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MGT 301-N2 – ARTICLE ANALYSIS ASSIGNMENT LAST UPDATED MARCH 22, 2016
Assignment Overview What is this assignment about? Find and analyze an article in the mass media to which you can apply concepts and theories from your MGT 301 Organizational Behavior (OB) course.
Why do I assign this to students in MGT 301? The spirit of this assignment is to bring OB theories and concepts “alive” — that is, to make the point that what we discuss in class has real-world implications. How should I complete this assignment? First, find an article in a newspaper, magazine, etc., that deals with a topic that a) interests you and b) is related to organizational behavior issues. Then, write a paper in which you:
1) provide a brief summary of the article; 2) demonstrate how it applies to OB-related topics, theories and concepts; and
3) draw some conclusions of your own.
How should I write the paper? Please find guidelines for structuring your paper on page 4 of this handout. When is my paper due? Your paper is due on Wednesday, April 13, 2016. Please note that this assignment is worth 125 points (i.e., 12.5% of your final grade).
FINDING TOPIC AND ARTICLE
Choosing a Good Topic • First, consider complex topics from the text—ones that have many subtopics—such as social trends in
the workplace, leadership, politics in organizations, health issues, group dynamics, cross-cultural workplace issues, problems and opportunities for newcomers/older workers/expatriates, job performance and how to enable/evaluate it, motivating employees in difficult times, organizational culture and its effects, organizational change, communicating in the workplace, diversity or other topics that deal with employees’ attitudes, perceptions and/or behaviors.
• Second, narrow down possible topics to ones that you have some opinion about before beginning your search for articles, so you will have your own ideas to consider in addition to those presented in possible articles.
è For example, maybe you liked the topic of diversity in the workplace because you experienced something similar in a recent internship, or you read about it, or discussed it with friends, etc. Thus, finding an article on, say, “managing diversity” would be good because a) you have an interest in the topic already, b) you could tie the article to a number of topics related to diversity that we discussed in class or that are discussed in our textbook (i.e., challenges to managing diversity or organizational practices), and c) it is likely that you have opinions regarding this topic because of your prior experiences.
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Possible Topic Sources In order to find a topic, consider doing the following:
§ Read the MGT 301 textbook’s table of content and glossary § Flip through the MGT 301 textbook or other OB textbooks in the library § Read the Wall Street Journal or other newspapers, watch business news shows or listen to public
radio (e.g., “Marketplace” on WYSO, 91.3 FM, M-F 6:30-7:00 p.m., or www.marketplace.org) § Flip through some of the sources that are listed below § Talk to a reference librarian at Roesch library (they often have good ideas for writing papers) § Talk to friends/parents/etc. who work and find out what they think would be worthwhile pursuing § Still no idea and getting desperate? Come and talk with me!
Choosing a Good Article • The article should be a longer one (at least a 1,000 words long), so that you will have some materials
to work with. It is a good idea trying to find a “feature” piece (= a longer story in a newspaper, magazine, trade or academic journal). You may use more than one article—however, if you use several short articles make sure that they are related to an overarching topic or theme.
• Make sure that the source of the article is a credible one! In other words, choose a source with credibility (e.g., the Wall Street Journal, Financial Times). Materials from “RealFishyInc.com,” “Dubious.org,” etc., that you accidentally found while surfing the Internet are not eligible.
< Contact me or a librarian if you have any questions or doubts about the credibility of your chosen source. Please note that a Research Guide for this assignment is available at http://libguides.udayton.edu/kiewitz .
• In general, the article should not be older than 5 years. If you find something that is older and you think it is valid (there are classics out there that still hold water) talk to me first before using it.
• Please do not use articles we used in class (but feel free to use them as supplements to your article).
Possible Article Sources For starters, consider some of the following sources (also see: http://libguides.udayton.edu/c.php?g=15232&p=83032): Business publications:
§ BusinessWeek, Forbes, Fortune, Fast Company, HR Magazine, Inc. Magazine, Workforce, T+D (= Training + Development Magazine), etc.
Newspapers: § Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, New York Times, Chicago Tribune, Asia Times, Christian
Science Monitor, Investor’s Business Daily, Washington Post, etc. Magazines:
§ Economist, New Yorker, Newsweek, US News & World Report, Time, Wired, Slate, etc. Business trade press outlets:
§ Anything of interest to you … however, please use good judgment (or run those sources by me) before proceeding …
Many of these publications are available through the EBSCO (e.g., Business Source Complete or Academic Search Complete) and LEXIS-NEXIS (e.g., LexisNexis Academic - Business) databases, which you can access from the following library webpage: http://flyers.udayton.edu/search/m?SEARCH=Business+and+Economics&Submit2=Search .
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PAPER REQUIREMENTS
Form of Paper § Layout: See general instructions in the syllabus and the checklist (1” margins, 1.5 lines, stapled, etc.). § Length: In the past, students have submitted papers that were on average 3½ to 5 pages long. Please
note that I look for and evaluate content, not length.
Copy of the Article itself § Please turn in a hard copy of the article to me in class (but not on Isidore).
Submissions: 2x in class (paper & article) and 1x Isidore (paper)
Wednesday, April 13, 2016:
2 Submit 1) a hard copy of your paper and 2) a copy of the article in class. Make sure the paper includes a reference to the article’s source and is formatted correctly (see checklist at the end of this handout). If you are going to miss class that day, have one of your classmates turn in both the paper and the article or drop them off by sliding them under my office door (MH 711).
< Submit an electronic version of your paper only to Isidore. Use the filename protocol shown below. It is important that you stick to this naming protocol because it helps me uploading your papers to the Turnitin.com service without complications (please know that both *.doc and *.docx MS Word formats are fine).
[your last name]_[your first initial]_SP2016_Analysis.docx Example: Kiewitz_C_SP2016_Analysis.docx
I Do not submit an electronic version of the article to Isidore — instead, give me a hard copy in class.
J Academic Honesty This is not a team-based project and should be completed on your own. To ensure compliance with UD/SBA policies (e.g., http://www.udayton.edu/business/advising/student_resources/student_policies.php) on academic dishonesty, I will submit a copy of your paper to the www.turnitin.com service so to protect students from misuses of their work.
– INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS –
This document, in whole or in part, may not be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including but not limited to scanning, photographing, copying, uploading, or other electronic methods,
without the prior written permission of the instructor, Dr. Christian Kiewitz.
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STRUCTURING YOUR PAPER
Use the following 1.-7. HEADINGS to structure your paper: (AND INCLUDE THOSE IN THE PAPER!)
1. MY INFORMATION Put your Name and MGT 301-section number (stated on the syllabus) on top of the first page.
2. ARTICLE SOURCE Next, provide the reference(s) to your source article(s) in APA 6th style. Below please guidelines, online tools, and examples that help you with formatting your reference(s).
o Only here list the reference(s) of the article(s) you are analyzing = source article(s). o List any other reference(s) you use under the heading “7. Reference(s)” (see below).
3. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Under this heading, provide a brief overview or review of the overall article. That is, summarize the article’s content in no more than one developed paragraph (i.e., an executive summary).
4. THESIS In 1-3 sentences, clearly state how the article applies to an OB topic and/or its subtopics. In other words, what is the general theme of the article, what are the main ideas expressed in the article?
o For example, ask yourself what the article “is about”: Does it discuss job satisfaction across generations, motivating employees after mergers, achieving work-life balance for working mothers, handling abusive supervisors, team building for virtual teams, leading in startup companies or non-profit organizations, or business ethics and bribery issues in sales jobs?
o Aim to be concise by crafting a thesis statement that is short and to the point (typically, your thesis statement should not be longer than 3 sentences long). In addition to stating the thesis of your paper, you may also include your own opinions of the article/topic in the thesis statement (or you can do this later in the paper).
5. ANALYSIS Then, for the majority of the body paragraphs, analyze, or break the article down into components showing how the article applies to the topic/subtopics you have chosen. The analysis part is the main part of the paper ⎯ consequently, this is where you should spend most of your time and energy (plus, this is where you can get the most points). This part should roughly take up more than half of your paper. Here are some points you want to reflect on before starting to write:
o “Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved.” (Dabbagh, n.d.)1. In other words:
1 Dabbagh, N. (n.d.). Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. Retrieved from http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/bloomstax.htm.
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This assignment is about ANALYSIS, not description. o In order to help you with this part, please see the remarks and Analysis Worksheet below.
6. CONCLUSION Finally, what are your opinions and conclusions regarding the article/topic? For example, you may critique the author’s arguments, point out problematic issues with the article, play devil’s advocate, or bring up ideas not addressed adequately by the article. To get started, you might want to ask yourself the following questions: o What do you think is important about the article/the topic/the presented arguments? o Do you have any thoughts or comments that a reader should consider in addition to what is
discussed in the article? o Can you speculate how the issue(s) discussed in the article may develop in the future? o What is the overall take away or conclusion from your analysis of the article’s content?
7. REFERENCE(S) List any reference(s) other than those to the article(s) you analyzed (= source article/s) here in APA 6th style. For example, the complete reference for our OB text book is: o Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Wesson, M. J. (2015). Organizational behavior: Improving
performance and commitment in the workplace (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
I For what to do when you mention works in the text of your paper or quote from sources, see
the section on “IN-TEXT CITATIONS in APA 6th Style” below.
ARTICLE SOURCES and REFERENCES in APA 6th Style
APA 6th Style: GUIDELINES & TOOLS
• APA Formatting and Style Guide: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
o Formatting Guidelines for Electronic Sources (web publications):
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/10/
o http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/cite/qutcite.jsp
o APA Classroom Poster Purdue OWL APA Classroom Poster
• UD Libraries’ Guide to Citing Sources:
o Roesch Citing Sources: General: http://libguides.udayton.edu/citingsources
o Roesch Citing Sources: APA Style http://libguides.udayton.edu/c.php?g=15325&p=83393
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o Tool for formatting references in APA 6th style:
o http://citationmachine.net/ (Note. Son of Citation Machine is a commercial product.)
Examples: ARTICLE SOURCES and REFERENCES SECTIONS
Citing a Newspaper article you found in a print copy:
o Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, pages.
o Example: Miller, C. C., Perlroth, N. (2014, March 6). Yahoo’s in-office policy aims to bolster morale. The New York Times, pp. B1, B2.
Citing a Magazine article you found in a print copy:
o Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Volume, pages. o Example: Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
à Note: If the magazine has no volume number, only insert the pages numbers after the magazine’s name: Example: Dominus, S. (2014, March 31). Is giving the secrets to getting ahead? The New York Times Magazine, 20-27, 36-38, 46.
Citing a Newspaper or Magazine article you found online (website or database):
o Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper or Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
o Example: Dominus, S. (2014, April 2). Helpful workplace hints from the world’s most helpful guy. The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved from http://6thfloor.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/02/helpful-workplace-hints-from-the-worlds-most- helpful-guy/?ref=susandominus
Citing a journal article you retrieved from a website or database:
o Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page range. Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ à Note: If the article has a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) assigned, use format below: § Citing a journal article with Digital Object Identifier (DOI) link assigned:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page range. doi:0000000/000000000000 (or http://dx.doi.org/10.0000/0000 if you want word processors to automatically recognize the DOI as a hyperlink).
§ Example: Barney, J., & Felin, T. (2014). What are microfoundations? Academy of Management Perspectives, 27, 138-155. doi:10.5465/amp.2012.0107 (or insert http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amp.2012.0107 as the DOI link)
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Citing a Non-periodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report:
o Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from http://Web address
o Example: Dabbagh, N. (n.d.). Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain. Retrieved from http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/bloomstax.htm.
IN-TEXT CITATIONS in APA 6th Style
Basics: IN-TEXT CITATIONS (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/): In your paper, feel free to use a simplified version of the author-date method for in-text citation:
• Simply list the 1st author’s last name and the year of publication for the source in the text – such as (Jones, 1998) – unless you directly quote the material.
• If you directly quote the material, include the page number: (Jones, 1998, p. 14). o If your source material does not have page numbers, simply use the (Jones, 1998) format.
• Simply refer or quote our OB textbook as: (Colquitt, 2015) or (Colquitt, 2015, p. 206).
Examples: IN-TEXT CITATIONS (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/):
If you are directly quoting from a work, include the page number (“p. 123”) in the reference: According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers?
If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
HOW TO TACKLE THE ANALYSIS PART
Suggestion for how to approach the Analysis Part of this Assignment
While there are many ways to analyze the content of an article you found, you might find it difficult to complete the analysis portion of the assignment. If so, consider working through the steps outlined below, which are meant to help you identify and examine links to OB theories and/or concepts.
Identifying Linkages
I. Read & Find. As a first step, skim the article and try to identify links or connections to OB theories and/or concepts. Then, go through the article a second time and mark up the passages that contain the links to OB materials in the article.
II. Evaluate. Next, you need to evaluate whether a specific link you identified provides you with enough source material to write about in your paper. Ask yourself whether the information provided in the article sufficient to a) establish one or more clear connections and b) discuss the connection(s) in a meaningful way?
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Not sure whether an article provides sufficient information? In general, if the source material allows you only to speculate that there “might” be a connection and nothing more, you probably do not have a solid basis for developing meaningful arguments (e.g., the link is alluded to, implied, mentioned in a tangential way, etc.). In other words, if you have to “read into” the contents of the article too much in order to establish links, the article might be not optimal for this assignment. (By the way, if you have any doubts or questions, please do not hesitate to discuss the appropriateness of the article with me.)
I. Annotate & Analyze. In this part, first gather information about the theory or concept to which you are trying to make a connection, then describe and explain the connection (i.e., analyze).
1) Information about Theory or Concept. For each theory or concept note the following information: a. Name of theory or concept: _________________________________________________ b. Definition of theory or concept: _________________________________________________
2) Location of Link in Article. Where in the article do the author(s) refer to the theory or concept? For this part, either describe in your own words how the author(s) refer to the theory/concept, or quote the respective passage(s) from the source material(s). For the latter option, copying and pasting is fine.
3) Analysis. Explain how the materials or passage you identified under point 2) is linked to the OB theory or concept.
a. Among others, ask yourself a) how the materials or passage refers to/is connected to/points to/is a symbol for/… the particular OB theory or concept, and b) in what ways (e.g., does it exemplify/illustrate/prove/disprove/counter/extend/… the particular OB theory or concept?).
b. For example, your analysis could involve answers to the following questions: o What is/are the implications/suggestions/insights/advice/… from the article regarding the
theory or concept? § How is that different/similar/equivalent/the same/… compared to what is discussed
in our OB textbook? o What does a reader or does not learn about the theory or concept? o What is missing in the article? …
c. Try to provide specific evidence to support your assertions (quotes and paraphrases must follow APA style).
d. Avoid simply saying that something is related to something else (e.g., a concept). Instead, do explain HOW and/or WHY you think the material is linked to a concept, ties into a theory, etc. Note that merely describing or restating what is written in the article will not get you full credit. Description vs. Analysis. Remember that the focus of this assignment is not mere description but analysis, which refers to the process of breaking down material into its component parts in order to gain a better understanding of the material.1 As such, analysis may include identifying relevant components and examining the relationships between parts. That is why I ask you first to identify the relevant components of the relationships you identified under points 1) and 2) (i.e., which passage is linked to which theory or concept?). Now that you identified the relevant components, your task is to examine these relationships for the analysis part.
