Introduction to Geography

© 2015 Laureate Education, Inc.

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Introduction to Geography Program Transcript

MUSIC PLAYING]

NARRATOR: Why study geography? Why is geography important? You might think that geography is all about facts and figures, countries, capitals, the names of rivers and oceans, and other trivia, but geography is really a much wider subject. Geography is the study of three different systems in the same space. The physical system, including rivers and oceans, mountains and valleys, all the forms of land and water. The human system, politics, culture, economics, how humans move over the land and water and how they affect it over time. And the biological system, other species and their habitats, how they disperse over the land and water and how they adapt to their environment.

Geographical realms are the largest logical divisions into which geographers can divide the world. The exact divisions may differ from geographer to geographer, depending on what criteria are used. Cultural, physical, historical, etc. Realms may be dominated by one country or by several. Commonly, there are 12 world geographic realms. Europe, Russia, North America, Middle America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, and Southwest Asia, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Austral realm, and the Pacific realm.

Geographic regions are smaller areas within the realms, which have common properties. Examples of regions are the American Southwest, the Amazon basin, and the Australian Outback. As a systematic study, geography is complex. There are many specialists in geographic studies, including political geographers, cultural geographers, and global information systems-- GIS-- analysts, who analyze the patterns and changes in the world and use their analysis to solve problems and make predictions about the future.

So why is geography important? The geographical conditions of a region affect how humans live in that region. It influences culture and society, including artistic expression, dietary habits and political structure. By studying geography, you gain a deeper understanding of how the world we live in shapes all of our lives.

DRAFT (July 2010) Code of Ethics

American Educational Research Association (In Preparation for Adoption by AERA in 2011)

INTRODUCTION PREAMBLE GENERAL PRINCIPLES Principle A: Professional Competence Principle B: Integrity Principle C: Professional and Scientific Responsibility Principle D: Respect for People's Rights, Dignity, and Diversity Principle E: Social Responsibility ETHICAL STANDARDS 1. Scientific, Scholarly, and Professional Standards 2. Competence 3. Representation and Misuse of Expertise 4. Research Misconduct 5. Avoiding Harm 6. Nondiscrimination 7. Nonexploitation 8. Harassment 9. Employment Decisions 9.01 Fair Employment Practices 9.02 Responsibilities of Employees 10. Conflicts of Interest 10.01 Adherence to Professional Standards 10.02 Disclosure 10.03 Avoidance of Personal Gain 10.04 Decisionmaking in the Workplace 10.05 Decisionmaking Outside of the Workplace 11. Public Communications 11.01 Researcher Communications 11.02 Statements by Others 12. Confidentiality 12.01 Maintaining Confidentiality 12.02 Limits of Confidentiality 12.03 Discussing Confidentiality and Its Limits 12.04 Anticipation of Possible Uses of Information

12.05 Electronic Transmission of Confidential Information 12.06 Anonymity of Sources

12.07 Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy 12.08 Preservation of Confidential Information 13. Informed Consent 13.01 Scope of Informed Consent 13.02 Informed Consent Process 13.03 Informed Consent of Students and Subordinates 13.04 Informed Consent with Children

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13.05 Use of Deception in Research 13.06 Use of Recording Technology 14. Research Planning, Implementation, and Dissemination 14.01 Planning and Implementation 14.02 Unanticipated Research Opportunities 14.03 Offering Inducements for Research Participants 14.04 Reporting on Research 14.05 Data Sharing 15. Plagiarism 16. Authorship Credit 17. Publication Process 17.01 Submission of Manuscripts for Publication 17.02 Duplicate Publication of Data 17.03 Responsibilities of Editors 18. Responsibilities of Reviewers

19. Delegation and Supervision 20. Education, Teaching, and Training

20.01 Administration of Education Programs 20.02 Teaching and Training 21. Contractual and Consulting Services 22. Adherence to the Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association 22.01 Familiarity with the Code of Ethics 22.02 Confronting Ethical Issues 22.03 Fair Treatment of Parties in Ethical Disputes 22.04 Reporting Ethical Violations of Others 22.06 Improper Complaints 22.05 Cooperating with Ethics Committees

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INTRODUCTION

The Code of Ethics of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) sets forth the principles and ethical standards that underlie education researchers’ professional responsibilities and conduct. These principles and standards should be used as guidelines when examining everyday professional activities. They constitute normative statements of ethical behavior for education researchers and provide guidance on issues that education researchers may encounter in their professional work.

AERA’s Code of Ethics consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles, and specific Ethical Standards. This Code is accompanied by the Rules and Procedures of the AERA Ethics Committee which describe the procedures for handling complaints of unethical conduct on matters pertaining to the activities and programs of AERA.

The Preamble and General Principles of the Standards are aspirational goals to guide and inspire education researchers toward the highest ideals of professional conduct. Education researchers sometimes need to weigh competing or conflicting principles in specific situations, and they have a responsibility to engage in careful consideration of all relevant principles.

Accordingly, from time to time, the Association reviews its Code of Ethics to ensure that it continues to serve to educate and guide the field as new issues or dilemmas present themselves.

Although the Preamble and General Principles, in contrast to the Ethical Standards, do not represent specific obligations, they should be considered by education researchers in arriving at an ethical course of action and may be considered by other ethics bodies in interpreting the Ethical Standards.

