with how likable preschoolers are considered by their peers. Children who use emotion-related words were found to be better-liked by their class mates (Fabes and others 2001). Infants respond more positively to adult vocal izations that have a positive affective tone (Fernald 1993). Social smiling is a developmental process in which neu rophysiology and cognitive, social, and
emotional factors play a part, seen as a “reflection and constituent of an inter active relationship” (Messinger and Fogel 2007, 329). It appears likely that the experience of positive emotions is a particularly important contributor to emotional well-being and psychologi cal health (Fredrickson 2000, 2003; Panksepp 2001).
Empathy During the first three years of life,
children begin to develop the capacity to experience the emotional or psycho logical state of another person (Zahn- Waxler and Radke-Yarrow 1990). The following definitions of empathy are found in the research literature: “knowing what another person is feel ing,” “feeling what another person is feeling,” and “responding compassion ately to another’s distress” (Levenson and Ruef 1992, 234). The concept of empathy reflects the social nature of emotion, as it links the feelings of two or more people (Levenson and Ruef 1992). Since human life is relation ship-based, one vitally important func tion of empathy over the life span is to strengthen social bonds (Anderson and Keltner 2002). Research has shown a correlation between empathy and pro- social behavior (Eisenberg 2000). In particular, prosocial behaviors, such as helping, sharing, and comforting or showing concern for others, illustrate the development of empathy (Zahn- Waxler and others 1992) and how the experience of empathy is thought to be related to the development of moral behavior (Eisenberg 2000). Adults model prosocial/empathic behav iors for infants in various ways. For example, those behaviors are modeled through caring interactions with oth-
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ers or through providing nurturance to the infant. Quann and Wien (2006, 28) suggest that one way to support the development of empathy in young children is to create a culture of caring in the early childhood environment: “Helping children understand the feel ings of others is an integral aspect of the curriculum of living together. The relationships among teachers, between children and teachers, and among children are fostered with warm and caring interactions.”
Emotion Regulation The developing ability to regulate
emotions has received increasing attention in the research literature (Eisenberg, Champion, and Ma 2004). Researchers have generated various definitions of emotion regulation, and debate continues as to the most useful and appropriate way to define this con cept (Eisenberg and Spinrad 2004). As a construct, emotion regulation reflects the interrelationship of emotions, cognitions, and behaviors (Bell and Wolfe 2004). Young children’s increas ing understanding and skill in the use of language is of vital importance in their emotional development, opening new avenues for communicating about and regulating emotions (Campos, Frankel, and Camras 2004) and help ing children to negotiate acceptable outcomes to emotionally charged situa tions in more effective ways. Emotion regulation is influenced by culture and the historical era in which a person lives: cultural variability in regula tion processes is significant (Mesquita and Frijda 1992). “Cultures vary in terms of what one is expected to feel, and when, where, and with whom one may express different feelings” (Cheah
and Rubin 2003, 3). Adults can pro vide positive role models of emotion regulation through their behavior and through the verbal and emotional support they offer children in manag ing their emotions. Responsiveness to infants’ signals contributes to the development of emotion regulation. Adults support infants’ development of emotion regulation by minimizing exposure to excessive stress, chaotic environments, or over- or understimu lation.
Emotion regulation skills are impor tant in part because they play a role in how well children are liked by peers and teachers and how socially compe tent they are perceived to be (National Scientific Council on the Develop ing Child 2004). Children’s ability to regulate their emotions appropriately can contribute to perceptions of their overall social skills as well as to the extent to which they are liked by peers (Eisenberg and others 1993). Poor emotion regulation can impair chil dren’s thinking, thereby compromising their judgment and decision making (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004). At kindergar ten entry, children demonstrate broad variability in their ability to self-regu late (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine 2000).
Impulse Control Children’s developing capacity to
control impulses helps them adapt to social situations and follow rules. As infants grow, they become increasingly able to exercise voluntary control over behavior such as waiting for needs to be met, inhibiting potentially hurtful behavior, and acting according to social expectations, including safety
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rules. Group care settings provide many opportunities for children to practice their impulse-control skills. Peer interactions often offer natural opportunities for young children to practice impulse control, as they make progress in learning about cooperative play and sharing. Young children’s understanding or lack of understand ing of requests made of them may be one factor contributing to their responses (Kaler and Kopp 1990).
Social Understanding During the infant/toddler years,
children begin to develop an under standing of the responses, commu nication, emotional expression, and actions of other people. This develop ment includes infants’ understanding of what to expect from others, how to
engage in back-and-forth social inter actions, and which social scripts are to be used for which social situations. “At each age, social cognitive under standing contributes to social compe tence, interpersonal sensitivity, and an awareness of how the self relates to other individuals and groups in a com plex social world” (Thompson 2006, 26). Social understanding is particu larly important because of the social nature of humans and human life, even in early infancy (Wellman and Lagattuta 2000). Recent research sug gests that infants’ and toddlers’ social understanding is related to how often they experience adult communica tion about the thoughts and emotions of others (Taumoepeau and Ruffman 2008).
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Foundation: Interactions with Adults The developing ability to respond to and engage with adults
8 months 18 months 36 months
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At around eight months of age, children purposefully engage in reciprocal interac tions and try to influence the behavior of others. Children may be both interested in and cautious of unfamiliar adults. (7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 340) (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 16)
For example, the child may:
• Attend to an unfamiliar adult with interest but show wariness or become anxious when that adult comes too close. (5–8 mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone and Scherer 2000, 222)
• Take the infant care teacher’s hands and rock forward and backwards as a way of asking her to sing a favorite song. (8 mos.; Gustafson, Green, and West 1979; Kaye and Fogel 1980)
• Engage in games such as pat a-cake and peek-a-boo. (7–9 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3)
• Make eye contact with a family member.
• Vocalize to get an infant care teacher’s attention.
At around 18 months of age, children may participate in rou tines and games that involve complex back-and-forth inter action and may follow the gaze of the infant care teacher to an object or person. Children may also check with a familiar infant care teacher when uncertain about something or someone. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 33)
For example, the child may:
• Move close to the infant care teacher and hold his hand when a visitor enters the classroom but watch the visitor with inter est. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003)
• Bring a familiar object to an adult when asked. (15–18 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Allow an unfamiliar adult to get close only after the adult uses an object to bridge the interac tion, such as showing interest in a toy that is also interesting to the child. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Watch, and then help the infant care teacher as she prepares snack.
• Seek reassurance from the infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
At around 36 months of age, children interact with adults to solve problems or commu nicate about experiences or ideas. (California Department of Education 2005, 6; Marvin and Britner 1999, 60).
For example, the child may:
• Participate in storytelling with the infant care teacher. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Tell a teacher from the class room next door about an upcoming birthday party. (36 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Help the infant care teacher bring in the wheeled toys from the play yard at the end of the day.
• Ask a classroom visitor her name.
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Interactions with Adults
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in playful, face-to-face interactions with an adult, such as taking turns vocalizing and then smiling or laughing. (2–7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 375)
• Begin to protest separations from significant adults.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in back-and-forth inter action by handing a parent an object, then reaching to receive the object when it is handed back. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Show—but not give—a toy to the infant care teacher. (9–12 mos.; Parks 2004)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Practice being a grown-up dur ing pretend play by dressing up or using a play stove. (18–36 mos.; Lerner and Dombro 2000)
• Help the infant care teacher clean up after snack by putting snack dishes in the dish bin.
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Foundation: Relationships with Adults The development of close relationships with certain adults
who provide consistent nurturance
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children seek a special relationship with one (or a few) familiar adult(s) by initiating interactions and seek ing proximity, especially when distressed. (6–9 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
For example, the child may:
• Seek comfort from the infant care teacher by crying and looking for him. (7 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 372)
• Cry out or follow after a parent when dropped off at the child care program. (6–9 mos.; Ainsworth1967, 4)
• Lift her arms to be picked up by the special infant care teacher. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 17; Ainsworth 1967, 5)
• Crawl toward a parent when startled by a loud noise. (8.5 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
• Turn excitedly and raise his arms to greet a family member at pick-up time. (8 mos.; Ainsworth 1967, 5)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children feel secure exploring the environ ment in the presence of important adults with whom they have devel oped a relationship over an extended period of time. When distressed, children seek to be physically close to these adults. (6–18 mos.; Mar vin and Britner 1999, 52; Bowlby 1983)
For example, the child may:
• Run in wide circles around the outdoor play area, circling back each time and hug the legs of the infant care teacher before running off again.
• Snuggle with the special infant care teacher when feeling tired or grumpy.
• Wave at the special infant care teacher from the top of the slide to make sure he is watch ing.
• Follow a parent physi cally around the room.
• Play away from the infant care teacher and then move close to him from time to time to check in. (12 mos.; Davies 2004, 10)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, when explor ing the environment, from time to time children reconnect, in a variety of ways, with the adult(s) with whom they have de veloped a special relationship: through eye contact; facial expressions; shared feelings; or conversations about feelings, shared activities, or plans. When distressed, chil dren may still seek to be physically close to these adults. (By 36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 57)
For example, the child may:
• Feel comfortable playing on the other side of the play yard away from the infant care teacher, but cry to be picked up after falling down. (24–36 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 376)
• Call “Mama!” from across the room while playing with dolls to make sure that the moth er is paying attention. (24–36 mos.; Schaffer and Emerson 1964)
• Call for a family member and look out the window for him after being dropped off at school. (24–36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 56)
• Communicate, “This is our favorite part” when reading a funny story with the infant care teacher.
• Bring the grandmother’s favorite book to her and express, “One more?” to see if she will read one more book, even though she has just said, “We’re all done reading. Now it’s time for nap.” (Teti 1999; 18–36 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 59)
• Cry and look for the special infant care teacher after falling.
• Seek the attention of the special infant care teacher and communicate, “Watch me!” be fore proudly displaying a new skill.
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Relationships with Adults
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Hold on to a parent’s sweater when being held. (5 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 51; Ainsworth 1967, 1)
• Babble back and forth with the infant care teacher. (3–6 mos.; Caufield 1995)
• Be more likely to smile when approached by the infant care teacher than a stranger. (3–6 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 50)
• Cry when an unfamiliar adult gets too close. (7 mos.; Bronson 1972)
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation ( to months)� �� foundation ( to months)�� ��
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Cry and ask for a parent after • Say, “I go to school. Mama goes being dropped off in the morn- to work,” after being dropped off ing. (9–12 mos.; Lerner and in the morning. Ciervo 2003) • Gesture for one more hug as a
• Look for a smile from the parent is leaving for work. infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
• Cling to a parent when feeling ill. (10–11 mos.; Marvin and Britner 1999, 52)
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Foundation: Interactions with Peers The developing ability to respond to and engage with other children
8 months 18 months 36 months
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At around eight months of age, children show interest in familiar and unfamiliar peers. Children may stare at another child, explore another child’s face and body, and respond to siblings and older peers. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Attend to a crying peer with a serious expression. (7 mos.; American Academy of Pediat rics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
At around 18 months of age, children engage in simple back-and-forth interactions with peers for short periods of time. (Meisels and others 2003, 35)
For example, the child may:
• Hit another child who takes a toy. (18 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003, 35)
• Offer a book to another child, perhaps with encouragement from the infant care teacher. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 35)
• Tickle another child, get tickled back, and tickle him again. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 35)
• Engage in reciprocal play, such as run-and-chase or offer-and receive. (12–13 mos.; Howes 1988, v; 10–12 mos.; Ross and Goldman 1977)
• Play ball with a peer by rolling the ball back and forth to each other. (12–15 mos.; Parks 2004; 9–16 mos.; Frankenburg and others 1990)
At around 36 months of age, children engage in simple cooperative play with peers. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003 70)
For example, the child may:
• Communicate with peers while digging in the sandbox together. (29–36 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 124)
• Act out different roles with peers, sometimes switching in and out of her role. (By 36 mos.; Segal 2004, 44)
• Build a tall tower with one or two other children. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 70)
• Hand a peer a block or piece of railroad track when building.
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Interactions with Peers
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Notice other infants and chil dren while sitting on a parent’s or infant care teacher’s lap.
• Cry when hearing another baby cry. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in solitary play. (toddler; Segal 2004, 38)
• Play a reciprocal game, such as pat-a-cake, with the infant care teacher and a peer. (7–11 mos.; Frankenburg and othres 1990)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Use gestures to communicate a desire to play with a peer. (18–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 123)
• Refuse to let a peer have a turn on the swing. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 45)
• Push or bite when another child takes a toy. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Engage in complementary interactions, such as feeding a stuffed animal that another child is holding or pulling a friend in the wagon. (24–30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 57; Howes and Matheson 1992, 967)
• Join a group of children who are together in one play space and follow them as they move outside. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 57)
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Foundation: Relationships with Peers The development of relationships with certain peers
through interactions over time
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8 months
At around eight months of age, children show interest in familiar and unfamiliar children. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 17)
For example, the child may:
• Watch other children with inter est. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Touch the eyes or hair of a peer. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Attend to a crying peer with a serious expression. (7 mos.; American Academy of Pediat rics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Try to get the attention of an other child by smiling at him or babbling to him (6–9 mos.; Hay, Pederson, and Nash 1982)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Look at another child who is lying on the blanket nearby. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
• Turn toward the voice of a par ent or older sibling. (4 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 10)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children prefer to interact with one or two familiar children in the group and usually engage in the same kind of back-and forth play when interacting with those children. (12–18 mos.; Mueller and Lucas 1975)
For example, the child may:
• Play the same kind of game, such as run-and-chase, with the same peer almost every day. (Howes 1987, 259)
• Choose to play in the same area as a friend. (Howes 1987, 259)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Watch an older sibling play nearby. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 26)
• Bang blocks together next to a child who is doing the same thing. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 26)
• Imitate the simple actions of a peer. (9–12 mos.; Ryalls, Gul, and Ryalls 2000)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children have developed friendships with a small num ber of children in the group and engage in more complex play with those friends than with other peers.