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A Common Question
Q: How many links to OB theories and/or concepts should I discuss in my paper? A: Ultimately, the answer depends on the depth of your discussion (i.e., the deeper the discussion, the
fewer links). Typically, papers include discussions of 3 or 4 links. In addition, please note that I have a preference for deeper, more thorough discussions … as quantity does not impress me as much as quality.
ANALYSIS WORKSHEET
1) Information about Theory or Concept. For each theory or concept note the following information:
a. Name of theory or concept: _________________________________________________
b. Definition of theory or concept: _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2) Location of Link in Article. Where in the article do the author(s) refer to the theory or concept? For
this part, either describe in your own words how the author(s) refer to the theory/concept, or quote the
respective passage(s) from the source material(s). For the latter option, copying and pasting is fine.
a. Location in Article (e.g., section/page/column/paragraph/sentence): _____________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3) Analysis. Explain how the materials or passage you identified under point 2) is linked to the
organizational behavior theory or concept:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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CHECKLIST
Winning attitude
q I started early with the assignment–thus I’d enough time to give it some thought & find a good article.
Content
q I chose a good article as a source. Specifically, it is … a) from a reliable source, b) not older than 5 years, c) long enough so that I have enough materials to work with (please know that you may choose several short articles that are related to an overarching theme or topic). d) speaks mainly to OB issues (that is, the article deals foremost with OB … the inclusion of other topics is okay but your article’s content shouldn’t be 80% strategy/finance/etc. and only 20% OB)
q The main part of my paper focuses on analyzing the article’s content, not just describing it.
Format
My paper is formatted correctly:
q is stapled and typed q uses Times, Times New Roman or a similar
serif font in 12-point size
q line spacing is 1.5 lines q has 1” margins all around q has page numbers
Article(s) and Article Source(s)
q I included a reference of the article’s source including author, date and source information in APA 6th style format
q I attached (stapled or clipped well) the original article to the hard copy of my paper
IN CLASS: Wednesday, April 13, 2016
q I gave a hard copy of my paper and a paper copy of the original article to my professor in class on Wednesday, April 13, 2016
ON ISIDORE: Wednesday, April 13, 2016
q I submitted an electronic copy of my paper to Isidore on Wednesday, April 13, 2016 o Please note that you do not submit an electronic copy of the original article to Isidore
because you are turning in a hard copy to me in class
q I named the file according to the specifications listed on page three of this handout o Ex. Kiewitz_C_SP2016_Analysis.docx
Southern Methodist University
Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering
CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.
V. STEADY PIPE FLOW
D. Pump Selection
Reading Assignment:
Chapter 12 Turbomachines
Section 12.4 – The Centrifugal Pump, pp. 687-700
E. Pump Selection
Pump Applications –
Pumps are used in a wide array of engineering applications including:
Low-lift pumps high-volume, low-head pumps used to elevate fluids, e.g., elevating water from a supply source to a water treatment plant or wastewater from a gravity sewer to a wastewater treatment plant.
High-service pumps used to deliver fluids under “adequate” pressure throughout a distribution piping network, or through long transmission pipelines.
Booster pumps used to increase fluid pressure at intermediate points along transmission pipelines, or within distribution piping networks.
Recirculation and transfer pumps used to convey fluids for one unit operation or process to another within an engineered system or facility.
Well pumps used to lift water from ground water aquifers for water supply purposes.
Chemical metering pumps used to deliver reagent chemicals at precisely controlled rates to chemical processes.
Fire pumps used for delivering high flow rates at high pressures for firefighting.
Sludge pumps used to convey thick slurries from one unit operation or process to another within an engineered system or facility.
Sampling pumps used in both portable and fixed equipment designed to collect precise sample volumes over precise time intervals within engineered systems or facilities.
Pump Types -
Pumps can be broadly classified as either,
Dynamic
Positive displacement
Dynamic pumps deliver flow rates that vary as a function of the discharge head on the pump.
Conversely, positive displacement pumps deliver flow rates that remain relatively constant, regardless of changes in the discharge head.
Dynamic pumps can be further subdivided into classes,
Centrifugal – axial flow, radial flow, mixed flow, and peripheral flow pumps
Special effect – including eductor (or jet), ejector, and air lift pumps
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Positive displacement pumps can be further subdivided into classes,
Reciprocating – piston (or plunger) and diaphragm pumps
Rotary – including gear, lobe, screw, progressing cavity, vane, and peristaltic (or tubing) pumps
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Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used type in engineering applications including:
Low-lift – Vertical Turbine
Axial Flow
Archimedes Screw
High-service – Split-case, double suction centrifugal
Vertical-turbine Pump
Axial Flow (Vertical Propeller) Pump
Archimedes Screw Pumps
Split-case, Double-suction Centrifugal Pump
Booster
Recirculation and transfer
Well – down-hole pumps
Firefighting
Figure 12.6 – Schematic of Basic Elements of Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Submersible
Vertical Sump Pump
Horizontal
Fire Pump System, Internal Combustion Driver
Centrifugal Pumps
Solids Handling, Enclosed Impeller
Non-clog, Open Impeller
Semi-open Impeller
Enclosed Impeller
Open Impeller
Centrifugal Pump Impellers
Down-hole Well Pumps
Special Effect Pumps
Ejector
Positive displacement pumps are commonly used for,
Chemical metering – including diaphragm, gear, lobe, progressing cavity, and peristaltic pumps
Diaphragm Metering Pump –
for feeding chemical solutions
Diaphragm
Positive Displacement Metering Pumps
Rotary Lobe
Progressing Cavity
Gear
Sludge transfer – including piston, diaphragm, and progressing cavity pumps
Sampling – peristaltic pumps
Progressing Cavity Sludge Pump
Rubber Stator
Steel Rotor
Air-operated Diaphragm Sludge Pump
Positive Displacement Sludge and Sampling Pumps
Elastomer Diaphragms
Peristaltic Tubing Sampling Pump
Pump/Piping Systems -
Pump Piping –
Most pumps have isolation valves on both the suction pipe and the discharge pipe. Gate valves, plug valves, and ball valves are commonly used for this purpose. This allows the pump to be isolated from the piping system for maintenance or replacement.
Most pumps have a check valve on the discharge line between the pump outlet connection and the discharge isolation valve to prevent backward flow through the pump when the pump is not operating.
A sketch of a common pump piping arrangement follows,
Gate Valve
Check Valve
Suction Piping
Gate Valve
Eccentric Reducer
Concentric Reducer
Discharge Piping
Pump
The suction pipe for any pump should never be of smaller diameter than the pump inlet connection. If possible, the suction pipe should be 2 or more pipe sizes larger than the pump inlet connection to minimize friction losses.
Recommended, economical velocities for pump suction and discharge piping may be summarized graphically as:
Recommended Velocities
System Head-Discharge Curve
Consider the energy equation around a CS between Sections 1 and 2 that encloses a pump,
Solve this equation for the pump energy input, hP, or “Total Head” required,
Change in Velocity Head ,
Static Head, z
Change in Pressure Head,
Total Head Loss, hL = hf + hm
A plot of the input Total Head, hP , as a function of flow rate, Q, is called the System Head-Discharge Curve for a given pump/piping system.
Consider a typical pump/piping system for transferring water from one tank into a second tank having a higher water surface elevation,
z
GV
CV
Pump
GV
Write the energy equation between the surface of the two tanks,
(i) p1 = p2 = pATM = 0
(ii) V1 = V2 = 0
Simplifying yields,
The total head loss varies with V 2, hence with Q2, such that the System Head-Discharge Curve has the following general appearance,
Total Head, hP [L]
Discharge, Q [L3/T]
z, Static Head
hL , Total Head Loss
System Head-Discharge Curve
Reconsider the head loss equation for a piping system with a single pipe size:
There are usually multiple pipe sizes, having differing fluid velocities, each with different appurtenances in pump/piping systems. The total head loss for a pump/piping system is obtained by summing the head losses for the different pipe sizes:
where,
hL = total head loss for all system pipe sizes [L]
hfi = friction loss for pipe size i [L]
sum of the energy losses for all individual minor loss components j, for pipe size i [L]
Expanding the summation over all pipe sizes:
Minor Losses
Pipe Size 1
Friction Loss
Pipe Size 1
Minor Losses
Pipe Size 2
Friction Loss
Pipe Size 2
Pump Head-Discharge Curve
The discharge delivered by a centrifugal pump typically declines as the Total Head on the pump increases. The Total Head at which the pump discharge is reduced to zero is called the Shut-off Head. A hypothetical centrifugal Pump Head-Discharge Curve, for a single operating speed follows:
Total Head, hP [L]
Discharge, Q [L3/T]
Pump Head-Discharge Curve
Shut-off Head
Other examples of hypothetical centrifugal Pump Head-Discharge Curves are shown in Figures 12.11 p. 693, and 12.12 p. 694 in the textbook.
Example manufacturer’s Pump Head-Discharge Curves taken from the Goulds Pump Catalog are contained in the class handout.
Legend: Goulds Pump Head-Discharge Curves
Efficiency (U-shaped) Curves
Additional information often contained on manufacturer’s Pump Head-Discharge Curves includes,
Pump efficiency
Brake horsepower (i.e., power that must be supplied to the pump input shaft by a drive motor)
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) required to prevent cavitation
Head-discharge characteristics as a function of pump operating speed
Head-discharge characteristics as a function of impeller diameter (a given pump casing can often accommodate a range of impeller diameters)
Superimposing Pump Head-Discharge Curves over a System Head-Discharge Curve allows the operating point for a pump/piping system to be established graphically, as the intersection of the curves:
Total Head, hP [L]
Discharge, Q [L3/T]
Pump Operating
Point
QPump
hPump
Pump Head-Discharge Curve
System Head-Discharge Curve
This graphical approach is commonly used to select a suitable centrifugal pump for a given piping system and desired flow rate, Qdesign . A trial-and-error procedure is used. Several different Pump Head-Discharge Curves may be superimposed over the System Head-Discharge Curve until a pump is found with suitable operating characteristics — discharge, head, efficiency, NPSH, etc.
Total Head, hP [L]
Discharge, Q [L3/T]
Operating
Point for
Pump #2
Operating
Point for
Pump #1
Qdesign
Pump #2
Selected
* Important Point
Uncertainty exists in estimating pipe friction and minor losses. Pipe roughness, hence friction losses, may also increase over time due to pipe corrosion or scaling. It is highly recommended that two System Head-Discharge Curves be developed, one for pump capacity selection, and the other for motor selection as follows:
(1) For ensuring adequate pump capacity, Qdesign , estimate the maximum friction loss assuming old, rough pipe using the Hazen-Williams Equation with C = 100. Furthermore, use conservatively high estimates of minor losses by employing minor loss coefficients, i.e., KL values, from the upper-end of typical design ranges for each type of piping appurtenance.
(2) Determine the maximum possible discharge and associated head, (Qmax , hp,Qmax) for the selected pump/piping system. This operating point typically requires the maximum motor power output. Estimate the friction loss assuming new, clean pipe using the Darcy-Weisbach Equation.
Furthermore, use low estimates of minor losses by employing minor loss coefficients, i.e., KL values, from the lower-end of typical design ranges for each type of piping appurtenance.
Plot both System Head-Discharge Curves (i.e., one curve for lowest likely head loss values, and another for highest likely head loss values), and the Pump Head-Discharge Curve for the selected pump on the same graph. Read the design operating point (Qdesign , hp,Qdesign), and the maximum power input operating point (Qmax , hp,Qmax) from the graph as follows:
Total Head, hP [L]
Discharge, Q [L3/T]
Operating Point (Qdesign , hp,Qdesign)
Operating Point (Qmax , hp,Qmax)
Maximum Friction and Minor Losses
Minimum Friction and Minor Losses
Common Pump Piping Arrangements
(1) Horizontal Dry Pit – Flooded Suction
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Southern Methodist University
Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering
CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.
V. STEADY PIPE FLOW
Multiple Pipe Systems – Series, Parallel, and Branching Pipes and Pipe Networks
Reading Assignment:
Chapter 8 Viscous Flow in Pipes
Section 8.5.2 – Multiple Pipe Systems, pp. 456-460
C. Multiple Pipe Systems
Pipes in Series –
Consider pipes in series as illustrated in Figure 8.34 (a), p. 456 where every fluid particle that passes through the CV, entering at Section A and exiting at Section B, passes through each of the pipes in sequence:
Figure 8.34 (a) Series Pipe System, p. 456 – Modified
Q
CS
In this scenario Q is the same in each pipe, but V varies from one pipe to the next because pipe sizes differ. Total head loss, hLA-B , from Section A to Section B is simply the sum of the head losses through each of the pipes of differing size.
Governing equations for any arbitrary number of pipes in series, numbered 1 through n, located between Sections A and B are:
The head loss for any given pipe size i, hLi , is comprised of both the pipe friction loss and minor losses. Thus, the total head loss for a series piping system between any two Sections A and B, hLA-B , is obtained by summing both the pipe friction losses and the minor losses for all n pipe sizes:
where,
hLA-B = total head loss across the n pipe sizes between A and B [L]
hfi = friction loss for pipe size i [L]
sum of the energy losses for all individual minor loss components j, for pipe size i [L]
Expanding the summation over all pipe sizes:
Minor Losses
Pipe Size 1
Friction Loss
Pipe Size 1
Minor Losses
Pipe Size 2
Friction Loss
Pipe Size 2
Friction factors, fi , will generally differ for the various pipes because the Reynolds number, Rei , and relative roughness, εi /Di , tend to vary from one pipe size to the next.
Series pipe problems of Types I, II, and III are solved in exactly the same manner as the corresponding type of simple pipe problem, but with multiple fi and Vi values.
Refer to handout V.C.1. Series Pipes Example for piping systems having multiple pipes in series.
Pipes in Parallel –
Consider parallel pipes as illustrated in Figure 8.34 (b), p. 456 where fluid particles passing through the CV, beginning at Section A along the free surface of the left tank and ending at Section B along the free surface of the right tank, may take any of the available parallel paths, with the total flow rate equaling the sum of the flow rates through the individual pipes:
Figure 8.34 (b) Parallel Pipe System, p. 456 – Modified
CS
In this scenario Qi may differ in each pipe i, but the head loss across each pipe is the same, hLA-B , as can be seen by writing the energy equation along a path through any pipe between Sections A and B.