The Ethical Standards set forth rules for ethical conduct by education researchers. Most of the Ethical Standards are written broadly in order to apply to education researchers in varied roles, and the application of an Ethical Standard may vary depending on the context. Although the Ethical Standards aim to cover most situations encountered by education researchers, they are not exhaustive. Any conduct that is not specifically addressed by this Code of Ethics is not necessarily ethical or unethical.

Membership in AERA commits members to adhere to the AERA Code of Ethics and to follow the Policies and Procedures of the AERA Ethics Committee. Members are advised of this obligation upon joining the Association and that violations of the Code may lead to the imposition of sanctions, including termination of membership.

AERA may review complaints of ethical misconduct related to the activities or programs of AERA. Other bodies may choose to invoke these Ethical Standards in considering the professional conduct of education researchers. Private or personal activities having no connection to or effect on education researchers’ performance of their professional roles are not covered by the guidance provided in the Code of Ethics. PREAMBLE

This Code of Ethics articulates a common set of values upon which education researchers build

their professional and scientific work. The Code is intended to provide both the general principles and the rules to cover professional situations encountered by education researchers. It has as its primary goal the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom education researchers work. It also serves to educate education researchers, their students, and others who would benefit from understanding the ethical principles and standards that guide education researchers in their professional work. It is the individual responsibility of each education researcher to aspire to the highest possible standards of conduct in research, teaching, practice, and service.

Adhering to a set of ethical standards for an education researcher’s work-related conduct requires a personal commitment to a lifelong effort to act ethically; to encourage ethical behavior by students, supervisors, supervisees, employers, employees, and colleagues; and to consult with others as needed concerning ethical problems. Each education researcher supplements, but does not violate, the values

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and rules specified in the Ethical Standards based on guidance drawn from personal values, culture, and experience. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The following General Principles are aspirational and serve as a guide for education researchers in determining ethical courses of action in various contexts. They exemplify the highest ideals of professional conduct. Principle A: Professional Competence

Education researchers strive to maintain the highest levels of competence in their work; they recognize the limitations of their expertise; and they undertake only those tasks for which they are qualified by education, training, or experience. They recognize the need for ongoing education in order to remain professionally competent; and they utilize the appropriate scientific, scholarly, professional, technical, and administrative resources needed to ensure competence in their professional activities. They consult with other professionals when necessary for the benefit of their students, research participants, and clients. Principle B: Integrity

Education researchers are honest, fair, and respectful of others in their professional activities—in research, teaching, practice, and service. Education researchers do not knowingly act in ways that jeopardize either their own or others’ professional welfare. Education researchers conduct their affairs in ways that inspire trust and confidence; they do not knowingly make statements that are false, misleading, or deceptive.

Principle C: Professional, Scientific, and Scholarly Responsibility

Education researchers adhere to the highest scientific and professional standards and accept responsibility for their work. Education researchers understand that they form a community and show respect for other education researchers even when they disagree on theoretical, methodological, or personal approaches to professional activities. Education researchers value the public trust in research and are concerned about their ethical behavior and the behavior of other education researchers that might compromise that trust. While endeavoring always to be collegial, education researchers must never let the desire to be collegial outweigh their shared responsibility for ethical behavior. When appropriate, they consult with colleagues in order to prevent or avoid unethical conduct. Principle D: Respect for People’s Rights, Dignity, and Diversity

Education researchers respect the rights, dignity, and worth of all people and take care to do no harm in the conduct of their work. They strive to eliminate bias in their professional activities, and they do not tolerate any forms of discrimination based on age; gender; race; ethnicity; national origin; religion; sexual orientation; gender identity; disability; health conditions; or marital, domestic, or parental status. They are sensitive to cultural, individual, and role differences in serving, teaching, and studying groups of people with distinctive characteristics. In all of their work-related activities, education researchers acknowledge the rights of others to hold values, attitudes, and opinions that differ from their own, and they treat others with dignity and respect. Principle E: Social Responsibility

Education researchers are aware of their professional and scientific responsibility to the communities and societies in which they live and work. They apply and make public their knowledge in order to contribute to the public good. When undertaking research, they strive to advance scientific and scholarly knowledge and to serve the public good.

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ETHICAL STANDARDS 1. Scientific, Scholarly, and Professional Standards

Education researchers adhere to the highest possible standards that are reasonable and responsible in their research, teaching, practice, and service activities. They rely on scientifically, scholarly, and professionally derived knowledge; act with honesty and integrity; and avoid untrue, deceptive, or unwarranted statements in undertaking work-related functions or activities. 2. Competence

(a) Education researchers conduct research, teach, practice, and provide service only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, or appropriate professional experience.

(b) Education researchers conduct research, teach, practice, and provide service in new areas or involving new techniques only after they have taken reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work in these areas.

(c) Education researchers who engage in research, teaching, practice, or service maintain awareness of current scientific, scholarly, and professional information in their fields of activity and undertake continuing efforts to maintain competence in the skills they use.

3. Representation and Misuse of Expertise

(a) In research, teaching, practice, service, or other activities where education researchers render professional judgments or present their expertise, they accurately and fairly represent their areas and degrees of expertise.

(b) Education researchers do not accept grants, contracts, consultation, or work assignments from individual or organizational clients or sponsors that appear likely to compromise their ability to adhere to the standards in this Code of Ethics. Education researchers dissociate themselves from such activities when they discover a violation and are unable to achieve its correction.