For example, the child may:
• Choose to play with a sibling instead of a less familiar child. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1983, 795)
• Exhibit sadness when the favor ite friend is not at school one day. (24–36 mos.; Melson and Cohen 1981)
• Seek one friend for running games and another for building with blocks. (Howes 1987)
• Play “train” with one or two friends for an extended period of time by pretending that one is driving the train and the rest are riding.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Engage in social pretend play with one or two friends; for example, pretend to be a dog while a friend pretends to be the owner. (24–30 mos.; Howes 1987, 261)
• Express an interest in playing with a particular child. (13–24 mos.; Howes 1988, 3)
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Foundation: Identity of Self in Relation to Others The developing concept that the child is an individual
operating within social relationships
8 months
At around eight months of age, children show clear awareness of being a separate person and of being connected with other people. Children identify others as both distinct from and con nected to themselves. (Fogel 2001, 347)
For example, the child may:
• Respond to someone who calls her name. (5–7 mos.; Parks 2004, 94; 9 mo.; Coplan 1993, 2)
• Turn toward a familiar person upon hearing his name. (6–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 94; 8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 18)
• Look at an unfamiliar adult with interest but show wariness or become anxious when that adult comes too close. (5–8 mos.; Parks 2004; Johnstone and Scherer 2000, 222)
• Wave arms and kick legs when a parent enters the room.
• Cry when the favorite infant care teacher leaves the room. (6–10 mos.; Parks 2004)
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children demonstrate aware ness of their characteristics and express themselves as distinct persons with thoughts and feelings. Children also demonstrate expectations of others’ behaviors, responses, and characteristics on the basis of previous experiences with them.
For example, the child may:
• Point to or indicate parts of the body when asked. (15–19 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Express thoughts and feel ings by saying “no!” (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Move excitedly when ap proached by an infant care teacher who usually engages in active play.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children identify their feel ings, needs, and interests, and identify themselves and others as members of one or more groups by referring to catego ries. (24–36 mos.; Fogel 2001, 415; 18–30 mos.)
For example, the child may:
• Use pronouns such as I, me, you, we, he, and she. (By 36 mo.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, p. 307)
• Say own name. (30–33 mos.; Parks 2004, 115)
• Begin to make comparisons between self and others; for example, communicate, “_____ is a boy/girl like me.”
• Name people in the family.
• Point to pictures of friends and say their names.
• Communicate, “Do it myself!” when the infant care teacher tries to help.
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Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Use hands to explore differ ent parts of the body. (4 mos.; Kravitz, Goldenberg, and Ney hus 1978)
• Examine her own hands and a parent’s hands. (Scaled score of 9 for 4:06–4:15 mos.;* Bayley 2006, 53)
• Watch or listen for the infant care teacher to come to meet the child’s needs. (Birth–8 mos.; Lerner and Dombro 2000, 42)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Play games such as peek-a-boo or run-and-chase with the infant care teacher. (Stern 1985, 102; 7–11 mos.; Frankenburg and others 1990)
• Recognize familiar people, such as a neighbor or infant care teacher from another room, in addition to immediate family members. (12–18 mo.; Parks 2004)
• Use names to refer to significant people; for example, “Mama” to refer to the mother and “Papa” to refer to the father. (11–14 mos.; Parks 2004, 109)
*Four months, six days, to four months, 15 days.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Recognize his own image in the mirror and understand that it is himself. (Siegel 1999, 35; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979, 56)
• Know the names of familiar people, such as a neighbor. (by end of second year; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 270)
• Show understanding of or use words such as you, me, mine, he, she, it, and I. (20–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 96; 20 mos.; Bay- ley 2006; 18–24 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003; 19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 61; 24–20 mos.; Parks 2004, 113)
• Use name or other family label (e.g., nickname, birth order, “little sister”) when referring to self. (18–24 mo.; Parks 2004; 24 mo.; Lewis and Brooks- Gunn 1979)
• Claim everything as “mine.” (24 mos.; Levine 1983)
• Point to or indicate self in a photograph. (24 mos.; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979)
• Proudly show the infant care teacher a new possession. (24–30 mos.; Parks 2004)
��
Foundation: Recognition of Ability The developing understanding that the child can take action
to influence the environment
8 months
At around eight months of age, children understand that they are able to make things happen.
For example, the child may:
• Pat a musical toy to try to make the music come on again. (5–9 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Raise arms to be picked up by the infant care teacher. (6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Initiate a favorite game; for example, hold out a foot to a parent to start a game of “This Little Piggy.” (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003; 6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Gesture at a book and smile with satisfaction after the infant care teacher gets it down from the shelf. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children experiment with dif ferent ways of making things happen, persist in trying to do things even when faced with difficulty, and show a sense of satisfaction with what they can do. (McCarty, Clifton, and Collard 1999)
For example, the child may:
• Roll a toy car back and forth on the ground and then push it really hard and let go to see what happens. (18 mos.; McCarty, Clifton, and Collard 1999)
• Clap and bounce with joy after making a handprint with paint. (12–18 mos.; Sroufe 1979; Lally and others 1995, 71)
• Squeeze a toy in different ways to hear the sounds it makes. (Scaled score of 10 for 13:16–14:15 mos.;* Bayley 2006)
• Smile after walking up a steep incline without falling or carry ing a bucket full of sand from one place to another without spilling.
• Proudly hold up a book hidden in a stack after being asked by the infant care teacher to find it.
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*Denotes thirteen months, 16 days, to fourteen months, 15 days. Chart continues on next page.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children show an understanding of their own abilities and may refer to those abilities when describing themselves.
For example, the child may:
• Communicate, “I take care of the bunny” after helping to feed the class rabbit. (18–36 mos.; Lally and others 1995, 71)
• Finish painting a picture and hold it up to show a family member.
• Complete a difficult puzzle for the first time and clap or express, “I’m good at puzzles.”
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Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Try again and again to roll over, even though not yet able to roll completely over.
• Grasp, suck, or look at a teeth ing ring. (Before 8 mos. of age; Fogel 2001, 218)
• Shake a toy, hear it make noise, and shake it again.
• Stop crying upon seeing the infant care teacher approach with a bottle.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Drop a blanket over the side of the crib and wait for the infant care teacher to pick it up. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Drop a toy truck in the water table and blink in anticipation of the big splash. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Look over a shoulder, smile at the mother, and giggle in a playful way while crawling past her, to entice her to play a game of run-and-chase. (10–14 mos.; Bayley 2006)
• Turn light switch on and off repeatedly.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Insist on zipping up a jacket when the infant care teacher tries to help. (20–28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 62; 24 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 122 and 129; 20–36 mos.; Bates 1990; Bullock and Lutkenhaus 1988, 1990; Stipek, Gralinski, and Kopp 1990)
• Point to a stack of blocks he has made and express, “look” to the infant care teacher. (28 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 96)
• Communicate, “I doing this,” “I don’t do this, “ “I can do this,” or “I did this.” (25 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 121; Dunn, 1987; Stipek, Gralinski, and Kopp 1990)
• Say, “I climb high” when telling the infant care teacher about what happened during outside play time, then run outside to show him how. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
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Foundation: Expression of Emotion The developing ability to express a variety of feelings through facial
expressions, movements, gestures, sounds, or words
8 months
At around eight months of age, children express a variety of primary emotions such as contentment, distress, joy, sadness, interest, surprise, disgust, anger, and fear. (Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 341)
For example, the child may:
• Exhibit wariness, cry, or turn away when a stranger ap proaches. (6 mos.; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 338; Fogel 2001, 297; 7–8 mos.; Lewis 2000a, 277)
• Be more likely to react with an ger than just distress when ac cidentally hurt by another child. (later in the first year; Lamb, Bornstein, and Teti 2002, 341)
• Express fear of unfamiliar people by moving near a famil iar infant care teacher. (8 mos.; Bronson 1972)
• Stop crying and snuggle after being picked up by a parent.
• Show surprise when the infant care teacher removes the blan ket covering her face to start a game of peek-a-boo.
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children express emotions in a clear and intentional way, and begin to express some complex emotions, such as pride.
For example, the child may:
• Show affection for a family member by hugging. (8–18 mos.; Lally and others 1995; Greenspan and Greenspan 1985, 84)
• Express jealousy by trying to crowd onto the infant care teacher’s lap when another child is already sitting there. (12–18 mos.; Hart and others 1998)
• Express anger at having a toy taken away by taking it back out of the other child’s hands or hitting her. (18 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 115)
• Smile directly at other children when interacting with them. (18 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 115)
• Express pride by communi cating, “I did it!” (15–24 mos.; Lewis and others 1989; Lewis 2000b)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children express complex, self- conscious emotions such as pride, embarrassment, shame, and guilt. Children demonstrate awareness of their feelings by using words to describe feelings to others or acting them out in pretend play. (Lewis and others 1989; Lewis 2000b; Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
For example, the child may:
• Hide face with hands when feel ing embarrassed. (Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
• Use words to describe feelings; for example, “I don’t like that.” (24–36 mos.; Fogel 2001, 414; 24–36 mos.; Harris and others 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Communicate, “I miss Grandma,” after talking on the phone with her. (24–36 mos.; Harris and oth ers 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Act out different emotions dur ing pretend play by “crying” when pretending to be sad and “cooing” when pretending to be happy. (Dunn, Bretherton, and Munn 1987)
• Express guilt after taking a toy out of another child’s cubby with out permission by trying to put it back without anyone seeing. (Lagattuta and Thompson 2007)
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Expression of Emotion
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Get frustrated or angry when unable to reach a toy. (4–6 mos.; Sternberg, Campos, and Emde 1983)
• Express joy by squealing. (5–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 125)
• Frown and make noises to indicate frustration. (5–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 125)
• Be surprised when something unexpected happens. (First 6 mos. of life; Lewis 2000a)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Become anxious when a parent leaves the room. (6–9 mos.; Parks 2004)
• Knock a shape-sorter toy away when it gets to be too frustrat ing. (10–12 mos.; Sroufe 1979)
• Show anger, when another child takes a toy, by taking it back. (10–12 mos.; Sroufe 1979)
• Express fear by crying upon hearing a dog bark loudly or seeing someone dressed in a costume. (10 mos.; Bronson 1972)
• Express sadness by frown ing after losing or misplacing a favorite toy. (9–10 mos.; Fogel 2001, 300)
• Smile with affection as a sibling approaches. (10 mos.; Sroufe 1979; Fox and Davidson 1988)
• Push an unwanted object away. (12 mos.; Squires, Bricker, and Twombly 2002, 114)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Communicate, “Mama mad” after being told by the mother to stop an action. (28 mos.; Breth erton and others 1986)
• Use one or a few words to de scribe feelings to the infant care teacher. (18–30 mos.; Bretherton and others 1986; Dunn 1987)
• Express frustration through tan trums. (18–36 mos.; Pruett 1999, 148)
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Foundation: Empathy The developing ability to share in the emotional experiences of others
8 months
At around eight months of age, children demonstrate awareness of others’ feelings by reacting to their emotional expressions.
For example, the child may:
• Stop playing and look at a child who is crying. (7 mos.; Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 212)
• Laugh when an older sibling or peer makes a funny face. (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Return the smile of the infant care teacher.
• Grimace when another child cries. (Older than 6 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children change their behav ior in response to the feelings of others even though their actions may not always make the other person feel better. Children show an increased understanding of the reason for another’s distress and may become distressed by the other’s distress. (14 mos.; Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, and Emde 1992; Thompson 1987; 24 mos.; Zahn-Waxler and Radke-Yarrow 1982, 1990)
For example, the child may:
• Offer to help a crying playmate by bringing his own mother over. (13–15 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
• Try to hug a crying peer. (18 mos.; Thompson 1987, 135)
• Bring her own special blanket to a peer who is crying. (13–15 mos.; Wingert and Brant 2005, 35)
• Become upset when another child throws a tantrum.
• Gently pat a crying peer on his back, just like his infant care teacher did earlier in the day. (16 mos.; Bergman and Wilson 1984; Zahn-Waxler and others 1992)
• Hit a child who is crying loudly.
• Stop playing and look with con cerned attention at a child who is screaming.
• Move quickly away from a child who is crying loudly.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children understand that other people have feelings that are different from their own and can sometimes respond to another’s distress in a way that might make that person feel better. (24–36 mos.; Hoff man 1982; 18 mos.; Thomp son 1987, 135).
For example, the child may:
• Do a silly dance in an attempt to make a crying peer smile. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1988)
• Communicate, “Lucas is sad because Isabel took his cup.” (36 mos.; Harris and others 1989; Yuill 1984)
• Comfort a younger sibling who is crying by patting his back, expressing “It’s okay” and of fering him a snack. (Denham 1998, 34)
• Communicate, “Mama sad” when the mother cries during a movie. (24–36 mos.; Dunn 1994; Harris 2000, 282).
• Communicate, “Olivia’s mama is happy” and point to or indicate the illustration in the picture book. (24 mos.; Harris 2000, 282).