Governing equations for any arbitrary number of pipes in parallel, numbered 1 through n, located between Sections A and B are:
Head loss across a given pipe i, hLi , is comprised of both the pipe friction loss and minor losses and it must equal the total head loss across the overall parallel piping system between the two Sections A and B, hLA-B :
where,
hLA-B = total head loss across all parallel pipes between Sections A and B [L]
hfi = friction loss for pipe i [L]
sum of the energy losses for all individual minor loss components j, for pipe i [L]
Refer to handout V.C.2. Parallel Pipes Example for piping systems having multiple pipes in parallel.
Branching Pipes and Pipe Networks –
Multiple pipe systems may also involve branching pipes as illustrated in Figure 8.35, p. 457:
In this scenario, continuity at Node N requires that:
Application of the energy equation reveals that the head loss across parallel Pipes (2) and (3) between Node N and Section B are equal, although the pipe sizes and flow rates may differ. Similarly, the head losses across series Pipes (1) and (2) equals the head loss across series Pipes (1) and (3) because these two sets of series pipes operate in parallel.
Branching pipe systems may be quite complex like the common 3-reservoir problem, illustrated in Figure 8.36, p. 458, where the direction of flow in Pipe (2) may not be known a priori:
Q1
Q2
Q3
In other words, water flowing out of the highest Reservoir A may flow into both of the lower Reservoirs B and C. However, it is entirely possible that water flows out of both higher Reservoirs A and B into the lowest Reservoir C.
Refer to handout V.C.3. Three Reservoir Problem Example.
Branching pipe systems may also involve loops forming complex distribution networks as illustrated in Figure 8.37, p. 460:
Pipe network problems are solved by using node and loop equations analogous to those used for electrical circuits—specific variable analogs are pressure-voltage, flow rate-current, and pipe friction-resistance. Net flow rate into a node must be zero (Continuity Principle), and the net pressure difference must be zero when following a path around a given loop that returns to the starting point.
Combining these concepts with head loss equations allows determination of flows and pressures throughout the network.
Computer models are usually used to solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations to determine the direction and magnitude of the flow rate through each pipe, and the pressure at each node in the network.
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Southern Methodist University
Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering
CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.
V. STEADY PIPE FLOW
A. Pipe Friction Formulas
B. Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Reading Assignment:
Chapter 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics …
Section 3.7 - The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line, pp. 131-133
A. Pipe Friction Formulas
Empirical pipe friction formulas have been developed for specific fluids flowing through a selected range of pipe sizes and materials. This simplifies friction loss calculations by eliminating the need to determine Darcy-Weisbach friction factors.
In the U.S., the Hazen-Williams Formula is commonly used for the turbulent flow of water at normal environmental temperatures through circular pipes with diameters in the range of 2 inches to 6 ft. This formula is extensively used for design and evaluation of water distribution piping networks.
In USC units, the Hazen-Williams Formula is,
This equation holds only for the following units,
Velocity, V (ft/sec)
Hydraulic Radius, Rh (ft)
Friction Slope, Sf (ft/ft)
In SI units, the Hazen-Williams Formula is,
This equation holds only for the following units,
Velocity, V (m/sec)
Hydraulic Radius, Rh (m)
Friction Slope, Sf (m/m)
Multiply both sides of the equation by cross-sectional area, A, and substitute discharge, Q, for (VA) on the left-hand side. Also, for circular conduits flowing full, the hydraulic radius is Rh=D/4. Substituting D/4 for Rh , inserting appropriate conversion factors, and simplifying yields the Hazen-Williams Equation in terms of discharge as a function of pipe diameter:
In USC units, the Hazen-Williams Formula in terms of discharge is,
This equation holds only for the following units,
Discharge, Q (gpm)
Pipe Diameter, D (in)
Friction Slope, Sf (ft/ft)
In SI units, the Hazen-Williams Formula in terms of discharge is,
This equation holds only for the following units,
Q (m3/sec)
D (m)
Sf (m/m)
The Hazen-Williams Coefficient, C , depends on the roughness of the pipe. The higher the C value the smoother the pipe,
C < 100 Very rough pipe
C = 100 typical design value
C 140 Smooth pipe
Tables of C values are widely available for the common materials used for commercial pipe, as shown in the following table:
Typical Values of C
Pipe Material C
FE Supplied-Reference Handbook, 8th Ed., 2011 – p. 161
The Hazen-Williams Formula can be rearranged to determine the friction slope, Sf , i.e., pipe friction loss per unit length of pipe:
Only for
USC Units
Only for
SI Units
The friction loss, hf , for a given length of pipe, L, is then computed by rearranging the definition of friction slope Sf ,
Multiply the previous friction slope equations by L, use C = 100 as a reference value, and simplify to yield convenient equations for friction loss, hf :
This equation holds only for the following units,
Friction Loss, hf (ft)
Pipe Length, L (ft)
Discharge, Q (gpm)
Pipe Diameter, D (in)
Only for
USC Units
Only for
SI Units
This equation holds only for the following units,
Friction Loss, hf (m)
Pipe Length, L (m)
Discharge, Q (m3/sec)
Pipe Diameter, D (m)
Refer to Handouts – V.A. Hazen-Williams Examples for applications of the Hazen-Williams Equation.
B. Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL) are useful concepts for visualizing pipe flow problems.
The HGL is a plot of the piezometric head as the ordinate, against length along the pipe as the abscissa.
Each point along the HGL is the elevation to which the fluid would rise in a piezometer, located at that point along the pipe.
The EGL is a plot of the total available mechanical energy as the ordinate, against length along the pipe as the abscissa.
By definition, the EGL is always above the HGL by an amount .
The slope of the EGL is the friction slope, Sf , i.e., the friction loss per unit length along a pipe,
Elevation Datum
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Loss
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HGL
EGL
HGL
EGL
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Entrance
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Reducer
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Pipe#2
Pipe#3
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Entrance
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HGL
EGL
Pump Energy Input, hP
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Page 1 of 2
HOMEWORK NO. 13 SOLUTION
Problem Statement
Compare results from the implicit Colebrook equation to the following explicit equation
sometimes used in spreadsheet models as a good approximation:
It is valid for 10 –6
< ε/D < 10 –2
and 5000 < Re <10 +8
. An advantage of the equation is that given
Re and ε/D it does not require an iteration procedure to obtain f, i.e., it is explicit in f. Plot a graph of the percent difference in f as given by this equation and the original Colebrook equation
for Re values in the range of validity of the approximate equation, specifically for ε/D = 10 –4
.
Spreadsheet software is mandatory for completing the required repetitive calculations and
plotting the required graph of percent difference in friction factor f between the two formulas,
29.0Re74.57.3ln 325.1
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Page 2 of 2
(%) fff app
app
ff
PUMP AND PIPING SYSTEM SKETCH
z = 19.0 ft
Gate
Valve Gate
Valve
Check
Valve Pump
50 ft 476 ft
24 ft
Suction Piping
Discharge Piping
Water at 40 F
15 ft
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Teams:
Characteristics
and Diversity
Chapter 11
Welcome to Chapter 11 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
11-*
Class Agenda
- Teams defined
- Team types
- Variations within team types
- Team interdependence
- Team composition
- Best practices
11-*
Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I would note that, for the first time, we’re acknowledging that OB phenomena are not merely individual phenomena. For the next four chapters, we’ll delve into how individuals are nested within groups (and eventually discuss how groups are nested within organizations).
11-*
What Characteristics Can
Be Used to Describe Teams?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
It presents a “question of the day.” The question is usually a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer. Sometimes the question will instead take the form of a “how” or “what” query, however.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
11-*
Team Characteristics
- A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose.
- A special type of “group.”
- The interactions among members within teams revolve around a deeper dependence on one another than the interactions within groups.
- The interactions within teams occur with a specific task-related purpose in mind.
11-*
Types of Teams
11-*
Types of Teams
Try This! If students are working in teams, it is interesting to ask them to categorize their teams using the taxonomy. Because student teams often complete a series of discrete assignments, many will suggest that their teams are project teams. However, because they work together for a series of projects over an extended time period—maybe a semester—others will suggest that their teams are work teams. This can lead to a good discussion about the complexity of teams, and that perhaps the most important aspect of the team taxonomy is that it helps to clarify the underlying characteristics. This discussion can provide a good segue to the topics that follow.
11-*
Variations within Team Types
- Virtual teams are teams in which the members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through electronic communications—primarily e-mail, instant messaging, and Web conferencing
- Teams also vary in how developmentally mature they are
Ask students to what degree they work virtually in their student project teams. What are the benefits of that working style, and what are the costs?
11-*
Stages of Team Development
11-*
Stages of Team Development
If you have a team project in your course, ask students if they made some sort of adjustment in their teams at the approximate halfway mark of the project life cycle. What makes that halfway mark psychologically salient?
11-*
Team Interdependence
- Task interdependence refers the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team
11-*
Task
Interdep-endence
To foreshadow some topics in Chapter 12, ask students why teams get potentially more effective as task interdependence increases. The answer revolves around a deeper and more intensive sharing of knowledge, opinions, and resources. Then ask them about the potential costs, which revolve around problems associated with coordination.
11-*
Team Interdependence
- Goal interdependence exists when team members have a shared vision of the team’s goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result
11-*
Goal
Interdep-endence
11-*
Team Interdependence
- Outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns
If you have a team project in your course, discuss the merits of all team members receiving the same exact grade on the project.
11-*
Task
Interdependence
Goal
Interdependence
Outcome
Interdependence
14
14
14
The average scores for the three dimensions in this index are shown in blue on the slide (14, in all four cases). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores. In the event that students are referencing the items to their project teams in the class, it’s also interesting to see how much team members agree.
OB Assessments: Interdependence. This assessment can be an eye-opener for students who are required to work in teams. While most professors expect students to work on assignment as a group together, many student teams function as small groups of individual contributors—members split up the work and then stick it together right before the assignment is due. Ask students to characterize both structures in terms of task interdependence. After this, ask students about reasons why different teams choose different strategies. What are the benefits and costs of high task interdependence?
11-*
Team Composition
11-*
Member
Roles
If you have athletes in your course, or students who played high school sports, ask them what roles they played on their teams. Are those same roles in existence in the teams they work on for class projects?
11-*
Member Roles
- OB on Screen: Inception
- What kinds of roles is Cobb recruiting members to fill?
OB on Screen: Inception. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 51:10 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:01:18 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it’s Chapter 6 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip shows the members of the team planning for an inception (planting an idea in someone’s mind during a dream within a dream) and discussing their roles and how they relate to each other and the overall success of the mission. The discussion conveys a strong sense that if anyone makes a mistake, the team is doomed to failure. A good opening for discussion would be to have students identify the type of team in the clip. Students should be able to identify the team as an action team. If you ask why, they should explain that this team performs a very complex task in a very challenging circumstance. A second topic for discussion can focus on the stage of this teams development depicted in the clip. Students will likely respond by saying the scene depicts early stages of group life—most notably forming. There appears to be some norming, but not much storming. The reason why the team may skip this stage may relate to the fact that the members have pre-defined roles—they were brought onto the team to do specific things. Students may also note that the punctuated equilibrium model might not apply because of the importance of the task. The members should be engaged right from the start, they don’t need a calendar midpoint to signal that it’s time to start making progress. A third topic for discussion can focus on the type of task and interdependence that characterizes this team and the work it does. Students should be able to identify the task as one that is conjunctive (the team will be as strong as a weakest link). The team also has high levels of interdependence. The members clear depend on one another, and they appear to share a common goal and the outcomes of achieving (or not achieving) the goal.
11-*
Member Ability
- Cognitive and physical abilities needed in a team depend on the nature of the team’s task
- Disjunctive tasks
- Conjunctive tasks
- Additive tasks
11-*
Member Personality
- Three traits are especially critical in teams:
- Agreeable people tend to be more cooperative and trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions.
- Conscientious people tend to be dependable and work hard to achieve goals.
- Extraverted people tend to perform more effectively in interpersonal contexts and are more positive and optimistic in general.
11-*
Team Diversity
- Degree to which members are different from one another in terms of any attribute that might be used by someone as a basis of categorizing people.
- Value in diversity problem-solving approach
- Similarity-attraction approach
- Surface-level diversity
- Deep-level diversity
11-*
Team Size
- Having a greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks.
- Research concluded that team members tend to be most satisfied with their team when the number of members is between 4 and 5.
11-*
Here is the concluding and integrating figure for the chapter, which complements the prior slide.
11-*
How Important Are Team Characteristics?
Here is the diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
11-*
What Characteristics Can
Be Used to Describe Teams?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
11-*
What Characteristics Can
Be Used to Describe Teams?
Team Types
Team Composition
Outcome Interdependence
Task Interdependence
Goal Interdependence
Goal Interdependence
Team Types
Task Interdependence
Team Composition
Outcome Interdependence
Here is the answer to the “question of the day.” It is often a bit unclear how to summarize and describe teams. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Teams can be classified according to their team types, their interdependence, and their team composition. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in the form and shape of teams.
11-*
Best Practices: Logitech
Here is the Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from a previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Logitech.
11-*
Best Practices: Logitech
Market leader in “personal peripherals”
Uses specialized multinational teams
Ships 165 million units to 100 different countries
Teams grapple with cultural and functional diversity issues
Teams used “follow-the-sun” philosophy
All of these bullets about Logitech are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Learning & Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job PerformanceLeadership:
Power & Negotiation
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity
chapter
Teams: Characteristics and Diversity 11
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348 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
however, there’s more to understanding team characteristics than meets the eye. Team character- istics such as diversity, for example, have many meanings, and its effect on team functioning and effectiveness depends on what type of diversity you’re concerned with as well as several addi- tional complicating factors. Chapter 12 will focus on team processes and communication—the specific actions and behaviors that teams can engage in to achieve synergy. The concepts in that chapter will help explain why some teams are more or less effective than their characteristics would suggest they should be. For now, however, we turn our attention to this question: “What characteristics can be used to describe teams?”
T E A M T Y P E S One way to describe teams is to take advantage of existing taxonomies that place teams into vari- ous types. One such taxonomy is illustrated in Table 11-1 . The table illustrates that there are five general types of teams and that each is associated with a number of defining characteristics. 10
The most notable characteristics include the team’s purpose, the length of the team’s existence, and the amount of time involvement the team requires of its individual members. The sections to follow review these types of teams in turn.
WORK TEAMS. Work teams are designed to be relatively permanent. Their purpose is to pro- duce goods or provide services, and they generally require a full-time commitment from their members. As an example of a work team, consider how cars and trucks are manufactured at Toyota. 11 Teams are composed of four to eight members who do the physical work, and a leader who supports the team and coordinates with other teams. Although the teams are responsible for the work involved in the assembly of the vehicles, they are also responsible for quality control and developing ideas for improvements in the production process. Team members inspect each other’s work, and when they see a problem, they stop the line until they are able to resolve the problem.