(c) Education researchers’ scientific, scholarly, and professional judgments and actions may affect the lives of others; therefore, education researchers are alert to and guard against personal, financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to misuse of their knowledge, expertise, or influence.

(d) If education researchers learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable steps to correct or minimize the misuse or misrepresentation.

4. Research Misconduct

Education researchers do not engage in fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.

5. Avoiding Harm

Education researchers take reasonable steps to avoid harm to others in the conduct of their professional work. When unanticipated negative consequences occur, education researchers take immediate steps to minimize harm including, if necessary, terminating the work.

6. Nondiscrimination Education researchers do not engage in discrimination in their work based on age; gender; race; ethnicity; national origin; religion; sexual orientation; gender identity; disability; health conditions; marital, domestic, or parental status; or any other applicable basis proscribed by law. 7. Nonexploitation

(a) Whether for personal, economic, or professional advantage, education researchers do not exploit persons over whom they have direct or indirect supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such as students, supervisees, employees, or research participants.

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(b) Education researchers do not directly supervise or exercise evaluative authority over any person with whom they have a sexual or personal relationship, including students, supervisees, employees, or research participants.

8. Harassment Education researchers do not engage in harassment of any person, including students, supervisees, employees, or research participants. Harassment consists of a single intense and severe act or of multiple persistent or pervasive acts which are demeaning, abusive, offensive, or create a hostile professional or workplace environment. Sexual harassment may include sexual solicitation, physical advance, or verbal or non-verbal conduct that is sexual in nature. Racial harassment may include unnecessary, exaggerated, or unwarranted attention or attack, whether verbal or non-verbal, related to a person’s race or ethnicity. 9. Employment Decisions Education researchers have an obligation to adhere to the highest ethical standards when seeking employment, when participating in employment-related decisions, or when planning to resign from a position. 9.01 Fair Employment Practices

(a) When participating in employment-related decisions, education researchers make every effort to ensure equal opportunity and fair treatment to all employees. They do not discriminate in hiring, promotion, salary, treatment, or any other conditions of employment or career development on the basis of age; gender; race; ethnicity; national origin; religion; sexual orientation; gender identity; disability; health conditions; marital, domestic, or parental status; or any other applicable basis proscribed by law.

(b) When participating in employment-related decisions, education researchers specify the requirements for hiring, promotion, tenure, and termination and communicate these requirements thoroughly to full- and part-time employees and prospective employees.

c) When participating in employment-related decisions, education researchers have the responsibility to inform themselves of fair employment codes, to communicate this information to employees, and to help create an atmosphere upholding fair employment practices for employees.

(d) When participating in employment-related decisions, education researchers inform employees of any constraints on research and publication and negotiate clear understandings about any conditions that may limit research and scholarly activity.

9.02 Responsibilities of Employees

(a) When seeking employment, education researchers provide prospective employers with accurate and complete information on their professional qualifications and experiences.

(b) When leaving a position, permanently or temporarily, education researchers provide their employers with adequate notice and take reasonable steps to reduce negative effects of leaving.

10. Conflicts of Interest Education researchers avoid where possible or otherwise disclose and manage conflicts of interest and the appearance of conflicts of interest. Conflicts of interest arise when education researchers’ personal, professional, or financial interests prevent them from performing their professional work in an unbiased manner. In research, teaching, practice, and service, education researchers are alert to situations that might cause a conflict of interest and take appropriate action to prevent conflict or otherwise disclose and manage it. 10.01 Adherence to Professional Standards

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Irrespective of their personal or financial interests or those of their employers or clients, education researchers adhere to scientific, scholarly, and professional standards in (1) the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; (2) the reporting of research; (3) the teaching, professional presentation, or public dissemination of education research knowledge; and (4) the identification or implementation of appropriate contractual, consulting, or service activities. 10.02 Disclosure Education researchers disclose relevant sources of financial support and relevant personal or professional relationships that may have the appearance of or potential for a conflict of interest to an employer or client, to the sponsors of their professional work, or in public speeches and writing. 10.03 Avoidance of Personal Gain

(a) Education researchers do not use or otherwise seek to gain from information or material received in a confidential context (e.g., knowledge obtained from reviewing a manuscript or serving on a proposal review panel), unless they have authorization to do so or until that information is otherwise made publicly available.

(b) Education researchers do not seek to gain from confidential or proprietary information or material in an employment or client relationship without permission of the employer or client.

10.04 Decisionmaking in the Workplace In their workplace, education researchers take appropriate steps to avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts and carefully scrutinize potentially biasing affiliations or relationships. In research, teaching, practice, or service, such potentially biasing affiliations or relationships include, but are not limited to, situations involving family, business, or close personal friendships or those with whom education researchers have had strong conflict or disagreement. 10.05 Decisionmaking Outside of the Workplace In professional activities outside of their workplace, education researchers who have biasing affiliations or relationships abstain from engaging in deliberations and decisions that allocate or withhold benefits or rewards from individuals or institutions. These biasing affiliations or relationships are: 1) current or prospective employment at an organization or institution that could be construed as benefiting from the decision; 2) current service as an officer or board member of an organization or institution that could be construed as benefiting from the decision; 3) current or prospective employment at the same organization or institution where an individual could benefit from the decision; 4) having a spouse, domestic partner, or known relative who as an individual could benefit from the decision; or 5) having a current business or professional partner, research collaborator, employee, supervisee, or student who as an individual could benefit from the decision. 11. Public Communications Education researchers adhere to the highest professional standards in public communications about their professional services, credentials, expertise, work products, or publications, whether these communications are from themselves or from others on their behalf. 11.01 Researcher Communications

(a) Education researchers take steps to ensure the accuracy of all public communications. Such public communications include, but are not limited to, directory listings; personal resumes or curriculum vitae; advertising; brochures or printed matter; interviews or comments to the media; statements in legal proceedings; lectures and public oral presentations; or other published materials.