• Get an infant care teacher to help a child who has fallen down and is crying.
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Empathy
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hearing another baby cry. (Younger than 6 mos; Wing ert and Brant 2005, 35)
Behaviors leading up to the Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months) foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may: During this period, the child may:
• Stand nearby and quietly watch • Hug a crying peer. (18–24 mos.; a peer who has fallen down Parks 2004, 123) and is crying. • Become upset in the presence
• Exhibit social referencing by of those who are upset. looking for emotional indica tors in others’ faces, voices, or gestures to decide what to do when uncertain. (10–12 mos.; Thompson 1987, 129)
• Cry upon hearing another child cry. (12 mos.; Meisels and oth ers 2003, 26)
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Foundation: Emotion Regulation The developing ability to manage emotional responses, with
assistance from others and independently
8 months
At around eight months of age, children use simple behaviors to comfort themselves and begin to communicate the need for help to alleviate discomfort or distress.
For example, the child may:
• Turn away from an overstimulating activity. (3–12 mos.; Rothbart, Ziaie, and O’Boyle 1992)
• Vocalize to get a parent’s attention. (6.5–8 mos.; Parks 2004, 126)
• Lift arms to the infant care teacher to communicate a desire to be held. (7–9 mos.; Coplan 1993, 3; 5–9 mos.; Parks 2004, 121)
• Turn toward the infant care teacher for assistance when crying. (6–9 mos.; Fogel 2001, 274)
• Cry after her hand was accidentally stepped on by a peer and then hold the hand up to the infant care teacher to look at it.
• Reach toward a bottle that is up on the counter and vocalize when hun gry.
• Make a face of disgust to tell the infant care teacher that he does not want any more food. (6–9 mos.; Lerner and Ciervo 2003)
• Bump head, cry, and look to infant care teacher for comfort.
• Suck on a thumb to make self feel better.
• Look at the infant care teacher when an unfamiliar person enters the room.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children demonstrate a vari ety of responses to comfort themselves and actively avoid or ignore situations that cause discomfort. Children can also communicate needs and wants through the use of a few words and gestures. (National Re search Council and Institute of Medicine 2000, 112; 15–18 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 270; Coplan 1993, 1)
For example, the child may:
• Use gestures and simple words to express distress and seek specific kinds of assistance from the infant care teacher in order to calm self. (Brazelton 1992; Kopp 1989, 347)
• Use comfort objects, such as a special blanket or stuffed toy, to help calm down. (Kopp 1989, 348)
• Seek to be close to a parent when upset. (Lieberman 1993)
• Play with a toy as a way to distract self from discomfort. (12–18 mos.; Kopp 1989, 347)
• Communicate, “I’m okay” after falling down. (National Research Council and Institute of Medi cine 2000, 112)
• Indicate her knee and say “boo boo” after falling down and gesture or ask for a bandage.
• Approach the infant care teacher for a hug and express, “Mommy work,” then point to the door to communicate miss ing the mother.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children anticipate the need for comfort and try to prepare themselves for changes in routine. Children have many self-comforting behaviors to choose from, depending on the situation, and can communicate specific needs and wants. (Kopp 1989; CDE 2005)
For example, the child may:
• Reach for the mother’s hand just before she pulls a ban dage off the child’s knee.
• Ask the infant care teacher to hold him up to the window to wave good-bye before the par ent leaves in the morning.
• Show the substitute teacher that she likes a back rub dur ing naptime by patting own back while lying on the mat.
• Play quietly in a corner of the room right after drop-off, until ready to play with the other children.
• Ask the infant care teacher to explain what’s going to happen at the child’s dental appoint ment later in the day.
• Communicate, “Daddy always comes back” after saying good-bye to him in the morn ing.
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Emotion Regulation
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Suck on hands, focus on an in teresting toy, or move the body in a rocking motion to calm self. (3–6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Cry inconsolably less often than in the early months. (6 mos.; Parks 2004, 10)
• Calm self by sucking on fingers or hands. (4 mos.; Thelen and Fogel 1989; 3–12 mos.; Bron son 2000b, 64)
• Be able to inhibit some negative emotions. (Later in the first year; Fox and Calkins 2000)
• Shift attention away from a dis tressing event onto an object, as a way of managing emo tions. (6 mos.; Weinberg and others 1999)
• Fall asleep when feeling over whelmed.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Move away from something that is bothersome and move toward the infant care teacher for comfort. (6–12 mos.; Bron son 2000b, 64)
• Fight back tears when a parent leaves for the day. (12 mos.; Bridges, Grolnick, and Con nell 1997; Parritz 1996; Sroufe 1979)
• Look for a cue from the infant care teacher when unsure if something is safe. (10–12 mos.; Fogel 2001, 305; Dickstein and Parke 1988; Hirshberg and Svejda 1990)
• Fuss to communicate needs or wants; begin to cry if the infant care teacher does not respond soon enough. (11–19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 77)
• Repeat sounds to get the infant care teacher’s attention. (11–19 mos.; Hart and Risley 1999, 79)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Continue to rely on adults for reassurance and help in con trolling feelings and behavior. (Lally and others 1995)
• Reenact emotional events in play to try to gain mastery over these feelings. (Greenspan and Greenspan 1985)
• Use words to ask for specific help with regulating emotions. (Kopp 1989)
• Express wants and needs verbally; for example, say, “hold me” to the infant care teacher when feeling tired or over whelmed. (30–31.5 mos.; Parks 2004, 130)
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Foundation: Impulse Control The developing capacity to wait for needs to be met,
to inhibit potentially hurtful behavior, and to act according to social expectations, including safety rules
8 months
At around eight months of age, children act on impulses. (Birth–9 mos.; Bronson 2000b, 64)
For example, the child may:
• Explore the feel of hair by pulling it. (4–7 mos.; American Academy of Pediatrics 2004, 226)
• Reach for an interesting toy that another child is mouthing.
• Reach for another child’s bottle that was just set down nearby.
• Turn the head away or push the bottle away when finished eat ing (8 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 19).
Chart continues on next page.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children respond positively to choices and limits set by an adult to help control their behavior. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 34; Kaler and Kopp 1990)
For example, the child may:
• Stop drawing on the wall when a parent asks. (18 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Choose one toy when the infant care teacher asks, “Which one do you want?” even though the child really wants both.
• Express “no no” while ap proaching something the child knows she should not touch, because the infant care teacher has communicated “no no” in the past when the child tried to do this.
• Look to the infant care teacher to see his reaction when the child reaches toward the light switch.
• Stop reaching for the eyeglass es on the infant care teacher’s face when she gently says, “no no.” (Scaled score of 10 for 7:16–8:15 mos.; Bayley 2006, 87; 12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 27)
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children may sometimes exercise voluntary control over actions and emotional expres sions. (Bronson 2000b, 67)
For example, the child may:
• Jump up and down on the couch but stop jumping and climb down when a parent enters the room. (36 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Experience difficulty (e.g., cry, whine, pout) with transitions. (30–36 mos.; Parks 2004, 320)
• Begin to share.
• Handle transitions better when prepared ahead of time or when the child has some control over what happens.
• Touch a pet gently without needing to be reminded.
• Wait to start eating until others at the table are also ready.
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Impulse Control
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Cry when hungry or tired.
• Fall asleep when tired.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Crawl too close to a younger infant lying nearby.
• Refrain from exploring another baby’s hair when reminded to be gentle. (8–10 mos.; Brazel ton 1992, 256)
• Look at the infant care teacher’s face to determine whether it is all right to play with a toy on the table. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 25)
• Bite another child who takes a toy.
• Reach for food on a plate before the infant care teacher offers it. (12 mos.; Meisels and others 2003, 25)
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Begin to use words and dra matic play to describe, under stand, and control impulses and feelings. (Lally and others 1995)
• Communicate, “Mine!” and take a doll out of the hands of a peer. (23–24 mos.; Parks 2004, 330)
• Throw a puzzle piece on the floor after having trouble fitting it in the opening. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Open the playground door and run out, even after being asked by the infant care teacher to wait. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Start to take another child’s toy, then stop after catching the eye of the infant care teacher. (24 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Use a quiet voice at naptime. (30 mos.; Meisels and others 2003)
• Understand and carry out simple commands or rules. (Bronson 2000b, 85)
• Have a tantrum rather than attempt to manage strong feel ings. (Brazelton 1992)
• Be able to wait for a turn.
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Foundation: Social Understanding The developing understanding of the responses, communication,
emotional expressions, and actions of other people
8 months
At around eight months of age, children have learned what to expect from familiar people, understand what to do to get another’s attention, engage in back-and-forth interactions with others, and imitate the simple actions or facial expressions of others.
For example, the child may:
• Smile when the infant care teacher pauses, to get her to continue playing peek-a-boo or pat-a-cake.
• Squeal in anticipation of the infant care teacher’s uncover ing her eyes during a game of peek-a-boo.
• Learn simple behaviors by imi tating a parent’s facial expres sions, gestures, or sounds.
• Try to get a familiar game or routine started by prompting the infant care teacher.
• Quiet crying upon realizing that the infant care teacher is ap proaching.
18 months
At around 18 months of age, children know how to get the infant care teacher to respond in a specific way through ges tures, vocalizations, and shared attention; use another’s emo tional expressions to guide their own responses to unfamiliar events; and learn more com plex behavior through imitation. Children also engage in more complex social interactions and have developed expectations for a greater number of familiar people.
For example, the child may:
• Gesture toward a desired toy or food while reaching, making imperative vocal sounds, and looking toward the infant care teacher.
• Seek reassurance from the infant care teacher when unsure about something.
• Vary response to different infant care teachers depending on their play styles, even before they have started playing; for example, get very excited upon seeing an infant care teacher who regularly plays in an exciting, vigorous manner.
• Engage in back-and-forth play that involves turn-taking, such as rolling a ball back and forth.
• Look in the direction of the infant care teacher’s gesturing or point ing.
• Learn more complex behaviors through imitation, such as watching an older child put toys together and then doing it.
36 months
At around 36 months of age, children can talk about their own wants and feelings and those of other people, describe familiar routines, participate in coordinated episodes of pretend play with peers, and interact with adults in more complex ways.
For example, the child may:
• Name own feelings or desires, explicitly contrast them with another’s, or describe why the child feels the way he does.
• Describe what happens during the bedtime routine or another familiar everyday event.
• Move into and out of pretend play roles, tell other children what they should do in their roles, or extend the sequence (such as by asking “Wanna drink?” after bringing a pre tend hamburger to the table as a waiter).
• Help the infant care teacher search for a missing toy.
• Talk about what happened during a recent past experi ence, with the assistance of the infant care teacher.
• Help the infant care teacher clean up at the end of the day by putting the toys in the usual places.
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Social Understanding
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to � months)
During this period, the child may:
• Make imperative vocal sounds to attract the infant care teacher’s attention.
• Participate in playful, face-to face interactions with an adult, such as taking turns vocaliz ing.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Follow the infant care teacher’s gaze to look at a toy.
• Hold up or gesture toward objects in order to direct the infant care teacher’s attention to them.
Behaviors leading up to the foundation (�� to �� months)
During this period, the child may:
• Vary play with different peers depending on their preferred play activities.
• Imitate the behavior of peers as well as adults.
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Chapter 3
Social–Emotional Development
S ocial–emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others.1 It encompasses both intra- and interpersonal processes.
The core features of emotional devel- opment include the ability to identify and understand one’s own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner, to regulate one’s own behavior, to develop empa- thy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships.2
Infants experience, express, and per- ceive emotions before they fully under- stand them. In learning to recognize, label, manage, and communicate their emotions and to perceive and attempt to understand the emotions of oth- ers, children build skills that connect them with family, peers, teachers, and the community. These growing capaci- ties help young children to become competent in negotiating increasingly complex social interactions, to partici- pate effectively in relationships and group activities, and to reap the ben-
efits of social support, which is critical to healthy human development and functioning.
Healthy social–emotional develop- ment for infants and toddlers unfolds in an interpersonal context, namely that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar, nurturing adults. Young children are particularly attuned to social and emotional stimulation, and newborns appear to be more attentive to stimuli that resemble faces.3 They also prefer their mothers’ voices to the voices of other women.4 Through nur- turance, adults support the infants’ earliest experiences of emotion regula- tion.5, 6
Responsive caregiving helps infants begin to regulate their emotions and to develop a sense of predictability, safety, and security in their social environments. In the early years of a child’s life, relationships are so impor- tant that experts have concluded, “nurturing, stable and consistent relationships are the key to healthy growth, development and learning.”7 In other words, high-quality relationships increase the likelihood of positive out- comes for young children.8 Experiences with family members and teachers
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provide an opportunity for young children to learn about social relation- ships and emotions through explo- ration and predictable interactions. Professionals working in child care settings can support the social– emotional development of infants and toddlers in various ways—for example, by interacting directly with young children, communicating with families, arranging the physical space in the care environment, and planning and implementing curriculum.
Brain research indicates that emo- tion and cognition are profoundly interrelated processes. Specifically, “recent cognitive neuroscience findings suggest that the neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation may be the same as those underlying cogni- tive processes.”9 Emotion and cogni- tion work together, jointly informing the child’s impressions of situations and influencing behavior. Most learn- ing in the early years occurs in the context of emotional supports.10 And, in the words of J. Panksepp, “[t]he rich interpenetrations of emotions and cognitions establish the major psychic scripts for each child’s life.”11 Fur- thermore, cognitive processes, such as decision making, are affected by emotion.12 Brain structures involved in the neural circuitry of cognition influence emotion, and vice versa.13 Emotions and social behaviors affect the young child’s ability to persist in goal-oriented activity, to seek help when it is needed, and to participate in and benefit from relationships.