Sources: S.G. Cohen and D.E. Bailey, “What Makes Teams Work: Group Effectiveness Research from the Shop Floor to the Executive Suite,” Journal of Management 27 (1997), pp. 239–90; and E. Sundstrom, K.P. De Meuse, and D. Futrell, “Work Teams: Applications and Effectiveness.” American Psychologist 45 (1990), pp. 120–33.
11.1 What are the five general team types and their defining characteristics?
TYPE OF TEAM PURPOSE AND ACTIVITIES
LIFE SPAN
MEMBER INVOLVEMENT SPECIFIC EXAMPLES
Work Team Produce goods or provide services.
Long High Self-managed work team Production team Maintenance team Sales team
Management Team
Integrate activities of subunits across business functions.
Long Moderate Top management team
Parallel Team Provide recommenda- tions and resolve issues.
Varies Low Quality circle Advisory council Committee
Project Team Produce a one-time out- put (product, service, plan, design, etc.).
Varies Varies Product design team Research group Planning team
Action Team Perform complex tasks that vary in duration and take place in highly visible or challenging circumstances.
Varies Varies Surgical team Musical group Expedition team Sports team
TABLE 11-1 Types of Teams
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350 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
takes to complete. Surgical teams and aircraft flight crews may only work together as a unit for a single two-hour sur- gery or flight.
SUMMARY. So how easy is it to classify teams into one of the types summarized in Figure 11-1 ? Well, it turns out that teams often fit into more than one category. As an example, consider the teams at Pixar, the company that has produced many computer-ani- mated hit films, such as Toy Story, Monsters Inc., Finding
Nemo, Cars, Wall-E, and Up. On the one hand, because the key members of Pixar teams have stuck together for each film the company has produced, it might seem like Pixar uses work teams. 15 On the other hand, because the creation of each film can be viewed as a project, and because members are likely involved in multiple ongoing projects, it might seem reasonable to say that Pixar uses project teams. It’s probably most appropriate to say that at Pixar, teams have characteristics of both work teams and project teams.
VA R I AT I O N S W I T H I N T E A M T Y P E S Even knowing whether a team is a project team, an action team, or some other type of team doesn’t tell you the whole story. Often there are important variations within those categories that are needed to understand a team’s functioning. As one example, teams can vary with respect to the degree to which they have autonomy and are self-managed. 16 If you’ve ever been on a team where members have a great deal of freedom to work together to establish their own goals, procedures, roles, and membership, you’ve worked on a team where the level of autonomy and self-management is high. You may also have worked on a team where the level of autonomy and self-management is low. In these teams, there are strict rules regarding goals, procedures, and roles, and team leaders or managers make most of the decisions regarding management of the team with respect to membership. Research has shown that although people generally prefer working in teams where the level of autonomy and self-management is high, the appropriate level of self-management with regard to overall team effectiveness may depend on a variety of factors. 17 For example, research has shown that high levels of self-management may be most advantageous for teams where team members’ have high levels of team-relevant knowledge obtained from outside experts and others in their social networks. 18
Another way that teams can vary relates to how the members typically communicate with each other. Virtual teams are teams in which the members are geographically dispersed, and interde- pendent activity occurs through electronic communications—primarily e-mail, instant messag- ing, and web conferencing. Although communications and group networking software is far from
Team Types
FIGURE 11-1 Types of Teams
The Pixar team, shown here at the Academy
Awards, has characteristics of both work teams and project teams. Trying to characterize this team is even more complicated when you consider that
key members are involved in the management of
the company, and their involvement in the films
runs parallel to these other responsibilities.
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351C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
perfect, it has advanced to the point that it’s possible for teams doing all sorts of work to func- tion virtually. In fact, there has been an 800 percent increase in the number of virtual employees over the last decade or so, and it’s likely that there are tens of millions of virtual teams operating today. 19 Companies such as Con Edison, New York’s giant electric and gas utility, has invested significant resources in technology and training to help these teams function and perform more effectively. 20 The same is true at IBM, where at least 40 percent of the employees work virtually. 21
As we described in the chapter opening on TRW, virtual teams are not just an efficient way to accomplish work when members are geographically separated. In fact, many companies in high- tech industries are leveraging virtual teams to make continuous progress on work tasks without members having to work 24/7. For example, Logitech, the Swiss company that makes things such as computer mice and keyboards, universal remotes for home entertainment systems, and gaming controllers, attributes its success to teams of designers and engineers who are located in different places around the world. 22 Although you might be inclined to believe that time-zone differences would be a hindrance to this sort of team, Logitech turned it into a competitive advantage by letting the work follow the sun. 23 Specifically, work at Logitech is accomplished continuously because members of a team who have finished their workday in one country electronically hand off the work to team members in another country who have just arrived at the office. Because these electronic hand-offs occur continuously, product development and other work needed to bring innovative products to the market can be completed much more quickly.
In addition to varying in their “virtuality,” teams of any type can differ in the amount of expe- rience they have working together. One way to understand this point is to consider what occurs in teams at different stages of their development as they progress from a newly formed team to one that’s well-established. According to the most well-known theory, teams go through a pro- gression of five stages shown in the top panel of Figure 11-2 . 24 In the first stage, called forming, members orient themselves by trying to understand their boundaries in the team. Members try to get a feel for what is expected of them, what types of behaviors are out of bounds, and who’s in charge. In the next stage, called storming, members remain committed to ideas they bring with them to the team. This initial unwillingness to accommodate others’ ideas triggers conflict
Some teams develop in a predictable sequence . . .
. . . whereas many develop in a less linear fashion.
Forming and Pattern Creation
Inertia
Process Revision
Inertia
Punctuated Equilibrium
Time
Time TimeMidpoint
Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning
FIGURE 11-2 Two Models of Team Development
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351C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
perfect, it has advanced to the point that it’s possible for teams doing all sorts of work to func- tion virtually. In fact, there has been an 800 percent increase in the number of virtual employees over the last decade or so, and it’s likely that there are tens of millions of virtual teams operating today. 19 Companies such as Con Edison, New York’s giant electric and gas utility, has invested significant resources in technology and training to help these teams function and perform more effectively. 20 The same is true at IBM, where at least 40 percent of the employees work virtually. 21
As we described in the chapter opening on TRW, virtual teams are not just an efficient way to accomplish work when members are geographically separated. In fact, many companies in high- tech industries are leveraging virtual teams to make continuous progress on work tasks without members having to work 24/7. For example, Logitech, the Swiss company that makes things such as computer mice and keyboards, universal remotes for home entertainment systems, and gaming controllers, attributes its success to teams of designers and engineers who are located in different places around the world. 22 Although you might be inclined to believe that time-zone differences would be a hindrance to this sort of team, Logitech turned it into a competitive advantage by letting the work follow the sun. 23 Specifically, work at Logitech is accomplished continuously because members of a team who have finished their workday in one country electronically hand off the work to team members in another country who have just arrived at the office. Because these electronic hand-offs occur continuously, product development and other work needed to bring innovative products to the market can be completed much more quickly.
In addition to varying in their “virtuality,” teams of any type can differ in the amount of expe- rience they have working together. One way to understand this point is to consider what occurs in teams at different stages of their development as they progress from a newly formed team to one that’s well-established. According to the most well-known theory, teams go through a pro- gression of five stages shown in the top panel of Figure 11-2 . 24 In the first stage, called forming, members orient themselves by trying to understand their boundaries in the team. Members try to get a feel for what is expected of them, what types of behaviors are out of bounds, and who’s in charge. In the next stage, called storming, members remain committed to ideas they bring with them to the team. This initial unwillingness to accommodate others’ ideas triggers conflict
Some teams develop in a predictable sequence . . .
. . . whereas many develop in a less linear fashion.
Forming and Pattern Creation
Inertia
Process Revision
Inertia
Punctuated Equilibrium
Time
Time TimeMidpoint
Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning
FIGURE 11-2 Two Models of Team Development
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354 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
who perform tasks that are next to each other in the sequence. Moreover, the member perform- ing the task in the latter part of the sequence depends on the member performing the task in the earlier part of the sequence, but not the other way around. The classic assembly line in manufac- turing contexts provides an excellent example of this type of interdependence. In this context, an employee attaches a part to the unit being built, and once this is accomplished, the unit moves on to another employee who adds another part. The process typically ends with the unit being inspected and then packaged for shipping.
Reciprocal interdependence is the next type of task interdependence. 31 Similar to sequential interdependence, members are specialized to perform specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, members interact with a subset of other members to complete the team’s work. To understand reciprocal interdependence, consider a team of people who are involved in a
Pooled Interdependence
Sequential Interdependence
Reciprocal Interdependence
Comprehensive Interdependence
D eg
re e
o f
C o
o rd
in at
io n
R eq
ui re
d
Member 3
Member 1
Member 1
Member 2
Member 3
Member 3
Member 3
Member 4
Member 4
Member 2
Member 2
Member 1
Member 1
Member 4
Member 2
Member 4
Output
Output
Output
Output
FIGURE 11-3 Task Interdependence and Coordination Requirements
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356 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
TABLE 11-2 The Mission Statement Development Process
Steps in Mission Statement Development
1. The team should meet in a room where there can be uninterrupted discussion for 1–3 hours.
2. A facilitator should describe the purpose of a mission statement, along with important details that members of the team should consider. Those details may include the products, outcomes, or services that the team is responsible for providing, as well as relevant time constraints.
3. The team should brainstorm to identify potential phrases or elements to include in the mission statement.
4. If the team is large enough, subgroups should be formed to create “first draft” mission statements. Those mission statements should include action verbs and be no more than four sentences.
5. The subgroups should share the first drafts with one another.
6. The team should then try to integrate the best ideas into a single mission statement.
7. The resulting mission statement should be evaluated using the following criteria: Clarity—It should focus clearly on a single key purpose. Relevance—It should focus on something that is desired by the team members. Significance—If achieved, there are benefits that excite the members. Believability—It reflects something that members believe they can achieve. Urgency—It creates a sense of challenge and commitment.
8. The team should then revise any weak areas of the mission statement. The team should continue to work on the mission statement until there is consensus that it inspires dedica- tion and commitment among members toward a common purpose.
Source: From P.S. MacMillan, The Performance Factor: Unlocking the Secrets of Teamwork, Nashville, Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001, pp. 51–53. Copyright © 2001 B&H Publishing Group. Used by permission.
the case that students come to a team like this with individual goals that are surprisingly differ- ent. Some students might be more interested in “just getting by” with a passing grade because they already have a job and just need their degree. Others students might want to do well in the course, but are more concerned with maintaining balance with the demands of their lives outside of school. Finally, other students might be focused solely on their grades, perhaps because they want to get into a prestigious graduate school in an unrelated discipline. Of course, the problem here is that each of these goals is associated with a different approach to working in the team. Students who want to learn the course material will work hard on the team assignments and will want to spend extra time discussing assignment-related issues with teammates, students who just want to get by will do the minimum amount of work, students who want to maintain their work–life balance will look for the most efficient way to do things, and students who are focused on their grades would be willing to take shortcuts that might inhibit learning. Although trying to reach a consensus on a team mission may not be easy in a situation in which the members have goals that vary along these lines, research has shown that teams of students experience significantly greater effectiveness if they invest time and effort doing so soon after the team first forms. 39 For more discussion regarding the importance of goal interdependence, see our OB at the Bookstore feature.
OUTCOME INTERDEPENDENCE. The final type of interdependence relates to how mem- bers are linked to one another in terms of the feedback and outcomes they receive as a conse- quence of working in the team. 40 A high degree of outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns, with reward examples including pay, bonuses, formal feedback and recognition, pats on the back, extra time off, and continued team survival. Of course, because team achievement depends on the performance of each team member, high
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353C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
finally, throw the fish into a tank filled with ice and other fish. At the end of the day, the boat’s production would be the total weight of the fish that were caught.
The next type of task interdependence is called sequential interdependence. 30 With this type of interdependence, different tasks are done in a prescribed order, and the group is structured such that the members specialize in these tasks. Although members in groups with sequential interdependence interact to carry out their work, the interaction only occurs between members
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
1 TOTALLY
DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 SOMEWHAT DISAGREE
4 NEUTRAL
5 SOMEWHAT
AGREE
6 AGREE
7 TOTALLY AGREE
1. I cannot accomplish my tasks without information or materials from other members of my team.
2. Other members of my team depend on me for information or materials needed to perform their tasks.
3. Within my team, jobs performed by team members are related to one another.
4. My work goals come directly from the goals of my team.
5. My work activities on any given day are determined by my team’s goals for that day.
6. I do very few activities on my job that are not related to the goals of my team.
7. Feedback about how well I am doing my job comes primarily from information about how well the entire team is doing.
8. Evaluations of my performance are strongly influenced by how well my team performs.
9. Many rewards from my work (e.g., pay, grades) are determined in large part by my contributions as a team member.
INTERDEPENDENCE How interdependent is your student project team? This assessment is designed to measure three types of interdependence: task interdependence, goal interdependence, and outcome interdepen- dence. Read each of the following questions with a relevant student team in mind. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then follow the instructions below to score yourself. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com.)
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION
Task Interdependence: Sum up items 1–3. _____ Goal Interdependence: Sum up items 4–6. _____ Outcome Interdependence: Sum up items 7–9. _____
If you scored 14 or above, then you are above average on a particular dimension. If you scored 13 or below, then your team is below average on a particular dimension.
Source: From M.A. Campion, E.M. Papper, and G.J. Medsker, “Relations Between Work Team Characteristics and Effectiveness: A Replication and Extension,” Personnel Psychology 49 (1996), pp. 429–52. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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358 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
skills, abilities, and personalities. Team members were not only capable of performing their role responsibilities effectively, but they also cooperated and got along fairly well together. In this section, we identify the most important characteristics to consider in team composition, and we describe how these elements combine to influence team functioning and effectiveness. As shown in Figure 11-4 , five aspects of team composition are crucial: roles, ability, personality, diversity, and team size.
MEMBER ROLES. A role is defined as a pattern of behavior that a person is expected to dis- play in a given context. 42 In a team setting, there are a variety of roles that members can take or develop in the course of interacting with one another, and depending on the specific situation, the presence or absence of members who possess these roles may have a strong impact on team effectiveness. 43 One obvious way that roles can be distinguished is by considering the specific sets of task-focused activities that define what the individual members are expected to do for their team. As our OB on Screen feature illustrates, one of the main considerations when creat- ing a team is to ensure that it has members who are skilled in performing the duties and respon- sibilities involved in their specific roles.