(b) Education researchers do not make public statements that are false, deceptive, misleading, or fraudulent, either because of what they state, convey, or suggest or because of what they omit. Such activities include, but are not limited to, false or deceptive statements concerning their own

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or others’ (1) training, experience, or competence; (2) academic degrees; (3) credentials; (4) institutional or association affiliations; (5) services; (6) fees; or (7) publications or research findings. Education researchers do not make false or deceptive statements concerning the scientific or scholarly basis for any professional services they may provide.

(c) When education researchers provide professional advice, comment, or testimony to the public, the media, government, or other institutions, they take reasonable precautions to ensure that (1) the statements are based on appropriate research, literature, and practice; and (2) the statements are otherwise consistent with the Ethical Standards.

(c) In working with the press, radio, television, online media or other communications media or in advertising in the media, education researchers are cognizant of potential conflicts of interest or appearances of such conflicts (e.g., providing compensation to employees of the media), and they adhere to the highest standards of professional honesty.

11.02 Statements by Others

(a) Education researchers who engage or employ others to create or place public statements that promote their work products, professional services, or other activities retain responsibility for such statements.

(b) Education researchers make reasonable efforts to prevent others whom they do not directly engage or employ (such as employers, publishers, sponsors, organizational clients, and members of the media) from making deceptive statements concerning their professional research, teaching, or practice activities.

12. Confidentiality Education researchers have an obligation to ensure that confidential information is protected. They do so to ensure the integrity of research and the open communication with research participants and to protect sensitive information obtained in research, teaching, practice, and service. When gathering confidential information, education researchers should take into account the long-term uses of the information, including its potential placement in public archives or the examination of the information by other researchers or practitioners. 12.01 Maintaining Confidentiality

(a) Education researchers take reasonable precautions to protect the confidentiality of information related to research participants, students, employees, clients, and others when confidentiality has been provided or there is a reasonable expectation of confidentiality.

(b) Confidential information provided by research participants, students, employees, clients, or others is treated as such by education researchers even if there is no legal protection or privilege to do so. Education researchers have an obligation to protect confidential information and not allow information gained in confidence from being used in ways that would unfairly compromise research participants, students, employees, clients, or others.

(c) Information provided under an understanding of confidentiality is treated as such even after the death of those providing that information.

(d) Education researchers maintain the integrity of confidential deliberations, activities, or roles, including, where applicable, that of professional committees, review panels, or advisory groups.

(e) Education researchers protect the confidentiality of student records, performance data, and personal information, whether verbal or written, given in the context of academic consultation, supervision, or advising.

(f) The obligation to maintain confidentiality extends to members of research or training teams and collaborating organizations who have access to the information. To ensure that access to confidential information is restricted, it is the responsibility of principal investigators, other researchers, and administrators take the steps necessary to protect confidentiality through appropriate data protection methods and plans.

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(g) When using private information about individuals collected by other persons, organizations, or institutions, education researchers protect the confidentiality of individually identifiable information. Information is private when an individual can reasonably expect that the information will not be made public with personal identifiers (e.g., student, medical, or employment records).

(h) Education researchers inform themselves fully about and use methods, procedures, and steps that can enhance confidentiality protections, including awareness of legal provisions.

12.02 Limits of Confidentiality

(a) Education researchers inform themselves fully about all laws and rules that may limit or alter guarantees of confidentiality. They determine their ability to guarantee absolute confidentiality and, as appropriate, inform research participants, students, employees, clients, or others of any limitations to this guarantee at the outset, consistent with ethical standards set forth in 12.02(b).

(b) Education researchers may confront unanticipated circumstances in which they become aware of information that is clearly health- or life-threatening to research participants, students, employees, clients, or others. In these cases, education researchers balance the importance of guarantees of confidentiality with other principles in this Code of Ethics, standards of conduct, and applicable law.

(c) Confidentiality is not required with respect to observations in public places, activities conducted in public, or other settings where no rules of privacy are provided by law or custom. Similarly, confidentiality is not required in the case of information from publicly available records.

12.03 Discussing Confidentiality and Its Limits

(a) When education researchers establish a scientific, scholarly, or professional relationship with persons, they discuss (1) the relevant limitations on confidentiality, and (2) the foreseeable uses of the information generated through their professional work.

(b) Unless it is not feasible or is counter-productive, the discussion of confidentiality occurs both at the outset of the relationship and thereafter as new circumstances may warrant.

12.04 Anticipation of Possible Uses of Information

(a) When research requires maintaining personal identifiers in databases or systems of records, education researchers remove such identifiers before the information is made publicly available.

(b) When removal or masking of personal identifiers is not feasible, education researchers take reasonable steps to determine that appropriate consent of personally-identifiable individuals has been obtained before they transfer such data to others or review such data collected by others. When it is not feasible to obtain consent for subsequent use, education researchers take steps to ensure that access to such data occurs only under restricted conditions where users agree to honor confidentiality agreements or protections in place.