Young children who exhibit healthy social, emotional, and behavioral
adjustment are more likely to have good academic performance in elemen- tary school.14, 15 The sharp distinction between cognition and emotion that has historically been made may be more of an artifact of scholarship than it is representative of the way these processes occur in the brain.16 This recent research strengthens the view that early childhood programs sup- port later positive learning outcomes in all domains by focusing on the promotion of healthy social–emotional development.17, 18, 19 In light of current research, social–emotional experience needs to be at the center of infant/tod- dler curriculum planning.
Guiding Principles
Learn from the family about the child’s social–emotional development
Infants’ social–emotional develop- ment begins at home. They begin to learn how adults respond to cues, such as crying, smiling, and cooing. Their first experiences with reciprocal interactions, language and commu- nication, and care routines are with
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family members. Through these early relationship experiences, infants start to form expectations about how people treat them, and family members gain deep understanding of their child. In light of the family’s experiences with their infant, teachers have much to learn about the child from the family. Through partnerships with families, teachers can gain important informa- tion on how to support infants’ social– emotional development and find ways to build on the children’s learning and development at home.
Place relationships at the center of curriculum planning
The most fundamental need of infants and toddlers is to have close, nurturing relationships that help them build a sense of emotional secu- rity. Chapter 1 of this curriculum framework states, “Relationships provide infants and toddlers a secure emotional base from which they can explore and learn. Much of the cogni- tive, language, social, and physical learning a child experiences occurs while interacting with an adult.” Because relationships are at the core of infant/toddler learning and devel- opment, teachers start curriculum planning by considering how to facili- tate positive relationship experiences. Teachers look for ways in which the learning environment can be arranged to facilitate their interactions with chil- dren and the interactions that children have with each other. Teachers provide enough play materials so that children are more likely to engage in positive play rather than struggle for control of an insufficient number of materials. As teachers observe children in play, they watch for opportunities to be respon-
sive to a child’s needs, recognize a child’s accomplishments, show interest in a child’s exploration and discovery, make suggestions that help children solve problems, engage in back-and- forth interaction, and provide a secure base for children’s exploration and learning.
Read and respond to children’s emotional cues
As stated in chapter 1, emotions drive early learning. Infants and tod- dlers are active, curious learners who experience pleasure when receiving a positive response from a nurturing adult or when making a discovery. The pleasure children experience motivates them to continue engaging in positive interactions, exploring, and learning. The emotional responses of infants and toddlers express their interests and needs. It is important for teachers to read the children’s cues to pick up on learning interests and meet needs. By reading emotional cues, teachers determine whether to engage in inter- action with a child or to wait quietly to see what the child will do next. Emo- tional cues let teachers know if chil- dren are ready for more interaction, want more complexity added to their play, or are tired and need quiet time. Responsiveness to a child’s emotional cues strengthens the teacher–child relationship and opens up new pos- sibilities for the child’s learning in the social–emotional domain and in all other developmental domains.
Attend to the environment’s impact on children’s social– emotional development
The child care environment affects the social–emotional development of
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infants and toddlers in various ways. If the environment is set up to make it easy for children and teachers to make eye contact and communicate with each other, teachers can be emo- tionally and physically available to children, and the children can develop a secure base for learning. Children need comfortable places where they can be close to a teacher to look at a book, do a finger play, or have a quiet conversation. Care routines are more emotionally satisfying in environments that are arranged for interaction and the children’s participation. Addition- ally, group size is an important factor that influences the impact of the envi- ronment; a learning environment with a small number of children will keep the amount of stimulation at a man- ageable level for both the children and the teachers. The environment also influences everyone’s mood—children and teachers alike—and the amount of stress experienced in the child care setting. An environment with ample fresh air, peaceful colors, different kinds of lighting, places to move freely, and easy access to play materials pro- motes a sense of calm that allows chil-
dren and teachers to focus on explor- ing and learning together.
Understand and respect individuality
Each infant or toddler is unique. Temperament, family experiences, culture, language, and other biologi- cal and environmental factors blend together to influence each child’s development. Another consideration is whether a child has a physical dis- ability, sensory impairment, or other special needs. Uniqueness may be reflected in a child’s approaches to learning, rate of development, and ways of relating to others. The fol- lowing statement from the California Department of Education publication Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop- ment Program Guidelines summarizes how teachers can support a child’s social–emotional development in par- ticular and his or her learning and development in general:
Each child will approach and explore his or her environment and relation- ships differently. Some children need specialized support from an attentive adult to help them actively explore
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their worlds and build relationships with other people. Other children naturally seek out these experiences through self-discovery and activity. Although most children generally follow a fairly similar developmental path, some children have differences in their development due to their dis- ability, experiences, or inborn traits. Understanding each child’s develop- ment is part of the joy and respon- sibility of the teacher. If the child’s development varies from the expected path, the teacher needs to monitor it, communicate with the family, and determine how best to support the child.20
To be emotionally responsive to each child, a teacher needs to form close, respectful relationships with the child and the child’s family. The teacher can learn about the uniqueness of each child through these relationships and can discover how to help each child adapt to the infant/toddler care setting and continue to develop socially and emotionally.
Summary of the Foundations
The social–emotional development domain consists of 11 foundations:
1. Interactions with Adults
2. Relationships with Adults
3. Interactions with Peers
4. Relationships with Peers
5. Identity of Self in Relation to Others
6. Recognition of Ability
7. Expression of Emotion
8. Empathy
9. Emotion Regulation
10. Impulse Control
11. Social Understanding
Please refer to the map of the social– emotional development foundations on page 78 for a visual explanation of the terminology used in the infant/toddler learning and development foundations.
Environments and Materials Environments that support the
social–emotional development of infants and toddlers have small groups, primary and consistent care- givers, individualized scheduling, appropriate teacher-to-child ratios, and culturally responsive, family-ori- ented care. Such environments allow children to (1) learn about themselves and others, (2) develop a sense of self- confidence and self-efficacy, (3) under- stand their feelings and the feelings of others, (4) positively express their feelings and respond to the feelings of others, and (5) learn to develop posi- tive relationship and conflict-resolu- tion skills. To support social–emotional development, teachers use the follow- ing strategies.
Create a positive environment that allows children to explore freely, in which they often hear “yes” and seldom hear “no.”
Provide materials that support relationships and the development of social understanding. Include pic- tures of families, teachers, and chil- dren in the environment, displayed in the children’s play area on small cards or homemade books. Self-adhesive fabric can be used to attach pictures to walls. Additionally, place pictures of family members on a peek board
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(two pieces of poster board fastened together, with pictures glued to the bottom piece and doors cut in the top piece for children to open) or on several sides of a milk-carton block (made by cutting a milk carton in half, pushing one into the other, and cov- ering with paper, pictures, and clear adhesive paper). Include in the environment artifacts from families that children can look at, listen to, or play with—for example, cloth, hats, vases, candles, music, and clothes. Add puppets and flannel- board figures for children to use in dramatic play. Set up dramatic play areas where children can practice relation- ships and roles; examples of pretend settings include homes, bedrooms, kitchens,
pet stores, buses, trains, restaurants, and offices.
Provide materials that relate to feelings and emotional expression. Offer books, stories, songs, and pic- tures about feelings. Display through- out the classroom photos of different feelings—possibly around a mirror, where children can see their own faces and photos of various feelings. Use puppets, dolls, and stuffed animals to tell stories about feelings, with a focus on simple themes: sad to say good-bye, afraid of the dog, mad or sad when another child takes a toy away, or frustrated because climbing on tables is not allowed. With materials such as these, a simple story can be told that demonstrates a feeling, the cause of the feeling, appropriate ways to express the feeling, and a resolution.
Arrange the environment to sup- port peer interactions and relation- ships. Create environments where small groups of children can explore materials and each other freely. Non- mobile babies placed on their backs, 1 to 3 feet apart, are able to see and hear each other. Toys that are soft and easy to hold provide opportuni- ties for children to give and take toys
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with other children. Create individual, small-group, and open spaces in the environment. It is helpful to offer places where children can feel “alone” (e.g., individual cardboard boxes, car- peted riser boxes, cubby spaces); small spaces where a child can be with one or two friends; and open spaces where groups of children can gather together. Include pictures of the children into the care environment; post pictures of all the children in the group, low on the wall so children can see them. Make a collection of small cards, each with a picture of a child in the group. Laminate the cards or cover them with clear contact paper. Make a small book (with loose-leaf rings or ribbon) that displays pictures of children in the group. Provide multiples of popular toys so children can engage in paral- lel and associative play; doing so also reduces peer conflict.
Interactions Interactions with adults are funda-
mental for infant/toddler social–emo- tional development. Caregiving rou- tines that occur throughout the day offer particularly important learning experiences for infants and toddlers because they happen regularly and consistently. By experiencing and par- ticipating in these routines, children learn what it means to be nurtured in a caring way. In supportive relation- ships with adults, children also learn what it means to engage in reciprocal, responsive interactions. Over time, they begin to learn to do things for themselves. They develop competence by predicting how the routine will go, knowing how their bodies work, learn- ing how to read their body signals, and learning how to participate in their
care. Primary caregiving allows infants and toddlers to learn another person’s communication and interaction style. Through primary caregiving, a young child learns to predict what will hap- pen in interactions with her teacher. She and her teacher learn one anoth- er’s ways of communicating.
As stated throughout this publica- tion, observation and responsiveness are essential curriculum tools. They are particularly important in support- ing social–emotional development. Observation enables an infant care teacher to try to understand a baby’s behavior and to respond promptly and appropriately. These responses let the baby know that she is an effective communicator and initiator of events. Observation also makes it possible for an infant care teacher to create inter- esting and meaningful interactions with children. For example, when a teacher observes young toddlers pour- ing water from a tub onto the ground and looking at her expectantly, she can comment with words such as pouring, splashing, wet, empty, or full and can plan for future water setups that use different containers, to find out where the children’s interests might lead.
To support social–emotional develop- ment, teachers:
Offer learning opportunities through caregiving routines. Develop predictable caregiving routines (dia- pering, napping, feeding, dressing, washing, arrivals, and departures) that foster a sense of security in a baby. Let children know ahead of time what is going to happen and develop a predict- able sequence for the routine. Include the child in the routine. Tell him what you are going to do and describe your actions. Encourage him to participate in every way he can.
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Additionally, share the lead with a child during caregiving routines. A teacher may want to carry out the rou- tine, but often the child has another agenda. While including the child in the routine, a teacher listens and responds to the child’s behavior, emo- tional expressions, and vocalizations or speech. Allow an infant or toddler to participate in feeding—for example, by having the child watch a spoon and open her mouth for the food, choose her bib, reach for and hold her spoon, self-feed, drink from a cup, pour her drink, serve herself, or help with cook- ing activities. Implement “warming-in,” in which children and families who are about to begin child care visit a few times with the teacher in the program setting, and the teacher visits the child and family at their home.
Learn about temperament. This applies to the temperaments of the children in the program and to your own temperament. Adapt to each child’s temperament. For instance, provide ample outdoor time for an active, high-energy child, and provide extended warming-in time for a “slow- to-warm” child. Notice when children have temperaments that are personally challenging, and work to adapt care- giving to meet each child’s needs.
Pay attention to feelings and emotional responses. Help children name their feelings. Instead of tell- ing children what they feel, suggest to them names for feelings. This strategy gives children a vocabulary about feel- ings and also communicates that they are the ones who know what their feel- ings are.
In addition, help children to under- stand what causes their feelings. Offer children—rather than tell them— possible explanations. Pay attention
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to your emotional responses, as young children are keenly sensitive to tone of voice and facial expressions. Fur- thermore, model for children respect- ful, appropriate expressions of emo- tion, facial expressions, and tone of voice that match their feelings. Loud or intensely angry tones can be over- whelming and frightening for children.
Support and respect the child’s relationship with his or her family. Build respectful, caring relationships with each child’s family members. Use your communication with families as a model of interpersonal communication for the children to observe. Discuss with family members how routines are done at home. Think about ways to include each family’s caregiving prac- tices in the care you provide. Talk to children about their families. Use a child’s home language when possible. Use rhymes or songs from the child’s family. Show children pictures of their family members. Remind children that their family members are think- ing about them, love them, and will be back to pick them up. Talk about fam- ily memories with children.
Support relationships and interac- tions among the children in the pro- gram. Acknowledge children’s healthy impulses, model appro- priate behavior, use positive direction and choice, give infor- mation, and ensure safety when children are interacting with each other. Appreciate the ideas children try to test or express. Model the behavior that you want children to learn. Give positive directions, such as “Be gentle with your friend.” Redi- rect children and offer choices. Offer information about conse- quences of children’s actions.
Provide continuity of care to support children’s relationships with teachers as well as children’s relationships with one another.
Model responsive and respect- ful interactions and behavior. Be sensitive to turn-taking in interac- tions with babies. After approaching or communicating with a baby, wait a few moments to give her a chance to respond. Tell the infant or toddler in advance what you are going to do. For example, let an infant know, with verbal and nonverbal cues, that you are going to pick him up. This type of communication helps a young child learn what to expect from relation- ships. Additionally, acknowledge the presence of new adults who come into the environment and provide informa- tion about them.