Another way to distinguish roles is to consider what leaders and members do. In leader– staff teams, the leader makes decisions for the team and provides direction and control over members who perform assigned tasks, so this distinction makes sense in that the responsibili- ties of the leader and the rest of the team are distinct. 44 Typically, however, team members have some latitude with respect to the behaviors they exhibit. In these situations, team roles can be described in terms of categories that are more general than the task-focused roles described above. By general we mean that these roles can apply to many different types of teams. As shown in Table 11-3 , these general roles include team task roles, team building roles, and indi- vidualistic roles. 45
Team task roles refer to behaviors that directly facilitate the accomplishment of team tasks. Examples include the orienter who establishes the direction for the team, the devil’s advocate who offers constructive challenges to the team’s status quo, and the energizer who motivates team members to work harder toward team goals. As you may have realized, the importance of specific task-oriented roles depends on the nature of the work in which the team is involved. The orienter role may be particularly important in teams that have autonomy over how to accomplish their work. The devil’s advocate role may be particularly important in team contexts in which decisions are “high stakes” in nature. Finally, the energizer role may be most important in team contexts in which the work is important but not intrinsically motivating.
In contrast to task-oriented roles, team building roles refer to behaviors that influence the quality of the team’s social climate. Examples of team building roles include the harmonizer
Team Composition
Member Roles
Member Personality
Team Diversity
Team Size
Member Ability
FIGURE 11-4 Five Aspects of Team Composition
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360 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
Finally, whereas task roles and team building roles focus on activities that benefit the team, individualistic roles reflect behaviors that benefit the individual at the expense of the team. For example, the aggressor “puts down” or deflates fellow teammates. The recognition seeker takes credit for team successes. The dominator manipulates teammates to acquire control and power. If you’ve ever had an experience in a team in which members took on individualistic roles, you probably realize just how damaging they can be to the team. Individualistic role behaviors foster negative feelings among team members, which serve to hinder a team’s ability to function and perform effectively. 46
MEMBER ABILITY. Team members possess a wide variety of abilities (see Chapter 10 on Abil- ity for more discussion of such issues). Depending on the nature of the tasks involved in the team’s work, some of these may be important to consider in team design. For example, for teams involved in physical work, relevant physical abilities will be important to take into account. Consider the types of abilities that are required of pit crew members in stock car racing, where margins of victory can be one-tenth of a second. When a car pulls into pit row, pit crew members
TABLE 11-3 Team and Individualistic Roles
TEAM TASK ROLES DESCRIPTION
Initiator-contributor Proposes new ideas
Coordinator Tries to coordinate activities among team members
Orienter Determines the direction of the team’s discussion
Devil’s advocate Offers challenges to the team’s status quo
Energizer Motivates the team to strive to do better
Procedural-technician Performs routine tasks needed to keep progress moving
TEAM BUILDING ROLES DESCRIPTION
Encourager Praises the contributions of other team members
Harmonizer Mediates differences between group members
Compromiser Attempts to find the halfway point to end conflict
Gatekeeper/expediter Encourages participation from teammates
Standard setter Expresses goals for the team to achieve
Follower Accepts the ideas of teammates
INDIVIDUALISTIC ROLES DESCRIPTION
Aggressor Deflates teammates, expresses disapproval with hostility
Blocker Acts stubbornly resistant and disagrees beyond reason
Recognition seeker Brags and calls attention to him- or herself
Self-confessor Discloses personal opinions inappropriately
Slacker Acts cynically, nonchalantly, or goofs off
Dominator Manipulates team members for personal control
Source: Adapted from K. Benne and P. Sheats, “Functional Roles of Group Members.” Journal of Social Issues 4 (1948), pp. 41–49.
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365C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
Team Interdependence
Team Types
Team Composition
Member Roles
Member Personality
Team Diversity
Team Size
Member Ability
Task Interdependence
Goal Interdependence
Outcome Interdependence
Team Characteristics
Work teams Management
teams Parallel teams Project teams Action teams
FIGURE 11-5 What Characteristics Can Be Used to Describe Teams?
H O W I M P O RTA N T A R E T E A M C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S ?
In previous chapters, we have described individual characteristics and mechanisms and discussed how these variables affect individual performance and commitment. In this chapter, we’re con- cerned with team characteristics, and so naturally, we’re interested in how they influence team effectiveness. One aspect of team effectiveness is team performance, which may include metrics such as the quantity and quality of goods or services produced, customer satisfaction, the effec- tiveness or accuracy of decisions, victories, completed reports, and successful investigations. Team performance in the context of student project teams most often means the quality with which the team completes assignments and projects, as well as the grades they earn.
A second aspect of team effectiveness is team commitment, which is sometimes called team viability. Team viability refers to the likelihood that the team can work together effectively into
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366 C H A P T E R 1 1 Teams: Characteristics and Diversity
the future. 103 If the team experience is not satisfying, members may become disillusioned and focus their energy on activities away from the team. Although a team with low viability might be able to work together on short-term projects, over the long run, a team such as this is bound to have significant problems. 104 Rather than planning for future tasks and working through issues that might improve the team, members of a team with low viability are more apt to be looking ahead to the team’s ultimate demise.
Of course, it’s difficult to summarize the relationship between team characteristics and team performance and commitment when there are so many characteristics that can be used to describe teams. Here we focus our discussion on the impact of task interdependence. We focus on task interdependence because it’s one of the most important characteristics that distinguishes true teams from mere groups of individuals. As Figure 11-6 shows, it turns out that the relationship between task interdependence and team performance is moderately positive. 105 That is, task per- formance tends to be higher in teams in which members depend on one another and have to coor- dinate their activities rather than when members work more or less independently. It’s important to mention that the relationship between task interdependence and team performance is sig- nificantly stronger in teams that are responsible for completing complex knowledge work rather than simple tasks. When work is more complex, interdependence is necessary because there’s a need for members to interact and share resources and information. When work is simple, sharing information and resources is less necessary because members can do the work by themselves.
In the lower portion of Figure 11-6 , you can see that the relationship between task interdepen- dence and team commitment is weaker. 106 Teams with higher task interdependence have only a slightly higher probability of including members who are committed to their team’s continued existence. As with the relationship with team performance, task interdependence has a stronger effect on viability for teams doing complex knowledge work. Apparently, sharing resources and information in a context in which it’s unnecessary is dissatisfying to members and results in a team with reduced prospects of continued existence.
11.5 How do team charac- teristics influence team effectiveness?
Task interdependence has a moderate positive effect on Team Performance. However, the correlation is higher in teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work.
Task interdependence has a weak relationship with Team Commitment. However, the correlation is stronger for teams involved in more complex knowledge work than in teams involved in less complex work.
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
Team Performance
Team Commitment
Task Interdependence
Task Interdependence
FIGURE 11-6 Effects of Task Interdependence on Performance and Commitment
Sources: M.A. Campion, G.J. Medsker, and A.C. Higgs, “Relations Between Work Group Characteristics and Effective- ness: Implications for Designing Effective Work Groups,” Personnel Psychology 46 (1993), pp. 823–49; M.A. Campion, E.M. Papper, and G.J. Medsker, “Relations Between Work Team Characteristics and Effectiveness: A Replication and Extension,” Personnel Psychology 49 (1996), pp. 429–52; and G.L. Stewart, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Relationships Between Team Design Features and Team Performance,” Journal of Management 32 (2006), pp. 29–54.
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ability
Chapter 10
Welcome to Chapter 10 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
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Class Agenda
- Ability defined
- Cognitive ability
- Emotional intelligence
- Physical abilities
- Best practices
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Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I would note that we’re still in a new phase of the model, focusing on things that indirectly effect Job Performance and Organizational Commitment, by shaping things like Learning and Decision Making, Stress, and so forth.
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How Can We Describe What
Employees Can Do?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
It presents a “question of the day.” The question is usually a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer. Sometimes the question will instead take the form of a “how” or “what” query, however.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
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Ability
- The relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities
- In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable
- As with personality, about half of the variation in ability levels is due to genetics
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Cognitive Ability
- Capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving
- Verbal
- Quantitative
- Reasoning
- Spatial
- Perceptual
I usually ask the students which abilities the SAT and GMAT assesses (verbal and quantitative). If there are any students familiar with the GRE, they’ll know that that exam also assess reasoning ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- One of the most widely used measures of cognitive ability is the Wonderlic Personnel Test
- 50 questions in 12 minutes
- A score of 20 is equivalent to an IQ of 100, which is average
- A score of 10 indicates literacy
Try This! Put sample questions from the Wonderlic (see Figure 10-5) on five different slides. Ask students to raise their hands when they know the answer, then ask them to identify what facet of cognitive ability is being assessed. For example, #9 is verbal, #3 is quantitative, #7 is reasoning, #8 is spatial, and #1 is perceptual (along with a bit of numerical). Also impress upon them the speed requirement of the Wonderlic. It’s just just about getting the questions right, they need to get the questions right very quickly.
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Cognitive Ability
- What’s the right answer?
- Which ability facet is being measured?
This is verbal ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- What’s the right answer?
- Which ability facet is being measured?
This is quantitative ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- What’s the right answer?
- Which ability facet is being measured?
This is reasoning ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- What’s the right answer?
- Which ability facet is being measured?
This is spatial ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- What’s the right answer?
- Which ability facet is being measured?
This is perceptual (and also quantitative) ability.
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Cognitive Ability
- For NFL players taking the Wonderlic, the closer you are to the ball, the higher your score
- Offensive tackles: 26
- Centers: 25
- Quarterbacks: 24
- Guards: 23
- Tight Ends: 22
- Safeties: 19
- Linebackers: 19
- Cornerbacks: 18
- Wide receivers: 17
- Running backs: 16
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Cognitive Ability
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Cognitive Ability
- Think of the people you know who are exceptionally smart. Are all of them successful?
- Those who are not successful—why aren’t they? What holds them back?
A common answer to this question will often be Personality, the subject of Chapter 9 (most specifically, Conscientiousness). But Emotional Intelligence is another valid answer, and more relevant to this chapter.
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Emotional Intelligence
- Capabilities related to the management and use of emotions when interacting with others
- Sometimes labeled EQ or EI
- Especially vital in jobs that require a lot of “emotional labor”
- Comes in four varieties
Try This! Ask students to share stories about coworkers, friends, or family members with exceptionally poor (or good) skills in each of the four areas (without naming names, of course). Do most of the stories cluster in one or two facets, or do students have salient anecdotes across all four areas? Then ask the students what could be done to improve the person’s skills in that particular facet. What kinds of activities or initiatives might be helpful?
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Other
Awareness
Emotion
Regulation
Emotion
Use
Self
Awareness
19
19
19
19
The average scores for the three dimensions in this index are shown in blue on the slide (19, in all four cases). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Emotional Intelligence. This test is a self-report, behavior-based, emotional intelligence test. Use a show of hands to see how many students fell above and below the average level, and see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores. If students also want to take the “SAT-style” emotional intelligence test with right and wrong answers, they can take the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence test by going to www.msceit.com and paying a nominal fee to take the test and get a 12 page report on their level of emotional intelligence. Examples of items in this test are shown in Figure 10-2.
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Emotional Intelligence
- Self awareness
- The ability of an individual to understand the types of emotions he/she is experiencing, the willingness to acknowledge them, and the capability to express them accurately
- What’s your score?
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Emotional Intelligence
- Other awareness
- The ability of an individual to recognize and understand the emotions that other individuals are feeling
- What’s your score?
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Emotional Intelligence
- Emotion regulation
- The ability to quickly recover from emotional experiences and control one’s feelings
- What’s your score?
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Emotional Intelligence
- Use of emotions
- The ability of an individual to harness emotions and use them to improve their chances of being successful in a given area
- What’s your score?
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Emotional Intelligence
- Video: Sherlock Holmes
- How would you describe Holmes’s cognitive ability?
- What about his emotional intelligence?
OB on Screen: Sherlock Holmes. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 11:34 mark of the film, continuing until about the 15:43 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it’s Chapter 3 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip illustrates the cognitive and emotional abilities of Detective Sherlock Holmes as he interacts with Dr. Watson and his date for the evening, Mary Morstan. Ms. Morstan asks Holmes, whom she is meeting for the first time, to use his reasoning abilities to tell her something about herself. Holmes starts off well enough, deducing several things about Mary. But he goes too far. He begins to reveal things about Mary of a more personal nature, and despite the discomfort that’s clear in Mary and Watson’s expressions, Holmes continues until Mary tosses a drink in his face and leaves the restaurant. One topic for class discussion is how Holmes stacks-up in terms of his abilities. The students should be able to quickly come to the conclusion that Holmes has strong cognitive ability—in particular, reasoning ability—but is weak in emotional ability—in particular, other awareness. Another topic for class discussion is how amenable these two types of abilities are to improvement as a function of training. Students will likely come to the conclusion that emotional abilities are easier to train. To help students understand why this might be true, ask them to describe training that might be used for both cognitive and emotional ability. After they think about it a bit, they’ll realize that emotional abilities are narrower in scope, and accordingly, it’s easier to develop training that can be transferred more directly to the “real world”. Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
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Physical Ability
- Importance varies according to the nature of the job
- Strength
- Stamina
- Flexibility and coordination
- Psychomotor
- Sensory
Try This! If you have any college athletes in your class (either current or past), ask them to describe the sport they engage in. Then ask the class to describe the specific physical abilities that are demanded in that sport. Do some physical abilities seem to be relevant in virtually every sport? If so, which ones? And which physical abilities seem to be more sport-specific?
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How Can We Describe What
Employees Can Do?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
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How Can We Describe What
Employees Can Do?
Cognitive Ability
Emotional Intelligence
Physical Ability
Cognitive Ability
Emotional Intelligence
Physical Ability
Here is the answer to the “question of the day.” It is often a bit unclear how to summarize what employees can do. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Employees can be classified according to their cognitive ability, their emotional intelligence, or their physical abilities. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in what employees can do. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
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Here is the concluding and integrating figure for the chapter, which complements the prior slide.
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How Important is Ability?
Here is the diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
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Best Practices: Microsoft
Here is the Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from a previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Microsoft.
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Best Practices: Microsoft
Largest software maker, with $50 billion in revenue annually
Stresses puzzles and impossible questions in interviews
Is selective, with 144,000 applications for 4500 jobs
Worries more about “false positives” than “false negatives”
“How would you move Mount Fuji?”
“How do they make M&M’s?”
All of these bullets about Microsoft are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning & Decision Making
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job PerformanceLeadership:
Power & Negotiation
CHARACTERISTICSCHARACTERISTICS
Ability
chapter Ability 10
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FIGURE 10-5 Sample Wonderlic Questions
1. Which of the following is the earliest date?
A) Jan. 16, 1898 B) Feb. 21, 1889 C) Feb. 2, 1898 D) Jan. 7, 1898 E) Jan. 30, 1889
2. LOW is to HIGH as EASY is to ? .
J) SUCCESSFUL K) PURE L) TALL M) INTERESTING N) DIFFICULT
3. A featured product from an Internet retailer generated 27, 99, 80, 115 and 213 orders over a 5-hour period. Which graph below best represents this trend?