(c) When confidential information concerning research participants, clients, or other recipients of service is entered into databases or systems of records available to persons without the prior consent of the relevant parties, education researchers protect the privacy of others by not including personal identifiers or by employing other techniques that mask or control disclosure of individual identities.

12.05 Electronic Transmission of Confidential Information Education researchers protect confidential data, information, or communication in their delivery or transfer over computer networks. Education researchers are attentive to the problems of maintaining confidentiality and control over sensitive material and data when use of technology, such as computer networks, may open their professional, scientific, and scholarly communication to unauthorized persons or inadvertent disclosure.

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12.06 Anonymity of Sources (a) Education researchers do not disclose in their writings, lectures, websites, or other public

media confidential, personally identifiable information concerning their research participants, students, individual or organizational clients, or other recipients of their service which is obtained during the course of their work, unless consent from individuals or their legally authorized representatives has been obtained.

(b) When confidential information is used in scientific, scholarly, and professional presentations, education researchers disguise the identity of research participants, students, individual or organizational clients, or other recipients of their service.

12.07 Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy (a) To minimize intrusions on privacy, education researchers include in written and oral reports,

consultations, and public communications only information germane to the purpose for which the communication is made.

(b) Education researchers discuss confidential information or evaluative data concerning research participants, students, supervisees, employees, and individual or organizational clients only for appropriate scientific, scholarly, or professional purposes and only with persons authorized to discuss such matters.

12.08 Preservation of Confidential Information

(a) Education researchers take reasonable steps to ensure that records, data, or information are preserved in a confidential manner consistent with the requirements of the Ethical Standards, recognizing that ownership of records, data, or information may also be governed by law or institutional principles.

(b) Education researchers plan so that confidentiality of records, data, or information is protected in the event of the education researcher’s death, incapacity, or withdrawal from the position or practice.

(c) When education researchers transfer confidential records, data, or information to other persons or organizations, they obtain assurances that the recipients of the records, data, or information will employ measures to protect confidentiality at least equal to those originally pledged.

(d) Education researchers take reasonable steps to ensure that they protect the identity of research participants in disseminating their research findings to the extent provided under assurances of confidentiality

13. Informed Consent Informed consent is a basic ethical tenet of scientific research on human populations. Education researchers do not involve a human being as a participant in research without the informed consent of the participant or the participant’s legally authorized representative, except as otherwise specified in this Code (see, e.g., 13.01[b] and [c]). Education researchers recognize the possibility of undue influence or subtle pressures on research participants that may derive from researchers’ expertise or authority, and they take this into account in designing informed consent procedures. 13.01 Scope of Informed Consent

(a) Education researchers conducting research obtain and document written or oral consent from research participants or their legally authorized representatives (1) when data are collected from research participants through any form of communication, interaction, or intervention; or (2) when behavior of research participants occurs in a private context where an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or reporting is taking place. Education researchers obtain consent in a manner that is understandable and appropriate to research participants.

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(b) Education researchers may seek waivers of consent when (1) the research involves no more than minimal risk for research participants, and (2) the research could not practicably be carried out were informed consent to be required. Education researchers recognize that waivers of consent require approval from institutional review boards or, in the absence of such boards, from another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research. Under such circumstances, the confidentiality of any personally identifiable information must be maintained unless otherwise set forth in 12.02(b).

(c) Education researchers may conduct research in public places or use publicly-available information about individuals (e.g., naturalistic observations in public places, analysis of public records, or archival research) without obtaining consent. If, under such circumstances, education researchers have any doubt whatsoever about the need for informed consent, they consult with institutional review boards or, in the absence of such boards, with another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research before proceeding with such research.

(d) In undertaking research with vulnerable populations (e.g., children, youth, special needs students, recent immigrant populations), education researchers take special care to ensure that the voluntary nature of the research is understood and that consent or assent is not coerced. In all other respects, education researchers adhere to the standards set forth in 13.01(a)-(c).

(e) Education researchers are conversant with and conform to applicable state and federal regulations and, where applicable, institutional review board requirements for obtaining informed consent for research.

13.02 Informed Consent Process

(a) When informed consent is required, education researchers enter into an agreement with research participants or their legally authorized representatives that clarifies the nature of the research and the responsibilities of the investigator prior to conducting the research.

(b) When informed consent is required, education researchers use written or oral language that is understandable to and respectful of research participants or their legally authorized representatives.

(c) When informed consent is required, education researchers provide research participants or their legally authorized representatives with the opportunity to ask questions about any aspect of the research, at any time during or after their participation in the research.

(d) When informed consent is required, education researchers inform research participants or their legally authorized representatives of the nature of the research; they indicate to participants that their participation or continued participation is voluntary; they inform participants of significant factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate (e.g., possible risks and benefits of their participation); and they explain other aspects of the research and respond to questions from prospective participants. Also, if relevant, education researchers explain that refusal to participate or withdrawal from participation in the research involves no penalty, and they explain any foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing. Education researchers explicitly discuss confidentiality and, if applicable, the extent to which confidentiality may be limited as set forth in 12.02(b).

(e) When informed consent is required, education researchers keep records regarding said consent. They recognize that consent is a process that involves oral and/or written consent.

(f) Education researchers honor all commitments they have made to research participants as part of the informed consent process except where unanticipated circumstances demand otherwise as set forth in 12.02(b).