Respect children’s interests. If you want to do something with a child who is already engaged with a person or activity, wait and observe briefly to find an appropriate moment to get the child’s attention. Listen and respond to children’s vocalizations and speech, even when you are unable to fully understand them.
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Support children’s regulation of emotions. Learn each child’s pre- ferred ways to be comforted. Identify or name for children what helps them feel comforted. Acknowledge when children seek comfort and comfort themselves. Collaborate with children in providing comfort for them. Keep in mind that children are capable of helping to com- fort themselves.
Demonstrate acceptance for all of the feelings children express. Young children use social referencing, which means they look to adults throughout the day to “read” how things are going. When someone is crying, a teacher can provide a calm, accepting, and empathic tone to help children learn that crying is natural and related to feelings of sadness, frustration, fear, and anger. Likewise, a teacher who responds calmly when angry or afraid helps children learn that such feelings are valid and appropriate.
Vignette
Anita is holding six-month-old Jed on her lap. Jed is the first child to arrive in Anita’s family child care home each day. They have a few quiet min-
utes together before the other children begin to arrive. Anita has noticed that Jed often demonstrates excitement when watching the older children. He kicks his legs and puffs his breath when he sees Carlo and his mother enter the playroom. Miss Anita turns so that Jed can easily see Carlo and she says softly to Jed, “Here is Carlo, coming to play. He made you laugh yesterday, didn’t he?” Anita smiles and greets Carlo and his mother, and then she says, “Carlo, Jed is so happy to see you. Do you see how he kicks his legs and waves his arms? Would you like to say hello?” When Carlo approaches, Anita says to Jed, “Here is Carlo, com- ing to say hello.” The boys gaze at each other quietly for a moment. Anita is attentive and silent. Then Carlo makes a silly face and dances, and Jed lets out a little giggle. Carlo’s mother, who is several months pregnant, shares a smile with Anita.
Responsive Moment
Anita recognizes Jed’s interest in Carlo and knows that the two had a pleasurable encounter the day before. Anita responds to Jed’s interest by
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positioning him so he can see Carlo and by encouraging Carlo to greet Jed. Anita wants Jed to have a chance to pursue his interest, and at the same time help Carlo learn to recognize that even tiny babies are people with feel- ings, interests, and skills. Anita skill- fully guides Carlo’s attention to Jed’s interest and animated movements. Carlo and Jed share an important moment in which they learn about each other and have a chance to see and be seen. Through moments such as this one, Anita gently and inten- tionally supports the young infants in interacting with older children throughout the day.
Vignette
At the infant/toddler center, two children, Kristen and Edgar, are sitting together by the door. Both children are about 30 months old. Their primary care teacher, Celia, has told them that if they go get their shoes from the shoe shelf, she will take them on a walk in the nearby woods. Edgar has been at the center only for a week, but his almost immediate connection with Kristen has helped him to settle in quickly. They chatter excitedly to each other about their walk in the woods. It will be Edgar’s first time there. Kris- ten tells Edgar how she will chase the squirrels on the path, as she did on her last walk. Kristen, whose right hand has a tiny thumb and no fingers, sits down to put on her shoes. Edgar notices Kristen’s hand and, with con- cern in his voice, asks, “Where your fingers? Is it hurt?” Edgar reaches out to touch Kristen’s hand as if this is the first time he has noticed, though he has asked about it a few other times. Kristen quickly tucks her hand under
her arm. Teacher Celia sits down with the children and offers to help with the shoes as needed. She holds out her hands and says to both children, “Kristen has one big hand and one small hand.” Kristen holds both hands in front of her and looks at them. Edgar holds out his too, and the two children look at their hands together. Kristen grabs one shoe, puts her foot in it, and uses her small thumb as a wedge to get her heel into the shoe. Edgar, with a serious expression on his face, places his shoes in Celia’s lap, and she puts them on for him. Kristen reaches out and tugs on his shoe, and he laughs because this action made him feel ticklish. Then the teacher and two children walk out the door, holding hands and looking for squirrels.
Responsive Moment
Celia wants to support the devel- oping friendship between Kristen and Edgar and also help them work through the potentially difficult moment when Edgar asks about Kris- ten’s hand. Kristen will likely be asked about her hand repeatedly throughout her life. In fact, at 30 months of age it is likely that she has already been asked about her hand several times. So Celia knows that this moment provides Kristen with an opportunity to learn how to handle this kind of question effectively. The situation also provides Edgar with a chance to see that Kristen’s condition is a part of her, but not all of her. In discussions with Kristen’s parents, Celia has asked how they would like her to handle questions about Kristen’s hand. The parents and Celia have agreed that Celia could simply describe Kristen’s hand to other children, without getting
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into complicated explanations about the cause or effects of Kristen’s condi- tion. In this particular situation, Kris- ten has already mastered how to put on her shoes and is able to help Edgar, who has not yet learned this skill. In other situations, Kristen may need some extra help from others.
Research Highlight 1
How do infants and toddlers come to understand the thoughts and feel- ings of people around them? Infants and toddlers pay close attention to what others are doing and feeling. Toward the end of the first year of life, infants begin to follow another’s gaze or gesture (joint attention), and they use the emotional cues of oth- ers to provide them with information about an unfamiliar situation to help guide their actions (social referenc- ing).21 Recent research suggests that in addition to using direct emotional cues, 18-month-olds engage in “emotional eavesdropping”—the use of indirect emotional information to regulate their actions.22 Older infants pay attention not only to emotional information directed toward them, but also to emotional information directed toward others in their envi- ronment, using both kinds of infor- mation to guide their actions.
Research Highlight 2
Emotion regulation is recognized as a key component of children’s social and emotional competence and is considered foundational to children’s later social and academic success. Research indicates that caregivers play a central role in helping infants regulate emotions, and that early on in development infants rely almost exclusively on caregivers to help them
regulate their emotions.23 Caregiv- ers who respond to infants’ negative and positive emotions in sensitive and contingent ways promote infants’ abilities to regulate their own emo- tions. Notably, infants who tend to get frustrated and upset more eas- ily are likely to receive even greater benefit from caregivers who read their cues and make efforts to help them manage their distress.24
Sample Developmental Sequences
Identity of Self in Relation to Others
Definition: Children’ social–emo- tional development includes an emerg- ing awareness that one’s sense of self is both distinct from and connected to others.
Beginning level: Children begin to communicate their needs to caregiv- ers. For instance, they may move their arms and legs when seeking attention or turn their head toward an adult during caregiving routines.
Next level: Children use their senses to explore themselves and oth- ers. For instance, they may examine their own hands or feet by looking at them or mouthing them, or they may touch an adult’s hair when it is within reach.
Next level: Children can recog- nize their own selves, familiar people, and familiar things. They show clear awareness of being a separate person and of being connected to other people. For instance, they respond to someone who calls their name or turn toward a familiar person upon hearing their name.
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Next level: Children not only recog- nize but also can communicate their own names and the names of famil- iar people and things. For instance, a child may point at a picture of herself and say her name, or point to a peer and say that person’s name.
Next level: Children become more aware of their own preferences and characteristics and those of others. They may express more details about themselves and their connection to other people and things by referring to categories. For instance, they may use family roles, such as “Brother,” “Baby sister,” “Mommy,” or “Daddy.”
Recognition of Ability
Definition: As children mature, they are gradually able to evaluate their own abilities to do things and show interest in others’ evaluation of self. They develop the sense that they can make things happen and that they have particular abilities.
Beginning level: Children commu- nicate their needs until those needs are met. For instance, they may cry when hungry until they are fed.
Next level: Children show pleasure while repeating simple actions. For instance, they may smile while kicking.
Next level: Children experiment with different ways of making things happen, persist in trying to do things even if faced with difficulty, and show a sense of satisfaction with what they can do. For instance, they may try to roll or creep to another part of a room even when there is a barrier.
Next level: Children show interest in others’ reactions when exploring their own abilities. For instance, they may finish painting a picture and hold it up to show a family member, or they
may insist on zipping up a jacket when an adult tries to help.
Next level: Children seek an adult’s attention ahead of time in order to demonstrate abilities. They try to get the adult to watch by calling, motion- ing, or pulling before they do some- thing. For instance, a boy may say, “Watch me! Watch me!” and then dem- onstrate that he can put on his coat by himself.
Engaging Families Engaging families in supporting
the social–emotional development of their infants and toddlers starts with the relationship between early care and education programs and families. Infant care teachers and families can model positive relationships for chil- dren through open communication and mutual respect. Additionally, sug- gestions offered in daily conversations,
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meetings between teachers and family members, or newsletters can engage families in understanding and facilitat- ing their children’s social–emotional learning and development at home and in the program setting. Such commu- nication also helps family members appreciate that emotional development works hand in hand with intellectual and language development. Teachers should make efforts to:
• Develop rituals for certain routines, such as separations and reunions, which meet physical needs, provide comfort during stressful times, and convey a sense of predictability, con- sistency, and stability.
• Respond to children’s cues through actions, words, and facial expres- sions.
• Minimize infants’ exposure to exces- sive stress and protect children from both overstimulation and understim- ulation. As developmentally appro- priate, provide language to help chil- dren learn to recognize and regulate a range of emotions (e.g., “I see that you’re starting to get excited” or “It sounds like you’re frustrated”).
• Make sure that expectations for emotion regulation, impulse control, and attention are developmentally and individually appropriate—for example, by limiting the time that children spend waiting and by keep- ing promises made to children (“I’ll get you some milk after I put these books away”).
• Model empathic behaviors and help family members build their child’s social understanding by commu- nicating with their child about the thoughts and feelings of others. For example, a teacher may wonder out
loud why another child is crying or suggest ways to help the child feel better.
• Strengthen the children’s sense of self and connection to others; bridge their social worlds by asking family members to share stories, traditions, or objects from home in the infant/ toddler care setting. Also, encour- age family members to mention their child’s peers and infant care teach- ers during conversations at home.
Questions for Reflection
1. How can you communicate with families about the relationship between social–emotional devel- opment and learning and devel- opment in other domains?
2. What are some ways that you can learn about family and cul- tural influences on social–emo- tional development (including the expression of emotion, expecta- tions for emotion regulation, and so forth) for the children in your group or program?
3. How can daily and personal care routines provide a sense of pre- dictability, security, and nurtur- ance for children? How can you make them more socially and emotionally meaningful for chil- dren? How can you include fami- lies in planning how you carry out routines?
4. In the curriculum planning pro- cess, what strategies have you implemented that were specifi- cally intended to facilitate chil- dren’s social–emotional develop- ment? What engaged the children and helped them learn? What
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else might you do in the future to facilitate children’s social–emo- tional development?
Concluding Thoughts Developmentally appropriate cur-
riculum planning for infants and tod- dlers begins with each child’s social– emotional development. The child’s relationship experiences are at the core of social–emotional development. Infant/toddler care teachers can best foster the child’s learning by under- standing every important relationship in the child’s life. Likewise, a partner- ship with the child’s family provides a window on the child’s emotional life. Insights from the family, combined with the teacher’s observations of the
child, help the teacher understand the uniqueness of each child and find ways to be responsive to each child’s preferences, abilities, temperament, interests, and needs. The teacher’s responsiveness strengthens the devel- oping relationship with the child and establishes a secure base for the child’s exploration and learning. The child’s emerging capacity for self-reg- ulation, which includes emotion regu- lation, impulse control, and attention maintenance, is bolstered by gentle, respectful guidance from nurturing adults. With an emotionally secure base and with guidance that supports self-regulation, infants and toddlers can concentrate on exploration and learning in every domain.
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Map of the Foundations
Social–Emotional DevelopmentDomain
Foundation
Age-level description
Examples
Behaviors leading up to the foundations
Teacher Resources
Brault, L., and T. Brault. Children with Chal- lenging Behavior: Strategies for Reflective Thinking. Phoenix, AZ: CPG Publishing Company, 2005. http://www. braultbehavior.org/ (accessed November 30, 2010).
Brazelton, T. B. Touchpoints: The Essential Ref- erence: Your Child’s Emotional and Behav- ioral Development. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley, 1996.
Bredekamp, S. Effective Practices in Early Child- hood Education: Building a Foundation. Boston: Pearson Education, 2010.
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Butterfield, P. M., C. A. Martin, and A. P. Prai- rie. Emotional Connections: How Relation- ships Guide Early Learning. Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2004.
Campbell, S. “Caretaking in a Nurturing Way: Replicating Relationship-Based, Reflective Models in Healthy Families Programs.” Zero to Three 25, no. 5 (May 2005): 17–22.
Center on the Social and Emotional Founda- tions for Early Learning (CSEFEL). Using Books to Support Social Emotional Develop- ment: Children’s Book List, 2008. http:// csefel.vanderbilt.edu/documents/booklist. pdf (accessed November 30, 2010).
Curtis, D., and M. Carter. Designs for Living and Learning: Transforming Early Child- hood Environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press, 2003.
Epstein, A. S. The Intentional Teacher: Choos- ing the Best Strategies for Young Children’s Learning. Washington, DC: National Asso- ciation for the Education of Young Chil- dren, 2007.
Gilkerson, L., ed., and R. Klein, ed. Early Devel- opment and the Brain: Teaching Resources for Educators. Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2008.
Gillespie, L. G., and A. Hunter. “Emotional Flooding—Using Empathy to Help Babies Manage Strong Emotions.” Young Children 63 (September 2008): 46–47.