A B C D E
4. What is the next number in the series? 29 41 53 65 77 ?
J) 75 K) 88 L) 89 M) 98 N) 99
5. One word below appears in color. What is the OPPOSITE of that word? She gave a complex answer to the question and we all agreed with her.
A) long B) better C) simple D) wrong E) kind
6. Jose’s monthly parking fee for April was $150; for May it was $10 more than April; and for June $40 more than May. His average monthly parking fee was? for these 3 months.
J) $66 K) $160 L) $166 M) $170 N) $200
7. If the first two statements are true, is the final statement true?
Sandra is responsible for ordering all office supplies.
Notebooks are office supplies.
Sandra is responsible for ordering notebooks.
A) yes B) no C) uncertain
8. Which THREE choices are needed to create the figure on the left? Only pieces of the same color may overlap.
J K L M N
9. Which THREE of the following words have similar meanings?
A) observable B) manifest C) hypothetical D) indefinite E) theoretical
10. Last year, 12 out of 600 employees at a service organization were rewarded for their excellence in customer service, which was ? of the employees.
J) 1% K) 2% L) 3% M) 4% N) 6%
Answers:
1. E, 2. N, 3. D, 4. L, 5. C, 6. M, 7. A, 8. KLM, 9. CDE, 10. K
Source: Wonderlic WPT—Sample Questions. Reprinted with permission of Wonderlic, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Wonderlic, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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FIGURE 10-5 Sample Wonderlic Questions
1. Which of the following is the earliest date?
A) Jan. 16, 1898 B) Feb. 21, 1889 C) Feb. 2, 1898 D) Jan. 7, 1898 E) Jan. 30, 1889
2. LOW is to HIGH as EASY is to ? .
J) SUCCESSFUL K) PURE L) TALL M) INTERESTING N) DIFFICULT
3. A featured product from an Internet retailer generated 27, 99, 80, 115 and 213 orders over a 5-hour period. Which graph below best represents this trend?
A B C D E
4. What is the next number in the series? 29 41 53 65 77 ?
J) 75 K) 88 L) 89 M) 98 N) 99
5. One word below appears in color. What is the OPPOSITE of that word? She gave a complex answer to the question and we all agreed with her.
A) long B) better C) simple D) wrong E) kind
6. Jose’s monthly parking fee for April was $150; for May it was $10 more than April; and for June $40 more than May. His average monthly parking fee was? for these 3 months.
J) $66 K) $160 L) $166 M) $170 N) $200
7. If the first two statements are true, is the final statement true?
Sandra is responsible for ordering all office supplies.
Notebooks are office supplies.
Sandra is responsible for ordering notebooks.
A) yes B) no C) uncertain
8. Which THREE choices are needed to create the figure on the left? Only pieces of the same color may overlap.
J K L M N
9. Which THREE of the following words have similar meanings?
A) observable B) manifest C) hypothetical D) indefinite E) theoretical
10. Last year, 12 out of 600 employees at a service organization were rewarded for their excellence in customer service, which was ? of the employees.
J) 1% K) 2% L) 3% M) 4% N) 6%
Answers:
1. E, 2. N, 3. D, 4. L, 5. C, 6. M, 7. A, 8. KLM, 9. CDE, 10. K
Source: Wonderlic WPT—Sample Questions. Reprinted with permission of Wonderlic, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Wonderlic, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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FIGURE 10-5 Sample Wonderlic Questions
1. Which of the following is the earliest date?
A) Jan. 16, 1898 B) Feb. 21, 1889 C) Feb. 2, 1898 D) Jan. 7, 1898 E) Jan. 30, 1889
2. LOW is to HIGH as EASY is to ? .
J) SUCCESSFUL K) PURE L) TALL M) INTERESTING N) DIFFICULT
3. A featured product from an Internet retailer generated 27, 99, 80, 115 and 213 orders over a 5-hour period. Which graph below best represents this trend?
A B C D E
4. What is the next number in the series? 29 41 53 65 77 ?
J) 75 K) 88 L) 89 M) 98 N) 99
5. One word below appears in color. What is the OPPOSITE of that word? She gave a complex answer to the question and we all agreed with her.
A) long B) better C) simple D) wrong E) kind
6. Jose’s monthly parking fee for April was $150; for May it was $10 more than April; and for June $40 more than May. His average monthly parking fee was? for these 3 months.
J) $66 K) $160 L) $166 M) $170 N) $200
7. If the first two statements are true, is the final statement true?
Sandra is responsible for ordering all office supplies.
Notebooks are office supplies.
Sandra is responsible for ordering notebooks.
A) yes B) no C) uncertain
8. Which THREE choices are needed to create the figure on the left? Only pieces of the same color may overlap.
J K L M N
9. Which THREE of the following words have similar meanings?
A) observable B) manifest C) hypothetical D) indefinite E) theoretical
10. Last year, 12 out of 600 employees at a service organization were rewarded for their excellence in customer service, which was ? of the employees.
J) 1% K) 2% L) 3% M) 4% N) 6%
Answers:
1. E, 2. N, 3. D, 4. L, 5. C, 6. M, 7. A, 8. KLM, 9. CDE, 10. K
Source: Wonderlic WPT—Sample Questions. Reprinted with permission of Wonderlic, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Wonderlic, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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FIGURE 10-5 Sample Wonderlic Questions
1. Which of the following is the earliest date?
A) Jan. 16, 1898 B) Feb. 21, 1889 C) Feb. 2, 1898 D) Jan. 7, 1898 E) Jan. 30, 1889
2. LOW is to HIGH as EASY is to ? .
J) SUCCESSFUL K) PURE L) TALL M) INTERESTING N) DIFFICULT
3. A featured product from an Internet retailer generated 27, 99, 80, 115 and 213 orders over a 5-hour period. Which graph below best represents this trend?
A B C D E
4. What is the next number in the series? 29 41 53 65 77 ?
J) 75 K) 88 L) 89 M) 98 N) 99
5. One word below appears in color. What is the OPPOSITE of that word? She gave a complex answer to the question and we all agreed with her.
A) long B) better C) simple D) wrong E) kind
6. Jose’s monthly parking fee for April was $150; for May it was $10 more than April; and for June $40 more than May. His average monthly parking fee was? for these 3 months.
J) $66 K) $160 L) $166 M) $170 N) $200
7. If the first two statements are true, is the final statement true?
Sandra is responsible for ordering all office supplies.
Notebooks are office supplies.
Sandra is responsible for ordering notebooks.
A) yes B) no C) uncertain
8. Which THREE choices are needed to create the figure on the left? Only pieces of the same color may overlap.
J K L M N
9. Which THREE of the following words have similar meanings?
A) observable B) manifest C) hypothetical D) indefinite E) theoretical
10. Last year, 12 out of 600 employees at a service organization were rewarded for their excellence in customer service, which was ? of the employees.
J) 1% K) 2% L) 3% M) 4% N) 6%
Answers:
1. E, 2. N, 3. D, 4. L, 5. C, 6. M, 7. A, 8. KLM, 9. CDE, 10. K
Source: Wonderlic WPT—Sample Questions. Reprinted with permission of Wonderlic, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Wonderlic, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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FIGURE 10-5 Sample Wonderlic Questions
1. Which of the following is the earliest date?
A) Jan. 16, 1898 B) Feb. 21, 1889 C) Feb. 2, 1898 D) Jan. 7, 1898 E) Jan. 30, 1889
2. LOW is to HIGH as EASY is to ? .
J) SUCCESSFUL K) PURE L) TALL M) INTERESTING N) DIFFICULT
3. A featured product from an Internet retailer generated 27, 99, 80, 115 and 213 orders over a 5-hour period. Which graph below best represents this trend?
A B C D E
4. What is the next number in the series? 29 41 53 65 77 ?
J) 75 K) 88 L) 89 M) 98 N) 99
5. One word below appears in color. What is the OPPOSITE of that word? She gave a complex answer to the question and we all agreed with her.
A) long B) better C) simple D) wrong E) kind
6. Jose’s monthly parking fee for April was $150; for May it was $10 more than April; and for June $40 more than May. His average monthly parking fee was? for these 3 months.
J) $66 K) $160 L) $166 M) $170 N) $200
7. If the first two statements are true, is the final statement true?
Sandra is responsible for ordering all office supplies.
Notebooks are office supplies.
Sandra is responsible for ordering notebooks.
A) yes B) no C) uncertain
8. Which THREE choices are needed to create the figure on the left? Only pieces of the same color may overlap.
J K L M N
9. Which THREE of the following words have similar meanings?
A) observable B) manifest C) hypothetical D) indefinite E) theoretical
10. Last year, 12 out of 600 employees at a service organization were rewarded for their excellence in customer service, which was ? of the employees.
J) 1% K) 2% L) 3% M) 4% N) 6%
Answers:
1. E, 2. N, 3. D, 4. L, 5. C, 6. M, 7. A, 8. KLM, 9. CDE, 10. K
Source: Wonderlic WPT—Sample Questions. Reprinted with permission of Wonderlic, Inc. Copyright © 2007 Wonderlic, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
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Source: Wonderlic Personnel Test and Scholastic Level Exam: User’s Manual (Vernon Hills, IL: Wonderlic Personnel Test, Inc., 1992), pp. 28–29. Reprinted with permission.
TABLE 10-3 Suggested Minimum Wonderlic Scores for Various Jobs
JOB MINIMUM SCORES
Mechanical Engineer 30
Attorney 29
Executive 28
Teacher 27
Nurse 26
Office Manager 25
Advertising Sales 24
Manager/Supervisor 23
Police Officer 22
Firefighter 21
Cashier 20
Hospital Orderly 19
Machine Operator 18
Unskilled Laborer 17
Maid-Matron 16
should be able to see how the items correspond with many of the cognitive abilities that we’ve described previously.
People who take the test receive one point for each correct response, and those points are summed to give a total score that can be used as a basis for selecting people for different jobs. The Wonderlic User’s Manual offers recommendations for minimum passing scores for differ- ent job families, some of which are included in Table 10-3 . For example, a score of 17 is the minimum suggested score for an unskilled laborer, a score of 21—which is the average for high school graduates and corresponds to an IQ of approximately 100—is the minimum suggested score for a firefighter. A score of 28 is the minimum suggested score for upper-level managerial and executive work and around the average for all college graduates.
Chances are you’ll hear about the Wonderlic Personnel Test every March and April. This is because the National Football League (NFL) administers the test to players who enter the draft, and teams consider the scores when selecting players. One question that people always debate during this time is whether scores on a test of cognitive ability are relevant to a football player’s performance on the field. Although supporters of the Wonderlic’s use in the NFL argue that cognitive ability is necessary to remember plays and learn complex offensive and defensive sys- tems, many people wonder how the ability to answer questions like those listed in Figure 10-5 relates to a player’s ability to complete a pass, run for a touchdown, tackle an opponent, or kick a field goal. Moreover, detractors of the Wonderlic wonder why a poor score should overshadow a record of superior accomplishments on the playing field. So who’s right? Well, the results of at least one study indicate that a player’s Wonderlic score does not predict subsequent perfor- mance in the NFL, and that this effect is not influenced much by the position of the player being considered. 69
10.6 What steps can organiza- tions take to hire people with high levels of cogni- tive ability?
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1 TOTALLY
DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 SOMEWHAT DISAGREE
4 NEUTRAL
5 SOMEWHAT
AGREE
6 AGREE
7 TOTALLY AGREE
1. I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time.
2. I have a good understanding of my own emotions.
3. I really understand what I feel.
4. I always know whether or not I am happy.
5. I am a good observer of others’ emotions.
6. I always know my friends’ emotions from their behavior.
7. I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others.
8. I have a good understanding of the emotions of people around me.
9. I always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them.
10. I always tell myself I am a competent person.
11. I am a self-motivating person.
12. I would always encourage myself to try my best.
13. I am able to control my temper so that I can handle difficulties rationally.
14. I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions.
15. I can always calm down quickly when I am very angry.
16. I have good control over my own emotions.
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE How high is your emotional intelligence? This assessment will tell you where you stand on the four facets of emotional intelligence discussed in this chapter—self-awareness, other awareness, emotion regulation, and emotion use. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then follow the instructions below to score yourself. (For more assessments relevant to this chap- ter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com.)
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION:
Self-Awareness: Sum up items 1–4. _____ Other Awareness: Sum up items 5–8. _____ Emotion Use: Sum up items 9–12. _____ Emotion Regulation: Sum up items 13–16. _____
If you scored 19 or above, then you are above average on a particular dimension. If you scored 18 or below, then you are below average on a particular dimension.
Sources: K.S. Law, C.S. Wong, and L.J. Song, “The Construct and Criterion Validity of Emotional Intelligence and its Potential Utility for Management Studies,” Journal of Applied Psychology 89 (2004), pp. 483–96; and C.S. Wong and K.S. Law, “The Effects of Leader and Follower Emotional Intelligence on Performance and Attitude,” The Leadership Quarterly 13 (2002), pp. 243–74.
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using different types of speaker wire. 51 He listened to the music over and over again and carefully considered the dynamics, loudness, bass response, and high frequencies of the music to deter- mine which combination of wire thickness, composition, and braiding pattern sounded best.
S U M M A RY: W H AT D O E S I T M E A N F O R A N E M P L O Y E E T O B E “ A B L E ” ? Thus far in the chapter, we’ve presented you with a fairly detailed description of the domain of human abilities, which are summarized in Figure 10-3 . Although the list of abilities included in the figure may seem somewhat daunting, we hope that you can appreciate that this set of abilities describes each and every one of us. Moreover, as we have alluded to throughout the chapter, these abilities play an important role in determining how effective we can be at different tasks and jobs.
H O W I M P O RTA N T I S A B I L I T Y ?
So, now that you know what ability is and where it comes from, let’s turn to the next important question: Does ability really matter? That is, does ability have a significant impact on job perfor- mance and organizational commitment—the two primary outcomes in our integrative model of OB? The answer to this question depends on what type of ability you are referring to—cognitive, emotional, or physical. We focus our discussion on general cognitive ability because it’s the most relevant form of ability across all jobs and is likely to be important in the kinds of positions that students in an OB course will be pursuing. As it turns out, there’s a huge body of research linking general cognitive ability to job performance, as summarized in Figure 10-4 . 52
The figure reveals that general cognitive ability is a strong predictor of job performance—in particular, the task performance aspect. Across all jobs, smarter employees fulfill the requirements
Cognitive Ability
Emotional Ability
Physical Ability
Verbal
Quantitative
Reasoning
Spatial
Perceptual
Self-Awareness
Other Awareness
Emotion Regulation
Use of Emotions
Strength
Stamina
Flexibility &
Coordination
Psychomotor
Sensory
OVERALL ABILITY
FIGURE 10-3 What Does It Mean for an Employee to Be “Able”?