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13.03 Informed Consent of Students and Subordinates When undertaking research at their own institutions or organizations with research participants who are students or subordinates, education researchers take special care to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation. 13.04 Informed Consent with Children

(Note: Need to clarify consent and assent)

(a) In undertaking research with children, education researchers obtain the consent of children to participate, to the extent that they are capable of providing such consent, except under circumstances where consent may not be required as set forth in 13.01(b).

(b) In undertaking research with children, education researchers obtain the consent of a parent or a legally authorized guardian. Education researchers may seek waivers of parental or guardian consent when (1) the research involves no more than minimal risk for the research participants, and (2) the research could not practicably be carried out were consent to be required, or (3) the consent of a parent or guardian is not a reasonable requirement to protect the child (e.g., in the case of neglected or abused children).

(c) Education researchers recognize that waivers of consent from a child and a parent or guardian require approval from institutional review boards or, in the absence of such boards, from another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research. Under such circumstances, the confidentiality of any personally identifiable information must be maintained unless otherwise set forth in 12.02(b).

13.05 Use of Deception in Research

(a) Education researchers do not use deceptive techniques (1) unless they have determined that their use poses no more than minimal risk to research participants; is justified by the study’s prospective scientific, scholarly, educational, or applied value; and that equally effective alternative procedures that do not use deception are not feasible; and (2) unless they have obtained the approval of institutional review boards or, in the absence of such boards, with another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research.

(b) Education researchers never deceive research participants about significant aspects of the research that would affect their willingness to participate, such as physical risks, discomfort, or unpleasant emotional experiences.

(c) When deception is an integral feature of the design and conduct of research, education researchers attempt to correct any misconception that research participants may have no later than at the conclusion of the research.

(d) On rare occasions, education researchers may need to conceal their identities in order to undertake research that could not practicably be carried out were they to be known as researchers. Under such circumstances, education researchers undertake the research if it involves no more than minimal risk for the research participants and if they have obtained approval to proceed in this manner from an institutional review board or, in the absence of such boards, from another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research. Under such circumstances, confidentiality must be maintained unless otherwise set forth in 12.02(b).

13.06 Use of Recording Technology Education researchers obtain informed consent from research participants, students, employees, clients, or others prior to photographing, videotaping, filming, or recording them in any form, unless these activities involve simply naturalistic observations in public places and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm.

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14. Research Planning, Implementation, and Dissemination Education researchers have an obligation to promote the integrity of research and to ensure that they comply with the ethical tenets of research in the planning, implementation, and dissemination of research. They do so in order to advance knowledge, to minimize the possibility that results will be misleading, and to protect the rights of research participants. 14.01 Planning and Implementation

(a) In planning and implementing research, education researchers minimize the possibility that results will be misleading.

(b) Education researchers take steps to implement protections for the rights and welfare of research participants and other persons affected by the research.

(c) In their research, education researchers do not encourage activities or behave in ways that are health- or life-threatening to research participants or others.

(d) In planning and implementing research, education researchers consult those with expertise concerning any specific population under investigation or likely to be affected.

(e) In planning and implementing research, education researchers consider its ethical acceptability as set forth in this Code of Ethics. If the best ethical practice is unclear, education researchers consult with institutional review boards or, in the absence of such review processes, with another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research.

(f) Education researchers are responsible for the ethical conduct of research conducted by them or by others under their supervision or authority. Those working under the supervision or authority of others remain responsible for their own ethical conduct.

14.02 Unanticipated Research Opportunities If during the course of non-research activities (e.g., teaching, practice, service, or non-professional activities), education researchers determine that they wish to undertake research that was not previously anticipated, they make known their intentions to the potential research participants and take steps to ensure that the research is undertaken consonant with ethical principles, especially those relating to confidentiality and informed consent. Under such circumstances, education researchers seek the approval of institutional review boards or, in the absence of such review processes, another authoritative body with expertise on the ethics of research. 14.03 Offering Inducements for Research Participants Education researchers do not offer excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements to obtain the participation of research participants, particularly when it might unduly influence the decision to participate. Education researchers may provide incentives to the extent that resources are available and appropriate. 14.04 Reporting on Research

(a) Education researchers are responsible for making known their research findings except where unanticipated circumstances beyond their control or proprietary agreements with employers, contractors, or clients preclude such dissemination.

(b) In presenting their work, education researchers report their findings fully and do not omit relevant data. They report results whether they support or contradict the expected outcomes.

(c) Education researchers take particular care to state all relevant qualifications on the findings and interpretation of their research. Education researchers also disclose underlying assumptions, theories, methods, measures, and research designs that might bear upon findings and interpretations of their work.

(d) Consistent with the spirit of full disclosure of methods and analyses, once findings are publicly disseminated, education researchers permit their open assessment and verification by other responsible researchers with appropriate confidentiality safeguards, where applicable, to protect the identity of research participants.

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(e) If education researchers discover significant errors in their publication or presentation of data, they take reasonable steps to address such errors in a correction, a retraction, published errata, or other public fora as appropriate.

(f) Education researchers report sources of financial support in their written papers and note any special relations to any sponsor. In special circumstances, education researchers may withhold the names of specific sponsors if they provide an adequate and full description of the nature and interest of the sponsor.

(g) Education researchers take special care to report accurately the results of others’ scholarship by using correct information and citations when presenting the work of others in publications, teaching, practice, and service settings.