Gonzalez-Mena, J. Multicultural Issues in Child Care. 2nd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1997.
Greenspan, S., and N. T. Greenspan. First Feel- ings: Milestones in the Emotional Develop- ment of Your Baby and Child from Birth to Age 4. New York: Viking, 1985.
Greenwald, D. “Honoring the Family in Child Care Settings.” Educaring: Resources for Infant Educarers 31, no. 1 (2010): 1 and 3.
Hohmann, M., and D. P. Weikart. Educating Young Children. 2nd ed. Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press, 2002.
Honig, A. S. “Infants and Toddlers: Develop- ment—The Power of Touch.” Early Child- hood Today 19, no. 5 (March 2005): 25–26.
———. “Outcomes of Infant and Toddler Care.” Montessori Life 5, no. 4 (Fall 1993): 34–42.
Lally, J. R., and others. Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Groups: Developmentally Appro- priate Practice. Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2003.
Lally, J. R., and P. Mangione. “The Unique- ness of Infancy Demands a Responsive Approach to Care.” Young Children 61, no. 4 (July 2006): 14–20.
Miller, K. “The Most Difficult Transition in Child Care: From the Infant Room into the Toddler Room.” Child Care Information Exchange 119 (January-February 1998): 88–90.
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). http://www.naeyc.org/ (accessed September 10, 2010).
Pawl, J. H., and M. St. John. How You Are Is as Important as What You Do In Making a Positive Difference for Infants, Toddlers and Their Families. Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 1998.
Petersen, S., and D. Wittmer. “Relationship- Based Infant Care: Responsive, On Demand, and Predictable.” Young Children 63, no. 3 (May 2008): 40–42.
Powers, S., ed. “The Developing Mind.” Zero to Three 28, no. 5 (May 2008):1–48.
Raikes, H. “A Secure Base for Babies: Applying Attachment Concepts to the Infant Care Setting.” Young Children 51, no. 5 (July 1996): 59–67.
Riley, D., and others. Social and Emotional Development: Connecting Science and Prac- tice in Early Childhood Settings. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press, 2008.
Endnotes
1. J. Cohen and others, Helping Young Chil- dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early Childhood Social and Emotional Develop- ment (Washington, DC: National Confer- ence of State Legislatures and Zero to Three, 2005).
2. National Scientific Council on the Develop- ing Child, Children’s Emotional Develop- ment Is Built into the Architecture of Their Brains: Working Paper No. 2 (Winter 2004), p. 2.
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3. M. H. Johnson and others, “Newborns’ Preferential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli and Its Subsequent Decline,” Cognition 40, no. 1–2 (1991): 1–19.
4. A. J. DeCasper and W. P. Fifer, “Of Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Moth- ers’ Voices,” Science 208, no. 4448 (1980): 1174–76.
5. M. B. Bronson, “Recognizing and Support- ing the Development of Self-Regulation in Young Children,” Young Children 55, no. 2 (2000): 32–37.
6. R. A. Thompson and R. Goodvin, “The Indi- vidual Child: Temperament, Emotion, Self and Personality,” in Developmental Science: An Advanced Textbook, 2nd ed. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005).
7. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Develop- ment (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2000), p. 412.
8. J. P. Shonkoff, Science, Policy, and the Young Developing Child: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do (Chicago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund, 2004).
9. M. A. Bell and C. D. Wolfe, “Emotion and Cognition: An Intricately Bound Develop- mental Process,” Child Development 75, no. 2 (2004): 366.
10. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Develop- ment (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2000).
11. J. Panksepp, “The Long-Term Psychobio- logical Consequences of Infant Emotions: Prescriptions for the Twenty-First Cen- tury,” Infant Mental Health Journal 22, no. 1–2 (2001): 132–73.
12. L. F. Barrett and others, “The Experience of Emotion,” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007): 373–403.
13. Ibid.
14. J. Cohen and others, Helping Young Chil- dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early Childhood Social and Emotional Develop-
ment (Washington, DC: National Confer- ence of State Legislatures and Zero to Three, 2005).
15. Zero to Three, Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health: Promoting Healthy Social and Emotional Development (Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2004).
16. L. F. Barrett and others, “The Experience of Emotion,” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007): 373–403.
17. National Scientific Council on the Develop- ing Child, Children’s Emotional Develop- ment Is Built into the Architecture of Their Brains: Working Paper No. 2 (Winter 2004).
18. C. C. Raver, “Emotions Matter: Making the Case for the Role of Young Children’s Emotional Development for Early School Readiness,” Society for Research in Child Development Social Policy Report 16, no. 3 (2002): 3–19.
19. J. P. Shonkoff, Science, Policy and the Young Developing Child: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do (Chicago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund, 2004).
20. California Department of Education, Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines (Sacramento: Califor- nia Department of Education, 2006), p. 25.
21. T. Striano and P. Rochat, “Emergence of Selective Social Referencing in Infancy,” Infancy 1, no. 2 (2000): 253–64.
22. B. M. Repacholi and A. N. Meltzoff, “Emo- tional Eavesdropping: Infants Selectively Respond to Indirect Emotional Signals,” Child Development 78, no. 2 (March/April 2007): 503–21.
23. N. A. Fox and S. D. Calkins, “The Develop- ment of Self-Control of Emotion: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences,” Motivation and Emotion 27, no. 1 (2003): 7–26.
24. K. L. Rosenblum, C. J. Dayton, and M. Muzik, “Infant Social and Emotional Development: Emerging Competence in a Relational Context,” in Handbook of Infant Mental Health, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford Publishers, 2009).
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Bibliography
Barrett, L. F., and others. “The Experience of Emotion.” Annual Review of Psychology 58 (2007): 373–403.
Bell, M. A., and C. D. Wolfe. “Emotion and Cog- nition: An Intricately Bound Developmen- tal Process.” Child Development 75, no. 2 (2004): 366–70.
Bronson, M. B. “Recognizing and Support- ing the Development of Self-Regulation in Young Children.” Young Children 55, no. 2 (2000): 32–37.
California Department of Education. Infant/ Toddler Learning and Development Program Guidelines. Sacramento: California Depart- ment of Education, 2006.
Cohen, J., and others. Helping Young Chil- dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early Childhood Social and Emotional Develop- ment. Washington, DC: National Confer- ence of State Legislatures and Zero to Three, 2005. http://main.zerotothree.org/ site/DocServer/help_yng_child_succeed. pdf?docID=621 (accessed November 24, 2010).
DeCasper, A. J., and W. P. Fifer. “Of Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Moth- ers’ Voices.” Science 208, no. 4448 (1980): 1174–76.
Fox, N. A., and S. D. Calkins. “The Develop- ment of Self-Control of Emotion: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences.” Motivation and Emotion 27, no. 1 (2003): 7–26.
Johnson, M. H., and others. “Newborns’ Pref- erential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli and Its Subsequent Decline.” Cognition 40, no. 1–2 (1991): 1–19.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Develop- ment. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and D. A. Phillips, Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2000.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Children’s Emotional Development Is Built into the Architecture of Their Brains: Working Paper No. 2, Winter 2004. http://
developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/ resources/reports_and_working_papers/ working_papers/wp2/ (accessed January 27, 2012).
Panksepp, J. “The Long-Term Psychobiological Consequences of Infant Emotions: Pre- scriptions for the Twenty-First Century.” Infant Mental Health Journal 22, no. 1–2 (2001): 132–73.
Raver, C. C. “Emotions Matter: Making the Case for the Role of Young Children’s Emotional Development for Early School Readiness.” Society for Research in Child Development Social Policy Report 16, no. 3 (2002): 3–19.
Repacholi, B. M., and A. N. Meltzoff. “Emo- tional Eavesdropping: Infants Selectively Respond to Indirect Emotional Signals.” Child Development 78, no. 2 (March/April 2007): 503–21.
Rosenblum, K. L., C. J. Dayton, and M. Muzik. “Infant Social and Emotional Development: Emerging Competence in a Relational Con- text,” in Handbook of Infant Mental Health. 3rd ed. Edited by C.H. Zeanah, Jr. New York: Guilford Publishers, 2009.
Shonkoff, J. P. Science, Policy and the Young Developing Child: Closing the Gap Between What We Know and What We Do. Chi- cago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund, 2004. http://www.ounceofprevention.org/news/ pdfs/Shonkoff.pdf (accessed November 24, 2010).
Striano, T., and P. Rochat. “Emergence of Selec- tive Social Referencing in Infancy.” Infancy 1, no. 2 (2000): 253–64.
Thompson, R. A., and R. Goodvin. “The Indi- vidual Child: Temperament, Emotion, Self and Personality,” in Developmental Science: An Advanced Textbook. 2nd ed. Edited by M. H. Bornstein and M. E. Lamb. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005.
Zero to Three. “Infant and Early Child hood Mental Health: Promoting Healthy Social and Emotional Development.” Fact Sheet, May 18, 2004. Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2004. http://main. zerotothree.org/site/DocServer/ Promoting_Social_and_Emotional_ Developmentpdf?docID= 2081&AddInterest=1144 (accessed January 27, 2012).
Chapter 4
Language Development
The acquisition of language and speech seems deceptively
simple. Young children learn their mother tongue rapidly and effortlessly, from babbling at six months of age to
full sentences by the end of three years, and follow the same
developmental path regardless of culture.
— Patricia K. Kuhl, Ph.D., Professor, Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington1
As with all aspects of human devel- opment in infancy, language develop- ment occurs in the context of relation- ships. Emotion and language development in the early years are linked, as “much of the form and content of communica- tion between infants and their caregivers in the first year of life depends upon affective expres- sion.”2 The relationship basis of early language development appears right at the beginning of life. Newborns prefer the sounds of their mothers’ voices.3 They also prefer the language spoken by their mothers during preg- nancy.4
Adults typically modify their speech when communicating with young infants. Research suggests that child- directed speech (also referred to as “parentese” or “motherese”) has quali- ties, notably its pitch or tone and sing- song-like rhythm, which distinguish it from adult-directed speech.5 Prever- bal infants communicate through eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and sounds. Understanding language precedes using it to communicate.6 In addition, before being able to use language effectively, infants acquire some understanding of the social processes involved in communication.
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They learn about the social aspects of communication by engaging in turn- taking behavior in proto-conversations with their parents or infant care teach- ers. In proto-conversations, the adult usually says something to the prever- bal infant, and the infant responds by making eye contact, cooing, smiling, showing lip and tongue movements, or waving arms. These “conversation- like” exchanges between the adult and infant continue for several turns.
There is broad variability in the pat- tern and pace of a child’s language development.7 However, the process of early language development is fun- damentally the same across cultures and languages. In describing early language development, Kuhl states, “One of the puzzles in language devel- opment is to explain the orderly transi- tion that all infants go through during development. Infants the world over achieve certain milestones in linguistic development at roughly the same time, regardless of the language they are exposed to.”8
Perceptual processes play an impor- tant role in language development. As Gogate, Walker-Andrews, and Bahrick note, “A diverse set of experimental findings suggests that early lexical comprehension owes much to infants’ developing ability to perceive inter- sensory relations in auditory–visual events” [for example, speech].9 A child’s experiences also affect language development from a very early age. One of the ways experiences influ- ence language development is through their impact on perception early in infancy. Prior to their first spoken words or word comprehension, infants have already “come to recognize the perceptual properties of their native
language.”10 Infants are learning about the prosodic (sound) characteristics of their native language: by nine months of age, English-speaking infants dem- onstrate a preference for the sound stress pattern characteristic of words in the English language.11 Kuhl con- cludes, “At age one—prior to the time infants begin to master higher levels of language, such as sound-meaning cor- respondences, contrastive phonology, and grammatical rules—infants’ per- ceptual and perceptual-motor systems have been altered by linguistic experi- ence. Phonetic perception has changed dramatically to conform to the native- language pattern, and language-spe- cific speech production has emerged.”12
Language development naturally occurs through ongoing interac- tions with adults. Babies have an inborn capacity to learn language that emerges by experiencing language input from adults. Experiences with language allow infants and toddlers to acquire mastery of sounds, grammar, and rules that guide communication and to share meaning with others. By intentionally including language in responsive interactions with infants and toddlers, and by planning experi- ences that actively engage children in communication, teachers can enrich the complex and amazing process of language development.
Guiding Principles
Be responsive to the active communicator and language learner
Infants and toddlers communicate with adults to express their needs, feelings, and interests. When they initiate communication, they have a
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clear purpose. Sometimes that purpose is to express a need, and a prompt response from an adult teaches them the power of their communication, helping them become effective com- municators. Infants and toddlers also communicate with adults to build their relationships and share mean- ing. Communication that they initiate to share meaning lasts longer and is more complex. In fact, each moment in which a child initiates communica- tion is a golden opportunity to support the child’s learning. Of course, com- munication during the early months of life is nonverbal. Within the first year of life, the young baby’s looks, facial expressions, coos, cries, and sounds are expanded to include parts of words, words, gestures, and pointing. During the first year or so, they engage
in back-and-forth, conversation-like exchanges with adults. They may look and smile and then wait for the adult’s response. Eventually, the child starts to use simple phrases and sentences to have conversations with familiar adults. At each point in developing the capacity to communicate nonverbally and verbally, responsiveness from adults enhances the child’s learning experiences.