Source: Adapted from J.J. Johnson and J.B. Cullen, “Trust in Cross-Cultural Relationships,” in Blackwell Handbook of Cross-Cultural Management, eds. M.J. Gannon and K.L. Newman (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), pp. 335–60.
10.5 How does cognitive ability affect job perfor- mance and organizational commitment?
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329C H A P T E R 1 0 Ability
Job Performance
Cognitive Ability
Organizational Commitment
Cognitive Ability
General cognitive ability has a strong positive effect on Task Performance. However, the correlation is higher for jobs that are more complex than average and lower for jobs that are less complex than average. The effects of general cognitive ability are near zero for Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.
General cognitive ability has no effect on Affective Commitment, Continuance Commitment, or Normative Commitment. Smarter employees are no more, or no less, likely to want to remain members of the organization.
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
FIGURE 10-4 Effects of General Cognitive Ability on Performance and Commitment
Sources: J.W. Boudreau, W.R. Boswell, T.A. Judge, and R.D Bretz, “Personality and Cognitive Ability as Predictors of Job Search Among Employed Managers,” Personnel Psychology 54 (2001), pp. 25–50; S.M. Colarelli, R.A. Dean, and C. Konstans, “Comparative Effects of Personal and Situational Influences on Job Outcomes of New Professionals,” Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1987), pp. 558–66; D.N. Dickter, M. Roznowski, and D.A. Harrison, “Temporal Tempering: An Event History Analysis of the Process of Voluntary Turnover,” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996), pp. 705–16; and F.L. Schmidt and J. Hunter, “General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004), pp. 162–73.
of their job descriptions more effectively than do less smart employees. 53 In fact, of all the vari- ables discussed in this book, none has a stronger correlation with task performance than general cognitive ability. Thousands of organizations, many of which are quite well-known, assess cogni- tive ability in efforts to select the best candidates available for specific jobs. 54 The use of cognitive ability tests for this purpose appears to be quite reasonable, given that scores on such tests have a strong positive correlation with measures of performance across different types of jobs. 55
In fact, this relationship holds even for performance in academic contexts. We mentioned the Scholastic Assessment Test, or the SAT, several times in this chapter because it’s likely to be quite familiar to you and because it largely reflects general cognitive ability. 56 Most colleges and univer- sities in the United States take these scores into account when deciding which students to admit because they believe that higher scores increase the chances that students will be successful in col- lege. But does the SAT really relate to how well someone does in college? Many of you are likely to be skeptical because you probably know someone who did extremely well on the SAT but per- formed poorly as a college student. Similarly, you probably know someone who didn’t do that well on the SAT but who performed well as a college student. As it turns out, the SAT is actually good at predicting college performance. Students with higher SAT scores tend to perform much better in their first year of college, end up with a higher cumulative grade point average, and have a higher likelihood of graduating. 57 The same finding applies to predicting success in graduate-level school as well. The Graduate Management Admission Test, or GMAT, is similar to the SAT in structure and content, and students who score higher on this test prior to admission to graduate school tend to achieve better grade point averages over the course of their graduate program. 58
So what explains why general cognitive ability relates to task performance? People who have higher general cognitive ability tend to be better at learning and decision making, (which we covered in detail in Chapter 8). They’re able to gain more knowledge from their experiences at a
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality and
Cultural Values
Chapter 9
Welcome to Chapter 9 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
9-*
Class Agenda
- Personality defined
- The dimensions of personality
- Personality effects
- Integrity tests
- Cultural values
- Best practices
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Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I would note that we’re entering a new phase of the model. Beginning with this chapter, we’re focusing on things that indirectly effect Job Performance and Organizational Commitment, by shaping things like Job Satisfaction, Stress, Motivation, and so forth.
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How Can We Describe What
Employees are Like?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
It presents a “question of the day.” The question is usually a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer. Sometimes the question will instead take the form of a “how” or “what” query, however.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
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Personality
- The structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior
- Where does your personality come from?
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Personality
- Nature vs. Nurture
- Are you extraverted or introverted? How does that compare to your parents?
- Do such similarities represent nature or nurture?
Have students raise their hands if they self-identify as extraverts, and to keep their hands up if one or both of their parents are extraverted. Then ask if those similarities represent nature or nurture. At first, many students will assume nature, but other students will soon point out that nurture is an explanation as well (whether because of modeling, or because children acting like parents often gets rewarded by praise).
This debate illustrates how nature and nurture are intertwined in almost all situations. The exception, of course, is identical twins reared apart.
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Personality
- Nature vs. Nurture
- Twin Studies
- Scientists study identical twins reared apart in order to separate nature and nurture effects
- This research suggests that between 35% and 49% of the variation in personality is due to genetics
9-*
Personality
- While we could come up with thousands of adjectives, most of them would cluster around five general dimensions
- We call these dimensions the “Big Five”
- How do you score on them?
9-*
For all the OB Assessments, instruct students to “reverse” the bolded items (items 1 and 4 in this case). 1 becomes 5, 2 becomes 4, 4 becomes 2, and 5 becomes 1. After doing that reversing, they should do the summing on the following slide. The average scores for the dimensions is shown in the chart. Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Big Five. This brief survey provides students with an idea of where they stand on each of the “Big Five” measures of personality. As you get to each of the Big Five during lecture, use a show of hands to see how many students fell above or below the average level (note, you may want to skip this step for neuroticism). You will typically find that most students are high on conscientiousness. This makes sense given that the students (a) made it into their current program of study, (b) successfully passed multiple semesters in their program of study, and (c) showed up for class on this particular day. Students may find it interesting to compare their results on this test with their results on the complete version of the same test (300 item), which can be accessed without charge at http://www.personal.psu.edu/j5j/IPIP/ipipneo300.htm. The longer version gives students feedback on specific facets of each of the Big Five, facets that are not discussed within the chapter. For example, the longer version gives students feedback on six facets of Extraversion: friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, excitement seeking, cheerfulness.
9-*
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Conscientiousness
- Relevant adjectives:
- Dependable, organized, reliable, ambitious, hardworking, persevering
- What’s your score?
9-*
Agreeableness
- Relevant adjectives:
- Kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, courteous, warm
- What’s your score?
9-*
Neuroticism
- Relevant adjectives:
- Nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, jealous, unstable
- What’s your score?
9-*
Neuroticism
9-*
Extraversion
- Relevant adjectives:
- Talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive, bold, dominant
- What’s your score?
9-*
Openness to Experience
- Relevant adjectives:
- Curious, imaginative, creative, complex, refined, sophisticated
- What’s your score?
9-*
Other Personality Variables
- Locus of control
- Strongly correlated with neuroticism
- Reflects the distinction between believing that events are driven by luck, chance, or fate, versus people’s own behaviors
9-*
Other Personality Variables
- OB on Screen: The Adjustment Bureau
- What kind of locus of control does the Bureau symbolize?
- How would you describe David Norris’s personality?
OB on Screen: The Adjustment Bureau. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 14:17 mark of the film, continuing until about the 28:34 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapters 3-4 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts David Norris as he accidentally encounters the agents of the Adjustment Bureau, who are attempting to adjust his path through life (by making him late to his office as they alter a key investment decision by his boss). Focus discussion on what the students would do if they found themselves in David’s place. Would they go along with the agent’s orders, or would they take their lives into their own hands? Do students really feel that there is some sense of “fate” that influences what happens in their lives? How many of the students agree with the external option in the top row of Table 9-2, and how many agree with the internal option? What are the benefits associated with an external locus of control, and what are the benefits associated with an internal one? Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
9-*
Other Personality Variables
- Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
- Extraversion vs. Introversion
- Sensing vs. Intuition
- Thinking vs. Feeling
- Judging vs. Perceiving
Many students will be more familiar with the MBTI than with the Big Five. The point to make here is that the MBTI categories are less predictive of most of the concepts in our integrative model, relative to some of the Big Five dimensions.
9-*
Other Personality Variables
The RIASEC Model
If students have taken any vocational interests inventories, those would have performed classifications along the lines of the RIASEC model.
9-*
Other Personality Variables
- An increasing number of organizations are attempting to measure “honesty” or “integrity” for use in hiring. Why?
- Such measures tap three of the Big Five:
- High conscientiousness
- Low neuroticism
- High agreeableness
9-*
Integrity Tests
9-*
Integrity Tests
- The fact that integrity tests work may be surprising, because we would expect that people would lie about (or at least exaggerate) their integrity
- Such concerns over “faking” also apply to measures of the Big Five
Try This! Ask students if any of them had filled out a personality test to apply for a job. Then ask them to recount how they approached the test. Did they understand on some level what the “right” answers were? If so, did they give the exact best “right answer” on each and every question? For example, if a 5 was always the best answer, did they give nothing but 5’s on the test? Chances are students will report that they worried about answering the best way every time, so their answers wound up having a grain of truth, even if the exaggerated them in a socially desirable fashion.
9-*
These next three slides reproduce Figure 9-9. The point is to illustrate that--yes--people do exaggerate themselves in a socially desirable fashion when filling out personality inventories (just as people manage impressions proactively in an interview). But because everyone does it to a somewhat similar degree, the correlation between a personality variable and a criterion winds up being mostly unchanged.
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9-*
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Cultural Values
- Shared beliefs about desirable end states or modes of conduct in a given culture
- Cultural values provide societies with their own distinctive personalities
9-*
One approach to use when discussing Hofstede’s dimensions is to ask students who were raised in one of the countries mentioned, or who have spent a great deal of time in them, to reflect on the differences depicted in the side. Do they agree with the way that culture is classified? If that classification differs from the US’s, do they agree that those differences seem salient?
9-*
Cultural Values
- Project GLOBE
- Power distance
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Institutional collectivism
- Ingroup collectivism
- Gender egalitarianism
- Assertiveness
- Future orientation
- Performance orientation
- Humane orientation
9-*
How Can We Describe What
Employees are Like?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
9-*
How Can We Describe What
Employees are Like?
Big Five
Project GLOBE Dimensions
Myers-Briggs
Hofstede Dimensions
RIASEC Model
Big Five
RIASEC Model
Myers-Briggs
Hofstede Dimensions
Project GLOBE Dimensions
Here is the answer to the “question of the day.” It is often a bit unclear how to summarize what employees are like. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Employees can be classified according to their personality and interests, with respect to the Big Five, Myers-Briggs, or RIASEC model. They can also be classified according to their cultural values, in terms of either the Hofstede or Project GLOBE dimensions. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in personality and cultural values. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
9-*
Here is the concluding and integrating figure for the chapter, which complements the prior slide.
9-*
How Important is Personality?
Here is the diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
9-*
Best Practices: Kronos
Here is the Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from a previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Kronos.
9-*
Best Practices: Kronos
One of the market leaders in the personality testing industry
Tests include 50-item measure of the Big Five, filled out at kiosk
Tests used by Best Buy, Target, Toys “R” Us, CVS, and Universal Studios
Encourages clients to save personality data for their own validation studies
Test identifies applicant as “green light”, “yellow light”, or “red light”
Test provides recommended interview questions for follow-up
All of these bullets about Kronos are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
Confirming Pages
INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
MECHANISMS
OUTCOMES
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning &
Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job PerformanceLeadership:
Power & Negotiation
chapter
Personality and Cultural Values
9
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274 C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
Would you like to see what your Big Five profile looks like? Our OB Assessments feature will show you where you stand on each of the five dimensions. After you’ve gotten a feel for your personality profile, you might be wondering about some of the following questions: How does personality develop? Why do people have the traits that they possess? Will those traits change
THE BIG FIVE What does your personality profile look like? This assessment is designed to measure the five major dimensions of personality: conscientiousness (C), agreeableness (A), neuroticism (N), openness to experience (O), and extraversion (E). Listed below are phrases describing people’s behaviors. Please write a number next to each statement that indicates the extent to which it accu- rately describes you. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then subtract your answers to the boldfaced questions from 6, with the difference being your new answer for those questions. For example, if your original answer for question 6 was “2,” your new answer is “4” (6 !2). (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com.)
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
1 VERY
INACCURATE
2 MODERATELY INACCURATE
3 NEITHER INACCURATE
NOR ACCURATE
4 MODERATELY
ACCURATE
5 VERY
ACCURATE
1. I am the life of the party.
2. I sympathize with others’ feelings.
3. I get chores done right away.
4. I have frequent mood swings.
5. I have a vivid imagination.
6. I don’t talk a lot.
7. I am not interested in other people’s problems.
8. I often forget to put things back in their proper place.
9. I am relaxed most of the time.
10. I am not interested in abstract ideas.
11. I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
12. I feel others’ emotions.
13. I like order.
14. I get upset easily.
15. I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.
16. I keep in the background.
17. I am not really interested in others.
18. I make a mess of things.
19. I seldom feel blue.
20. I do not have a good imagination.
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4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20
C A N O E
Norms
275
9.3 Is personality driven by nature or by nurture? I
over time? All of these questions are variations on the “nature vs. nurture” debate: Is personality a function of our genes, or is it something that we develop as a function of our experiences and environment? As you might guess, it’s sometimes difficult to tease apart the impact of nature and nurture on personality. Let’s assume for a moment that you’re especially extraverted and so are your parents. Does this mean you’ve inherited their “extraversion gene”? Or does it mean that you observed and copied their extraverted behavior during your childhood (and were rewarded with praise for doing so)? It’s impossible to know, because the effects of nature and nurture are acting in combination in this example.
One method of separating nature and nurture effects is to study identical twins who’ve been adopted by different sets of parents at birth. For example, the University of Minnesota has been conducting studies of pairs of identical twins reared apart for several decades. 13 Such studies find, for example, that extraversion scores tend to be significantly correlated across pairs of iden- tical twins. 14 Such findings can clearly be attributed to “nature,” because identical twins share 100 percent of their genetic material, but cannot be explained by “nurture,” because the twins were raised in different environments. A review of several different twin studies concludes that genes have a significant impact on people’s Big Five profile. More specifically, 49 percent of the variation in extraversion is accounted for by genetic differences. 15 The genetic impact is some- what smaller for the rest of the Big Five: 45 percent for openness, 41 percent for neuroticism, 38 percent for conscientiousness, and 35 percent for agreeableness.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION
Conscientiousness: Sum up items 3, 8, 13, and 18. ______________ Agreeableness: Sum up items 2, 7, 12, and 17. _________________ Neuroticism: Sum up items 4, 9, 14, and 19. ___________________ Openness to Experience: Sum up items 5, 10, 15, and 20. _________ Extraversion: Sum up items 1, 6, 11, and 16. ____________________
Now chart your scores in the figure below to see whether you are above or below the norm for each dimension.