14.05 Data Sharing

(a) Education researchers share data and pertinent documentation as a regular practice. Education researchers make their data available after completion of the project or its major publications, except where proprietary agreements with employers, contractors, or clients preclude such accessibility or when it is impossible to share data in any useful form..

(b) In sharing data, education researchers take appropriate steps to protect the confidentiality of the data and the identity of research participants. When appropriate future use necessitates access to identifiable data, researchers take steps to ensure that the data are accessible under appropriate restrictions where the confidentiality of research participants can be secured.

(c) Education researchers anticipate data sharing as an integral part of a research plan whenever data sharing is feasible.

(d) Education researchers share data in a form that is consonant with research participants’ interests and protect the confidentiality of the information they have been given. They maintain the confidentiality of data, whether legally required or not; remove personal identifiers before data are shared; and, if necessary, use other disclosure-avoidance techniques. When data are shared with personally identifiable information, education researchers take steps to ensure that access is provided only under restricted conditions where users agree to protect the confidentiality of the data.

(e) Education researchers who do not otherwise place data in public archives keep data available and retain documentation relating to the research for a reasonable period of time after publication or dissemination of results.

(f) Education researchers who use data from others for further analyses explicitly acknowledge the contribution of the initial researchers.

15. Plagiarism

(a) In publications, presentations, teaching, practice, and service, education researchers explicitly identify, credit, and reference the author(s) when they take data or material verbatim from another person’s written work, whether it is published, unpublished, or electronically available.

(b) In their publications, presentations, teaching, practice, and service, education researchers provide acknowledgment of and reference to the use of others’ work, even if the work is not quoted verbatim or paraphrased, and they do not present others’ work as their own whether it is published, unpublished, or electronically available.

16. Authorship Credit

(a) Education researchers ensure that all who have made a substantive contribution to an intellectual product are listed as authors.

(b) Education researchers take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have actually performed or to which they have contributed.

(c) Education researchers ensure that all who have made a substantive contribution to an intellectual product are listed as authors.

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(d) Education researchers ensure that principal authorship, authorship order and other publication credits are based on the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their status. Education researchers specify the criteria for making these determinations at the outset of the writing process.

(d) A student is usually listed as principal author on any multiple-authored publication that substantially derives from the student’s dissertation or thesis.

17. Publication Process

Education researchers adhere to the highest ethical standards, including standards of competence, when participating in publication and review processes as authors or editors. 17.01 Submission of Manuscripts for Publication

(a) In cases of multiple authorship, education researchers confer with all other authors prior to submitting work for publication and establish mutually acceptable agreements regarding submission.

(b) In submitting a manuscript to a professional journal, book series, or edited book, education researchers grant that publication first claim to publication except where explicit policies allow multiple submissions. Education researchers do not submit a manuscript to a second publication until after an official decision has been received from the first publication or until the manuscript is withdrawn. Education researchers submitting a manuscript for publication in a journal, book series, or edited book can withdraw a manuscript from consideration up until an official acceptance is made.

(c) Education researchers do not submit a book manuscript to multiple publishers unless the submission guidelines of the publishers permit the practice. Once education researchers have signed a contract, they may not withdraw a manuscript from publication unless there is reasonable cause to do so.

17.02 Duplicate Publication of Data

(a) Education researchers do not submit for subsequent publication work that has been previously published unless it is published with citation to the first publication and undertaken consistent with any applicable laws and agreements.

(b) When education researchers publish data or findings that they have previously been published elsewhere, they accompany these publications by proper acknowledgment. 17.03 Responsibilities of Editors

(a) When serving as editors of journals or book series, education researchers are fair in the application of standards and operate without personal or ideological favoritism or malice. As editors, education researchers are cognizant of any potential conflicts of interest.

(b) When serving as editors of journals or book series, education researchers ensure the confidential nature of the review process and supervise editorial office staff, including students, in accordance with practices that maintain confidentiality.

(c) When serving as editors of journals or book series, education researcherds are bound to publish all manuscripts accepted for publication unless major errors or ethical violations are discovered after acceptance (e.g., plagiarism or scientific misconduct).

(d) When serving as editors of journals or book series, education researchers ensure the anonymity of reviewers unless they otherwise receive permission from reviewers to reveal their identity. Editors ensure that their staff conforms to this practice.

(e) When serving as journal editors, education researchers ensure the anonymity of authors unless and until a manuscript is accepted for publication or unless the established practices of the journal are known to be otherwise.

(f) When serving as journal editors, education researchers take steps to provide for the timely review of all manuscripts and respond promptly to inquiries about the status of the review.

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18. Responsibilities of Reviewers

Education researchers adhere to the highest ethical standards when serving as reviewers for publication, grant support, or other evaluation purposes.

(a) In reviewing material submitted for publication, grant support, or other evaluation purposes, education researchers respect the confidentiality of the process and the proprietary rights in such information of those who submitted it.

(b) Education researchers disclose conflicts of interest or decline requests for reviews of the work of others where conflicts of interest are involved.

(c) If asked to review a manuscript, book, or proposal they have previously reviewed, education researchers make it known to the person making the request (e.g., editor, program officer) unless it is clear that they are being asked to provide a reappraisal.

19. Delegation and Supervision

(a) Education researchers provide proper training and supervision to their students, supervisees, and employees and take reasonable steps to see that such persons perform services responsibly, competently, and ethically.

(b) Education researchers delegate to their students, supervisees, and employees only those responsibilities that such persons, based on their education, training, or experience, can reasonably be expected to perform either independently or with the level of supervision provided.