Include language in your interactions with infants and toddlers
Experiences with language give the brains of infants and toddlers the necessary input to develop language. Under most circumstances, children experience enough language to gain basic mastery of at least one language. Research indicates that the amount and variety of experiences with com- munication and language influences children’s vocabulary development as well as their general capacity to understand and use language. What is most important is that adults use language when interacting with infants and toddlers. Even when the infant is smiling and cooing, a smile back in response can be enhanced with a statement such as “Oh, what a smile!” A few simple words along with non- verbal communication can make a difference. The exact words are less important than the fact that language is part of the communication with the child. Connecting words with actions, letting a child know what is going to happen next, naming something the child points to—all of this verbal com- munication engages children in learn- ing language.
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Celebrate and support the individual
Although children typically acquire language in more or less the same sequence, they differ from one another in how they go about com- municating and learning. For example, a baby with a highly active temperament who tends to approach new situations readily is likely to communicate differently from a child with a quiet tempera- ment who tends to be slow to warm up to new situations. Some children spend a lot of time in “con- versation-like” exchanges with their family members and teachers. Others constantly point to things, expecting the adult to say the name. In most cases, different paths to acquiring language lead to the same destina- tion: by around three years of age, the child has basic mastery of one or more languages. Teachers need to observe and become familiar with each child’s approach to learning language. Adapt- ing to the individual and being respon- sive to attempts to share meaning give a strong message of support and encourage the child to continue on her path of communicating, understand- ing, and using language.
Connect with children’s cultural and linguistic experiences at home
The baby’s first experiences with language occur at home. From the beginning of life, the child learns the sounds of the family’s language or languages and engages in interac- tions that are rooted in the family’s culture. Because the child’s home
language develops hand in hand with all the other domains, supporting its development is critically important. Differences in early experiences with language and culture are numer- ous. One difference that often stands out is whether the family empha- sizes back-and-forth communication or observational learning during the early months. In some families, adults engage in a lot of face-to-face commu- nication, often relating to the child as an interaction partner. In other fami- lies, babies spend a lot of time sitting on someone’s lap watching adults communicate. Even so, every culture provides infants and toddlers with a mix of experiences that enable them to learn language and eventually become competent at engaging in conversa- tions. Just as adapting to individual children’s paths to learning language is important, so too is connecting with the children’s cultural and linguistic experiences at home; doing so can cre- ate familiar, meaningful experiences for children in infant/toddler care and can provide a starting point for cur- riculum planning.
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Build on children’s interests
As stated in chapter 1, infants and toddlers are active, curious, highly motivated learners. People and things fascinate them. Everything is new to them. They are driven to explore, figure out how things work, and make discoveries. Infants and toddlers enjoy sharing their interests with the adults who care for them. As their capacity to communicate with language grows, children share their sense of wonder and describe their thoughts and inter- ests. Even preverbal infants commu- nicate their interests. A teacher who listens and observes carefully will pick up on a child’s interests and gain insights into the child’s mind. Under- standing the focus of a child’s self- initiated learning creates the possi- bility for making suggestions, asking questions, and posing problems that fuel the child’s interests and extends the child’s exploration, play, and learn- ing. Moreover, when adults communi- cate with children about the children’s interests, the exchange of ideas lasts longer and is more complex.
Make communication and language interesting and fun
Positive experiences with communication and language motivate infants and toddlers to initiate communication and seek to share meaning with adults. The more fun communication and lan- guage are, the better. When teachers become open to the playfulness of infants and toddlers, playful communica- tion becomes part of the rela- tionships with the children. Infants and toddlers love to
hear the same song, do the same fin- ger play, and hear the same story over and over again. The excitement chil- dren express when they are charmed by playfulness with language is con- tagious. Teachers feel the children’s excitement and enjoy the experience with the children. Repeated engage- ment in fun and interesting communi- cation promotes children’s vocabulary development and their overall capacity to share meaning with others. Discov- ering the kinds of games and playful interactions that infants and toddlers are drawn to is an integral part of effective curriculum planning in the language development domain.
Create literacy-rich environments
Efforts to foster communication and language development also promote emergent literacy in infants and tod- dlers. As children learn language, they are building a foundation for later literacy. The connection between language experiences and emergent literacy should be made strong in the infant/toddler curriculum. It is essential to provide a learning envi- ronment that offers easily accessible and age-appropriate books. The books
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should reflect the experiences of the children and allow for exploration of new images and ideas. Infant/toddler care teachers model the use of books for the children as part of curriculum. When infants indicate an interest in looking at books together with their teachers, it is important for teachers to offer such opportunities regularly. At first, a young infant may show or give teachers books. As children grow older, they may become interested in look- ing at books and having items labeled by their teachers. The joint attention to books eventually evolves into read- ing times during which the adult reads and the children listen. In addition to listening, older infants enjoy talking about different aspects of a story. Con- versations about books simultaneously promote language development and an interest in literacy.
Summary of the Foundations
The language development domain consists of four foundations:
1. Receptive Language
2. Expressive Language
3. Communication Skills and Knowledge
4. Interest in Print
Please refer to the map of the lan- guage development foundations on page 96 for a visual explanation of the terminology used in the infant/toddler learning and development foundations.
Environments and Materials The environment sets the tone for
communication between children and teachers and between children. Infants need places where they can quietly interact with their teachers. In addition, the environment should be arranged to foster communication. It should be easy for teachers to relate with infants at eye level. An important consideration is the number of chil- dren in a room or group. Programs that have a policy of maintaining small groups promote the development of close relationships, which enhance both teacher-to-child and child-to- child communication. The following strategies support language develop- ment.
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Engage infants with books and stories. Experience with books and print in the environment is an impor- tant aspect of enhancing early lan- guage development and helping infants start on a path of emergent literacy. Children can begin to explore books at an early age, and developing an inter- est in books builds a strong motiva- tional base for literacy learning in later years.
Moderate background noise. Infants need to be able to hear lan- guage in order to develop their capac- ity to understand and use it. Back- ground noise in the infant/toddler care environment should be moderated through materials that absorb sound and through thoughtful arrangement of equipment. Constant exposure to music and television should be avoided. At times, children are ready to be attentive to music and enjoy it— but if music is playing all the time, it becomes background noise and loses its value in fostering learning.
Arrange the environment to sup- port language development and communication. The environment should be arranged to make it easy for
infants to communicate back and forth with adults, look at books and listen to stories from books, engage in finger plays, sing, and participate in other activities.
Provide materials that foster com- munication. Children tend to be cre- ative with language and practice com- municating in personally meaningful ways when they play with open-ended materials such as puppets, blocks, train sets, and dress-up clothes.
Interactions Infants are naturally attentive to
language and, as they grow, actively practice using it. Their inborn capac- ity to acquire language is activated through communication with adults and other children. At the beginning of life, adults’ responses to infants’ facial expressions, gaze, vocalizations, and gestures encourage infants to keep trying to communicate their needs and interests. It is important that the
adults’ responses include both nonverbal signals and language. The amount and quality of language adults use in their communication with infants has a far-reaching impact on infants’ language development. The following strategies support language development.
Be responsive when chil- dren initiate communica- tion. Responsiveness to an infant’s verbalizations, ges- tures, and communication help him learn that he is a
valued conversational partner—that what he wants to communicate is important and of interest. Through responses, a teacher communicates
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and models to the child the linguistic, social, and emotional back-and-forth of conversational exchanges. Prompt, appropriate responses signal to the infant an adult’s interest in communi- cating and motivate him to continue in his efforts to communicate.
Engage in nonverbal communica- tion. Spontaneous gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice com- municate meaningful information to infants, who, in turn, often use ges- tures to communicate prior to being able to use language.
Use child-directed language. Most adults automatically adjust their speech when communicating with young infants, adopting a communica- tion style sometimes called parentese or motherese. This type of speech— which includes adaptations such as a slower pace, higher pitch, repetition, a singsong quality, short sentences, clear pronunciation, grammatically simple sentences, and simple words— makes language more understandable to infants and toddlers.
Use self-talk and parallel talk. Narrating actions while performing them (for example, during caregiving
routines) helps infants connect words to the actions and behavior of others. Parallel talk, which consists of adults describing infants’ actions or behavior, helps the infants connect their experi- ences with language.
Help children expand language. Language expansions may include adding words to what the child is expressing through gestures. They may also include building on a child’s verbal communication and adding information on a topic of interest. Responding to a child’s communica- tion with an open-ended question indi- cates the listener’s interest and gives the child the opportunity to further express herself.
Support dual-language develop- ment. Young children who are learn- ing more than one language may learn each language in a somewhat different way. Teachers support the children’s developing ability to communicate with family members by conveying respect for each child’s home language. Having teachers who speak the home language is the best way to support dual-lan- guage development. But if a program has a child whose home language is
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not spoken by any of the teachers, the program can still create opportunities for the child to hear and use his home language—for example, by inviting volunteers who speak the child’s home language to visit the program and by encouraging the volunteers to read, tell stories, sing, and play games in the child’s home language.
Attend to individual development and needs. While each child makes progress with language development at her own pace, some children may need additional support to continue making progress and may benefit from early intervention. It is important for teachers to identify potential commu- nication and language-development issues as early as possible in a child’s life, by watching for warning signs and referring the child for a comprehen- sive developmental assessment by a specialist when concerns arise. The California Department of Education and California Department of Devel- opmental Services offer a brochure on this topic, “Reasons for Concern That Your Child or a Child in Your Care May Need Special Help.” The brochure is available online at http://www.dds. ca.gov/EarlyStart/docs/ ReasonsForConcern_Eng- lish.pdf (accessed March 19, 2012).
Be playful with lan- guage. Rhyming games, finger plays, songs, and pretend play enrich the range of a young child’s experiences with language. The rhythm and repetition of a rhyme or song highlight important aspects of lan- guage. Playing with lan- guage also engages children
in positive communication and gives them the message that communicating with language can be fun.
Vignette
It is early in the morning, and 24-month-old Sabela is sitting quietly on the lap of her teacher, Sonja. Sonja and the other teachers talk about the day ahead. Sonja says to another child, “Tony, let’s go out early today. It’s supposed to rain this morning.” Sabela hops up, walks over to the cupboard, and takes out a bag of sand toys to play with outside. Taking out the sand toys and then collecting them to bring them back to the classroom is an activity that Sabela often helps with. Upon seeing Sabela move toward the back door, dragging the sack of sand toys, Sonja makes eye contact and smiles. Sonja also notes that Sabela understood Sonja’s comments to Tony.
Responsive Moment
Sabela’s teachers have been won- dering about her language develop- ment. The teachers have documented that Sabela says about 30 different
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words but is usually quiet and does not engage in conversations. Sabela’s father has expressed concern that she is not talking and compares her development to that of her older sis- ter, who is very talkative. Sonja has been watching Sabela closely the past few weeks for indications of language development. When Sabela demon- strated that she understood the dis- cussion about going outside early, Sonja documented that evidence of understanding. Just as important, she acknowledged Sabela’s interest in language by offering an encouraging smile.
Vignette
Gustavo, the father of 18-month-old Paula, arrives at Ruth’s family child care home in the late afternoon to pick up his daughter. Gustavo sits down so Paula can climb into his lap, and then he greets his daughter in their home language, Portuguese. Ruth sits next to them and says, “Paula, I am going to ask your Papai about what you were saying this afternoon.” Ruth turns to Gustavo and says, “While we were having lunch, Paula kept saying something that sounded like ‘gaffoo.’ I felt like she was asking me for some- thing, but I didn’t know what it was. Any ideas?” Gustavo asks what they were eating. Ruth tells him they were having pizza. He speaks to Paula in Portuguese, and Paula nods. He grins and says, “I think she was asking for a garfo, which is the Portuguese word for ‘fork.’ At home we eat pizza with a fork.” Ruth smiles at Paula and says, “Oh, you wanted a garfo—a fork. Next time I will know.” Ruth thanks Gus- tavo and helps him prepare Paula to leave for the day.
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Responsive Moment
Ruth wants to support Paula’s development of both Portuguese and English, so she has learned a few Portuguese words from the family to use with Paula during care routines and play. Paula has recently started to talk a lot, and Ruth has observed that many of Paula’s words are in Portu- guese. By reaching out to Gustavo and asking for his help, Ruth increased her knowledge and her ability to support Paula’s home language and culture. In this particular situation, Ruth learned a new word to use with Paula and gained some insight into the family’s mealtime routine. Additionally, the interaction among the three of them at the end of the day allowed Ruth to strengthen her relationship with the family.
Research Highlight 1
Infants come into the world as univer- sal language learners, able to distin- guish sounds from all over the world equally well. It is not until between approximately nine and 12 months of age that an infant’s language capaci- ties become specific to the language that the infant has heard in her or his everyday language environment. For example, in a study conducted with American and Japanese infants, at seven months of age, both Japa- nese and American infants were able to discriminate between the sounds /l/ and /r/. However, by 11 months, Japanese infants had much greater difficulty making this distinction, whereas American infants retained the capacity to discriminate between these two sounds.13 In the Japanese language, /r/ and /l/ are perceived as one sound, whereas in English they are separate sounds. Similarly,
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studies have shown that capacity of monolingual English-speaking infants to discriminate specific sounds in Spanish and Mandarin declines at around 12 months of age.14, 15 Recent brain research further suggests that an infant’s brain commits neural pathways to perceiving language- specific speech patterns based upon exposure to communication in the infant’s native language.16
Research Highlight 2
Infants learn language through back- and-forth exchanges with parents and other adults who provide care for them. Specifically, research suggests that mothers who respond contin- gently to infants’ vocalizations pro- mote both more frequent and higher- quality vocalizations than those who respond in less contingent ways.17 In addition to children’s experiences at home, research on young children’s experiences in child care suggests that sensitive, responsive, and stimu- lating caregiving interactions predict positive language-development out- comes (e.g., vocabulary and grammar) for young children. The interactions that mothers and child care providers have with children make important and unique contributions to chil- dren’s language-development out- comes.18
Sample Developmental Sequences
Expressive Language (commu- nication of needs, feelings, and interests)
Definition: As children develop, they use language to communicate
nonverbally and verbally to express their needs, feelings, and interests.