(c) Education researchers fairly evaluate the performance of their students, supervisees, and employees and communicate that evaluation fully and honestly.

20. Education, Teaching, and Training

As teachers, supervisors, mentors, and trainers, education researchers follow the highest ethical standards in order to ensure the quality of the experience and the integrity of the teacher-student relationship. 20.01 Administration of Education Programs

(a) Education researchers who are responsible for education and training programs seek to ensure that the programs are competently designed, provide relevant experiences, and meet all goals for which claims are made by the program.

(b) Education researchers who are responsible for education and training programs seek to ensure that there is an accurate description of the program content, training goals and objectives, and requirements that must be met for satisfactory completion of the program.

(c) Education researchers who are responsible for education and training programs take steps to ensure that graduate assistants and temporary instructors have the substantive knowledge required to teach courses and the teaching skills needed to facilitate student learning.

(d) Education researchers who are responsible for education and training programs have an obligation to ensure that ethics are taught to their graduate students as part of their professional preparation.

20.02 Teaching and Training

(a) Education researchers conscientiously perform their teaching responsibilities. They have appropriate skills and knowledge or are receiving appropriate training.

(b) Education researchers provide accurate information at the outset about their courses, particularly regarding the subject matter to be covered, bases for evaluation, and the nature of course experiences.

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(c) Education researchers make decisions concerning textbooks, course content, course requirements, and grading solely on the basis of educational criteria without regard for financial or other incentives.

(d) Education researchers provide proper training and supervision to their teaching assistants and other teaching trainees and take reasonable steps to ensure that such persons perform these teaching responsibilities responsibly, competently, and ethically.

(e) Education researchers do not permit personal animosities or intellectual differences with colleagues to foreclose students’ or supervisees’ access to these colleagues or to interfere with student or supervisee learning, academic progress, or professional development.

21. Contractual and Consulting Services

(a) Education researchers undertake grants, contracts, or consultation only when they are knowledgeable about the substance, methods, and techniques they plan to use or have a plan for incorporating appropriate expertise.

(b) In undertaking grants, contracts, or consultation, education researchers base the results of their professional work on appropriate information and techniques.

(c) When financial support for a project has been accepted under a grant, contract, or consultation, education researchers make reasonable efforts to complete the proposed work on schedule.

(d) In undertaking grants, contracts, or consultation, education researchers accurately document and appropriately retain their professional and scientific work.

(e) In establishing a contractual arrangement for research, consultation, or other services, education researchers clarify, to the extent feasible at the outset, the nature of the relationship with the individual, organizational, or institutional client. This clarification includes, as appropriate, the nature of the services to be performed, the probable uses of the services provided, possibilities for the education researcher's future use of the work for scholarly or publication purposes, the timetable for delivery of those services, and compensation and billing arrangements.

22. Adherence to the Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association

Education researchers have an obligation to confront, address, and attempt to resolve ethical issues that arise under this Code of Ethics.

22.01 Familiarity with the Code of Ethics

Education researchers have an obligation to be familiar with these Ethical Standards, other applicable ethics codes, and their application to education researchers' work. Lack of awareness or misunderstanding of an ethical standard is not, in itself, a defense to a charge of unethical conduct.

22.02 Confronting Ethical Issues

(a) When education researchers are uncertain whether a particular situation or course of action would violate the Ethical Standards, they consult with other educational researchers knowledgeable about ethical issues or with other organizational entities such as institutional review boards. They may also consult with the AERA's Committee on Ethics as a source of information or guidance. .

(b) When education researchers take actions or are confronted with choices where there is a conflict between ethical standards enunciated in the Ethical Standards and laws or legal requirements, they make known their commitment to the Standards and take steps to resolve the conflict in a responsible manner by consulting with colleagues, professional organizations, or the AERA's Committee on Ethics.

22.03 Fair Treatment of Parties in Ethical Disputes

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(a) Education researchers do not discriminate or retaliate against a person on the basis of his or her having made an ethical complaint.

(b) Education researchers do not discriminate or retaliate against a person on the basis of that person allegedly having committed an ethical violation. This does not preclude taking action based upon the outcome of an ethical complaint.

(c) Education researchers may take into account confirmed ethical violations of others in making professional decisions and judgments about these individuals.

22.04 Reporting Ethical Violations of Others

When education researchers have substantial reason to believe that there may have been an ethical violation by another education researcher, they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that individual if an informal resolution appears appropriate or possible, they bring it to the attention of appropriate authorities or officials, or they seek advice about whether or how to proceed based on this belief, assuming that such activity does not violate any confidentiality rights. Such action might include consultation with or referral to the AERA's Committee on Ethics on matters relating to the conduct of AERA activities or programs. . 22.05 Improper Complaints

Education researchers do not file or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are frivolous or solely intended to harm the alleged violator rather than to protect the integrity of the education research profession and the public that is being served. 22.06 Cooperating with Ethics Committees

Education researchers cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting decisions of the American Educational Research Association. Note: This revised edition of the American Educational Research Association’s Ethical Standards builds on the Ethical standards adopted in 1992 and revised in 1996 and 2002. This edition has been structured and modified to make more accessible the ethical standard eliminating certain guidance that does not relate to the individual conduct of education researchers and expanding on or clarifying the ethical standards in the prior editions. This revision has benefited from the 1997 Code of Ethics of the American Sociological Association and the 1992 version of the American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.