Beginning level: Children make sounds spontaneously. For instance, they cry or coo.
Next level: Children use gestures, sounds, or facial expressions to com- municate needs, feelings, and interests. For example, they wave arms or kick legs excitedly when an adult blows bubbles, or they cry when hungry.
Next level: Children have a few special words or gestures to communi- cate needs, feelings, and interests. For instance, a child may ask a teacher for a blanket by using her special word or gesture for “blanket.”
Next level: Children use a variety of simple words or gestures to communi- cate needs, feelings, and interests. For example, they may play with the mean- ing of the word “no” or they may say that they want a cookie and then take a cookie from the plate.
Next level: Children use simple combinations of words to communi- cate needs, feelings, and interests. For instance, they may say “More juice” when thirsty.
Next level: Children communicate in a way that is understandable to most adults who speak the same language they do. They combine words into phrases or sentences and demonstrate the ability to follow some grammatical rules of the home language. For exam- ple, they might say, “Me go outside,” “I want my mommy,” or “I don’t like that.”
Interest in Print (interest in literacy)
Definition: Children show interest in books, songs, rhymes, finger plays, and stories. As children grow older, many of their everyday activities relate
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to an interest in print—for example, making intentional marks on paper with a crayon or marker, pretending to read and write, repeating stories and rhymes, recognizing images in books, noticing common symbols and words, and enjoying books. Interest in print can be considered one aspect of emergent literacy (the idea that literacy starts to develop during early childhood, well before a child enters school).19
Beginning level: Children respond to books and songs. For instance, they quiet themselves when an adult sings a song, or they look at a book when the adult holds it in their field of vision.
Next level: Children play with books and respond to songs. For example, they may touch or squeeze vinyl or cloth book covers or coo when adult sings.
Next level: Children attend for a short period of time as an adult reads books, sings songs, or says rhymes. They explore books and show interest in literacy activities, such as looking at photos and books with an adult. For instance, they will try to turn the page of a board book as the adult talks
about pictures on the page, or they will listen to simple songs or rhymes and do one basic hand motion with song.
Next level: Children choose to par- ticipate in reading, singing, or rhyming initiated by the adult. They actively notice print in the environment. For example, they may sit next to a teacher who is reading to another child and ask simple questions (such as “What’s that?”) when being read to.
Next level: Children initiate and show appreciation for reading, listen- ing to stories, imitating rhymes, and singing songs. For instance, they may ask the teacher to tell a story or sing a song; bring the teacher a favorite book in order to be read to; or make scribble
marks on paper and pretend to read what they scribbled.
Engaging Families Working together, families and
early education programs pro- vide critical support for young children’s language develop- ment. During the first three years of life, the focus should be on communication that includes language, having fun with lan- guage, and laying the foundation for future language and literacy development through develop-
mentally appropriate and culturally and linguistically inclusive experiences rather than on the acquisition of dis- crete skills. Infant care teachers can build on children’s language experi- ences in the home and, at the same time, share with families what is being done in group care to enhance lan- guage learning.
• Ask family members to provide a list of words children know in their home language (or words that are
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specific to the child or the fam- ily), including the names or titles of family members, pets, friends, neighbors, and so on. Share words that children have learned through various experiences in the early education setting and, if necessary, consider providing home-language translations of words that children are acquiring in English.
• Create a lending library so that families can take home books and other reading materials, available in English and in the families’ home languages, to enjoy with their chil- dren during evening hours and on the weekends.
• When participating in interactions with infants, toddlers, and their families, acknowledge the communication efforts of all children by commenting on their use of nonverbal gestures, body movements, facial expres- sions, and vocalizations.
• Bathe infants and toddlers in language by engaging in “extra” talk that goes beyond the busi- ness of daily living; for exam- ple, play with sounds, sing, or make up nonsense words together.
Questions for Reflection
1. What nonverbal gestures and facial expressions do infants and toddlers in your program make, and how can you incorporate their communications into back- and-forth interactions with them? What are some individual differ- ences you have observed in chil- dren’s use of verbal or nonverbal language?
2. In addition to supporting lan- guage acquisition, what are some other benefits that result when infant care teachers become familiar with the words that young children use to describe important people in their lives, significant events, and places?
3. How might regular observation of children’s language development in different contexts (e.g., during quiet activities, outdoors, dur- ing mealtimes) and with different social partners (e.g., familiar and unfamiliar adults and peers) help you understand children’s lan- guage and foster your communi- cation with their families?
Concluding Thoughts Among the many developing capaci-
ties of infants and toddlers, language development is one of the most amaz- ing. Children’s capacity for learn- ing language relies on experiencing language in their interactions with adults. By planning environments that encourage communication and by being intentional in their communica- tions with infants and toddlers, infant
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care teachers can strengthen chil- dren’s language development. Perhaps the most important thing that teach- ers can do is include language in their interactions with children. By listening to and observing children, and learn- ing from families about children’s
communication experiences at home, teachers can understand each child’s path to learning language—and they share meaning with children by engag- ing in responsive communication with each child.
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Map of the Foundations
Language DevelopmentDomain
Foundation
Age-level description
Examples
Behaviors leading up to the foundations
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Teacher Resources
American Speech-Language-Hearing Associa- tion. “Learning Two Languages.” http:// www.asha.org/public/speech/develop- ment/BilingualChildren.htm (accessed March 20, 2012).
Bowman, B., ed. Love to Read: Essays in Devel- oping and Enhancing Early Literacy Skills of African American Children. Washington, DC: National Black Child Development Institute, Inc., 2002.
Brown, D. K. The Children’s Literature Web Guide, 1994–2001. http://people.ucalgary. ca/~dkbrown/ (accessed September 10, 2010).
California Association for Bilingual Education (CABE). http://www.bilingualeducation. org/ (accessed September 7, 2010).
California Department of Education. Preschool English Learners: Principles and Prac- tices to Promote Language, Literacy, and Learning. 2nd ed. Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2009.
Curtis, D. “Can Babies Read and Write?” Child- care Information Exchange 31, no. 188 (July/August 2009): 42–43.
Deiner, Penny L. Infants and Toddlers: Devel- opment and Curriculum Planning. 2nd ed. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learn- ing, 2009.
Espinosa, L. Challenging Common Myths About Young English Language Learners. Foun- dation for Child Development Policy Brief, no. 8, January 2008. http://www.fcd-us. org/resources/resources-show.htm?doc_ id=669789 (accessed September 7, 2010).
HighScope Educational Research Foundation. HighScope: Inspiring Educators to Inspire Children, 2009. http://www.highscope. org/ (accessed September 10, 2010).
National Early Literacy Panel, National Center for Family Literacy, and National Institute for Literacy. Developing Early Literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel: A Scientific Synthesis of Early Literacy Development and Implications for Interven- tion. Jessup, MD: National Institute for Literacy at ED Pubs, 2008.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network and A. Clarke-Stewart. “A New Guide for Evalu- ating Child Care Quality.” Zero to Three 21, no. 5 (April/May 2001): 40–47.
Soto, L. D. Language, Culture, and Power: Bilin- gual Families and the Struggle for Quality Education. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997.
Swim, T. Infants and Toddlers. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2007.
Wittmer, D. S., and S. H. Petersen. Infant and Toddler Development and Responsive Program Planning: A Relationship-Based Approach. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010.
Zambo, D., and C. C. Hansen. “Love, Language, and Emergent Literacy: Pathways to Emo- tional Development of the Very Young.” Young Children 62, no. 3 (May 2007): 32–37.
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Endnotes
1. P. K. Kuhl, “Early Language Acquisi- tion: Cracking the Speech Code,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831.
2. L. Bloom and J. Capatides, “Expression of Affect and the Emergence of Language,” Child Development 58 (1987): 1513.
3. A. DeCasper and W. Fifer, “On Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers’ Voices,” Science 208 (1980): 1174–76.
4. C. Moon, R. Cooper, and W. Fifer, “Two- Day-Olds Prefer their Native Language,” Infant Behavior and Development 16 (1993): 495–500.
5. R. P. Cooper and others, “The Develop- ment of Infants’ Preference for Motherese,” Infant Behavior and Development 20, no. 4 (1997): 477–88.
6. L. Bloom and others, “Early Conversations and Word Learning: Contributions from Child and Adult,” Child Development 67 (1996): 3154–75.
7. L. Bloom and J. Capatides, “Expression of Affect and the Emergence of Language,” Child Development 58 (1987): 1513–22.
8. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F. Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- ates, 2002), p. 115.
9. L. Gogate, A. Walker-Andrews, and L. Bahrick, “The Intersensory Origins of Word Comprehension: An Ecological-Dynamic Systems View,” Developmental Science 4, no. 1 (2001): 13.
10. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F. Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- ates, 2002), p. 19.
11. J. Jusczyk, A. Cutler, and N. J. Redanz, “Infants’ Preference for the Predominant Stress Patterns of English Words,” Child Development 64 (1993): 675–87.
12. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive
Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F. Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- ates, 2002), p. 112.
13. G. Whitehurst and C. Lonigan, “Child Development and Emergent Literacy,” Child Development 69, no. 3 (1998): 848–72.
14. M. River-Gaxiola, J. Silva-Pereyra, and P. K. Kuhl, “Brain Potentials to Native and Non-native Speech Contrasts in Seven- and Eleven-Month-Old American infants,” Developmental Science 8, no. 2 (2005): 162–72.
15. P. K. Kuhl, F-M. Tsao, and H-M. Liu, “Foreign-language Experience in Infancy: Effects of Short-term Exposure and Social Interaction on Phonetic Learning,” Proceed- ings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, no. 15 (July 2003): 9096–9101.
16. P. K. Kuhl, “Early Language Acquisi- tion: Cracking the Speech Code,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831.
17. M. Goldstein, A. King, and M. West, “Social Interaction Shapes Babbling: Testing Parallels Between Birdsong and Speech,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- ences of the United States of America 100, no.13 (2003): 8030–35.
18. K. Hirsh-Pasek and M. Burchinal, “Mother and Caregiver Sensitivity Over Time: Predicting Language and Academic Out- comes with Variable- and Person-centered Approaches,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 52, no. 3 (July 2006): 449–85.
19. G. Whitehurst and C. Lonigan, “Child Development and Emergent Literacy,” Child Development 69, no. 3 (1998):
848–72.
Bibliography
Bloom, L., and J. Capatides. “Expression of Affect and the Emergence of Language.” Child Development 58 (1987): 1513–22.
Bloom, L., and others. “Early Conversations and Word Learning: Contributions from Child and Adult.” Child Development 67 (1996): 3154–75.
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Cooper, R. P., and others. “The Development of Infants’ Preference for Motherese.” Infant Behavior and Development 20, no. 4 (1997): 477–88.
DeCasper, A., and W. Fifer. “On Human Bond- ing: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers’ Voices.” Science 208 (1980): 1174–76.
Gogate, L., A. Walker-Andrews, and L. Bahrick. “The Intersensory Origins of Word Compre- hension: An Ecological-Dynamic Systems View.” Developmental Science 4, no. 1 (2001): 1–37.
Goldstein, M., A. King, and M. West. “Social Interaction Shapes Babbling: Testing Parallels Between Birdsong and Speech.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- ences of the United States of America 100, no.13 (2003): 8030–35.
Hirsh-Pasek, K., and M. Burchinal. “Mother and Caregiver Sensitivity Over Time: Predicting Language and Academic Out- comes with Variable- and Person-centered Approaches.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 52, no. 3 (July 2006): 449–85.
Jusczyk, J., A. Cutler, and N. J. Redanz. “Infants’ Preference for the Predominant Stress Patterns of English Words.” Child Development 64 (1993): 675–87.
Kuhl, P. K. “Early Language Acquisition: Crack- ing the Speech Code.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831–43.
———. “Speech, Language and Developmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F. Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.
Kuhl, P. K., and others. “Infants Show a Facilitation for Native Language Phonetic Perception Between 6 and 12 months.” Developmental Science 9, no. 2 (2006): F13–F21.
Kuhl, P. K., F-M. Tsao, and H-M. Liu. “Foreign- language Experience in Infancy: Effects of Short-term Exposure and Social Interac- tion on Phonetic Learning.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, no. 15 (July 2003): 9096–9101.
Moon, C., R. Cooper, and W. Fifer. “Two-Day- Olds Prefer their Native Language.” Infant Behavior and Development 16 (1993): 495–500.
River-Gaxiola, M., J. Silva-Pereyra, and P. K. Kuhl. “Brain Potentials to Native and Non-native Speech Contrasts in Seven- and Eleven-Month-Old American infants.” Developmental Science 8, no. 2 (2005): 162–72.
Whitehurst, G., and C. Lonigan. “Child Devel- opment and Emergent Literacy.” Child Development 69, no. 3 (1998): 848–72.
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