Source: Copyright © 2006 by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission from M.B. Donnellan, F.L. Oswald, B.M. Baird, and R.E. Lucas, “The Mini-IPIP Scales: Tiny-Yet-Effective Measures of the Big Five Factors of Personality,” Psychological Assessment 18 (2006), pp. 192–203. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted with- out written permission from the American Psychological Association.
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4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20
C A N O E
Norms
275
9.3 Is personality driven by nature or by nurture? I
over time? All of these questions are variations on the “nature vs. nurture” debate: Is personality a function of our genes, or is it something that we develop as a function of our experiences and environment? As you might guess, it’s sometimes difficult to tease apart the impact of nature and nurture on personality. Let’s assume for a moment that you’re especially extraverted and so are your parents. Does this mean you’ve inherited their “extraversion gene”? Or does it mean that you observed and copied their extraverted behavior during your childhood (and were rewarded with praise for doing so)? It’s impossible to know, because the effects of nature and nurture are acting in combination in this example.
One method of separating nature and nurture effects is to study identical twins who’ve been adopted by different sets of parents at birth. For example, the University of Minnesota has been conducting studies of pairs of identical twins reared apart for several decades. 13 Such studies find, for example, that extraversion scores tend to be significantly correlated across pairs of iden- tical twins. 14 Such findings can clearly be attributed to “nature,” because identical twins share 100 percent of their genetic material, but cannot be explained by “nurture,” because the twins were raised in different environments. A review of several different twin studies concludes that genes have a significant impact on people’s Big Five profile. More specifically, 49 percent of the variation in extraversion is accounted for by genetic differences. 15 The genetic impact is some- what smaller for the rest of the Big Five: 45 percent for openness, 41 percent for neuroticism, 38 percent for conscientiousness, and 35 percent for agreeableness.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION
Conscientiousness: Sum up items 3, 8, 13, and 18. ______________ Agreeableness: Sum up items 2, 7, 12, and 17. _________________ Neuroticism: Sum up items 4, 9, 14, and 19. ___________________ Openness to Experience: Sum up items 5, 10, 15, and 20. _________ Extraversion: Sum up items 1, 6, 11, and 16. ____________________
Now chart your scores in the figure below to see whether you are above or below the norm for each dimension.
Source: Copyright © 2006 by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission from M.B. Donnellan, F.L. Oswald, B.M. Baird, and R.E. Lucas, “The Mini-IPIP Scales: Tiny-Yet-Effective Measures of the Big Five Factors of Personality,” Psychological Assessment 18 (2006), pp. 192–203. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted with- out written permission from the American Psychological Association.
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279C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
Activated
Deactivated
PleasantUnpleasant
Surprised Astonished
Aroused
Quiet Still
Inactive
Happy Cheerful Pleased
Grouchy Sad Blue
Hostile Nervous Annoyed
Enthusiastic Excited Elated
Bored Sluggish Drowsy
Serene Calm
Content
Extraversion as "Positive
Affectivity"
Neuroticism as "Negative Affectivity"
Neuroticism as "Negative Affectivity"
FIGURE 9-3 Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Typical Moods
they wind up having less frequent interactions with their family. 43 Even parents of extraverts enjoy a phone call home now and again!
NEUROTICISM. Neurotic people are nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, and jealous. Occa- sionally you may see this Big Five dimension called by its flip side: “Emotional Stability” or “Emotional Adjustment.” If conscientiousness is the most important of the Big Five from the perspective of job performance, neuroticism is the second most important. 44 There are few jobs for which the traits associated with neuroticism are beneficial to on-the-job behaviors. Instead, most jobs benefit from employees who are calm, steady, and secure.
Whereas extraversion is synonymous with positive affectivity, neuroticism is synonymous with negative affectivity —a dispositional tendency to experience unpleasant moods such as hostility, nervousness, and annoyance (see Figure 9-3 ). 45 That tendency to experience nega- tive moods explains why neurotic employees often experience lower levels of job satisfaction than their less neurotic counterparts. 46 Along with extraversion, neuroticism explains much of the impact of genetic factors on job satisfaction. Research suggests that the negative affectivity associated with neuroticism also influences life satisfaction, with neurotic people tending to be less happy with their lives in general. 47 In fact, one method of assessing neuroticism (or nega- tive affectivity) is to determine how unhappy people are with everyday objects and things. This “gripe index” is shown in Table 9-1 . If you find yourself dissatisfied with several of the objects in that table, then you probably experience negative moods quite frequently.
Neuroticism also influences the way that people deal with stressful situations. Specifically, neu- roticism is associated with a differential exposure to stressors, meaning that neurotic people are more likely to appraise day-to-day situations as stressful (and therefore feel like they are exposed
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286 C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
WORKING WITH THINGS
WORKING WITH PEOPLE
WORKING WITH DATA
WORKING WITH IDEAS
Social
EnterprisingRealistic
Investigative
Artistic
Conventional
FIGURE 9-6 Holland’s RIASEC Model
Source: Adapted from J.L. Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973).
Culture is defined as the shared values, beliefs, motives, identities, and interpretations that result from common experiences of members of a society and are transmitted across generations. 73
Culture has been described as patterns resulting from societal traditions and as the collective programming of the mind that separates one society from another. 74 The shared values, societal traditions, and collective programming that underlies culture influences the development of our personalities while also shaping the way our traits are expressed. 75 In this way, explaining “what we’re like” requires an awareness of “where we’re from.”
To some extent, cultures provide societies with their own distinct personalities. 76 One study on the Big Five profiles of 51 different cultures showed that some societies tend to value cer- tain personality traits more than other societies. 77 For example, people from India tend to be more conscientious than people from Belgium. People from the Czech Republic tend to be more agreeable than people from Hong Kong. People from Brazil tend to be more neurotic than people from China. People from Australia tend to be more extraverted than people from Russia. People from Denmark tend to be more open than people from Argentina. For their part, people in the United States trend toward the high end of the 51-culture sample on extraversion and openness, staying near the middle for the other Big Five dimensions. Of course, that doesn’t mean that all of the members of these societies have exactly the same personality. Instead, those results merely convey that certain cultures tend to place a higher value on certain traits.
Although it’s possible to contrast nations using the Big Five, as we just did, cross-cultural research focuses more attention on the shared values aspect of culture. The values that are salient in a given culture influence how people select and justify courses of action and how they evalu- ate themselves and other people. 78 To some extent, cultural values come to reflect the way things should be done in a given society. 79 Acting in a manner that’s consistent with those values helps people to fit in, and going against those values causes people to stand out. Just as there are a number of traits that can be used to describe personality, there are a number of values that can be used to describe cultures. Given the sheer complexity of culture, it’s not surprising that different studies have arrived at different taxonomies that can be used to summarize cultural values.
9.5 What taxonomies can be used to describe cultural values?
Wh t
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295C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
TABLE 9-5 Sample Integrity Test Items
Source: From J.E. Wanek, P.R. Sackett, and D.S. Ones, “Towards an Understanding of Integrity Test Similarities and Differences: An Item-Level Analysis of Seven Tests,” Personnel Psychology 56 (2003), pp. 873–94. Reprinted with per- mission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TYPE OF TEST SAMPLE ITEMS
Clear Purpose • Did you ever think about taking money from where you worked, but didn’t go through with it?
• Have you ever borrowed something from work without telling anyone?
• Is it OK to get around the law if you don’t break it? • If you were sent an extra item with an order, would you send it back? • Do most employees take small items from work? • What dollar value would a worker have to steal before you would fire
them?
Veiled Purpose • I like to plan things carefully ahead of time. • I often act quickly without stopping to think things through. • I’ve never hurt anyone’s feelings. • I have a feeling someone is out to get me. • I don’t feel I’ve had control over my life.
You might find it surprising that integrity tests (or personality tests in general) can be effec- tive. After all, don’t applicants just lie on the test? Before we answer that question, consider what you would do if you applied for a job and had to answer a set of questions on a 1 (“Strongly Dis- agree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”) scale that were obviously measuring integrity. If a response of 5 indicated high integrity, how would you answer? You probably wouldn’t answer all 5s because it would be clear that you were faking —exaggerating your responses to a personality test in a socially desirable fashion. You might worry that the computers that score the test have some abil- ity to “flag” faked responses (indeed, the scoring procedures for many personality tests do flag applicants with an unusual pattern of responses). 127
So how would you answer? Chances are, you’d allow your answers to have “a grain of truth”—you’d just exaggerate that true response a bit to make yourself look better. Figure 9-9 summarizes what this sort of faking might look like, with red circles representing below- average scores on an integrity test and green circles representing above-average scores. Research on personality testing suggests that virtually everyone fakes their responses to some degree, as evidenced in the difference between the faded circles (which represent the “true” responses) and the unfaded circles (which represent the exaggerated responses). 128 Do dis- honest people fake more? To some degree. Figure 9-9 reveals that applicants who scored below average on the test faked a bit more than applicants who scored above average on the test. But the disparity in the amount of faking is not large, likely because dishonest people tend to view their behavior as perfectly normal—they believe everyone feels and acts just like they do.
The figure reveals that it could be dangerous to set some artificial cutoff score for making hiring decisions, because it’s possible for someone to “fake their way” across that cutoff (note that two of the individuals in the figure went from a below-average score to an above-average score by faking). With that caution in mind, here’s the critical point illustrated by Figure 9-9 : Because everyone fakes to some degree, correlations with outcomes like theft or other coun- terproductive behaviors are relatively unaffected. 129 Picture the scatterplot in the figure with just the faded circles—what does the correlation between integrity test scores and supervi- sor ratings of counterproductive behavior look like? Now picture the scatterplot with just the
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287C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
The most well-known taxonomy of cultural values was derived from a landmark study in the late 1960s and early 1970s by Geert Hofstede, who analyzed data from 88,000 IBM employees from 72 countries in 20 languages. 80 His research showed that employees working in different countries tended to prioritize different values, and those values clustered into several distinct dimen- sions. Those dimensions are summarized in Table 9-3 and include individualism–collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity–femininity. A subsequent study added a fifth dimension to the taxonomy: short-term vs. long-term orientation. 81 Hofstede’s research introduced scores on each of the dimensions for various cultures, providing researchers with a quan- titative tool to summarize and compare and contrast the cultures of different societies. Table 9-3 includes some of the countries that have high or low scores on Hofstede’s dimensions.
Sources: G. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001); G. Hofstede, “Cultural Constraints in Management Theories,” Academy of Management Executive 7 (1993), pp. 81–94; and G. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, “The Confucius Connection: From Cul- tural Roots to Economic Growth,” Organizational Dynamics 16 (1988), pp. 5–21.
TABLE 9-3 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Values
Individualism-Collectivism
INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLECTIVISTIC
The culture is a loosely knit social framework in which people take care of themselves and their immediate family.
The culture is a tight social framework in which people take care of the members of a broader ingroup and act loyal to it.
United States, the Netherlands, France Indonesia, China, West Africa
Power Distance
LOW HIGH
The culture prefers that power be distrib- uted uniformly where possible, in a more egalitarian fashion.
The culture accepts the fact that power is usually distributed unequally within organizations.
United States, Germany, the Netherlands Russia, China, Indonesia
Uncertainty Avoidance
LOW HIGH
The culture tolerates uncertain and ambigu- ous situations and values unusual ideas and behaviors.
The culture feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and relies on formal rules to create stability.
United States, Indonesia, the Netherlands Japan, Russia, France
Masculinity–Femininity
MASCULINE FEMININE
The culture values stereotypically male traits such as assertiveness and the acquisition of money and things.
The culture values stereotypically female traits such as caring for others and caring about quality of life.
United States, Japan, Germany The Netherlands, Russia, France
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
SHORT-TERM ORIENTED LONG-TERM ORIENTED
The culture stresses values that are more past- and present-oriented, such as respect for tradition and fulfilling obligations.
The culture stresses values that are more future-oriented, such as persistence, pru- dence, and thrift.
United States, Russia, West Africa China, Japan, the Netherlands
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290 C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
S U M M A RY: H O W C A N W E D E S C R I B E W H AT E M P L O Y E E S A R E L I K E ? So how can we explain what employees are like? As shown in Figure 9-7 , many of the thousands of adjectives we use to describe people can be boiled down into the Big Five dimensions of personality. Conscientiousness reflects the reliability, perseverance, and ambition of employees. Agreeableness captures their tendency to cooperate with others in a warm and sympathetic fash- ion. Neuroticism reflects the tendency to experience negative moods and emotions frequently on a day-to-day basis. Individuals who are high on openness to experience are creative, imagina- tive, and curious. Finally, extraverts are talkative, sociable, and assertive and typically experi- ence positive moods and emotions. Other personality taxonomies, like the MBTI or the RIASEC model, can also capture many employee traits. Beyond personality, however, what employees are like also depends on the culture in which they were raised. Cultural values like individualism– collectivism, power distance, and so forth also influence employees’ thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
H O W I M P O RTA N T A R E P E R S O N A L I T Y A N D C U LT U R A L VA L U E S ?
We’ve already described a number of reasons why the Big Five should be important consider- ations, particularly in the case of conscientiousness. What if we focus specifically on the two outcomes in our integrative model of OB, performance and commitment? Figure 9-8 summarizes the research evidence linking conscientiousness to those two outcomes. The figure reveals that
The Big Five • Conscientiousness • Agreeableness • Neuroticism • Openness to Experience • Extraversion
Other Taxonomies • Myers-Briggs • RIASEC Model
Culture Taxonomies • Hofstede Dimensions • Project GLOBE Dimensions
What employees
are like
Personality
Cultural Values
FIGURE 9-7 How Can We Describe What Employees Are Like?
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291C H A P T E R 9 Personality and Cultural Values
conscientiousness affects job performance. Of the Big Five, conscientiousness has the strongest effect on task performance, 92 partly because conscientious employees have higher levels of moti- vation than other employees. 93 They are more self-confident, perceive a clearer linkage between their effort and their performance, and are more likely to set goals and commit to them. For these reasons, conscientiousness is a key driver of what’s referred to as typical performance, which reflects performance in the routine conditions that surround daily job tasks. 94 An employee’s ability, in contrast, is a key driver of maximum performance, which reflects performance in brief, special circumstances that demand a person’s best effort.
Conscientious employees are also more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors. 95 Why? One reason is that conscientious employees are so punctual and have such good work attendance that they are simply more available to offer “extra mile” sorts of contributions. Another reason is that they engage in so much more work-related effort that they have more energy to devote to citizenship behaviors. 96 A third reason is that they tend to have higher levels of job satisfac- tion, 97 and positive feelings tend to foster spontaneous instances of citizenship. Finally, con- scientious employees are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors, 98 for two major reasons. First, their higher job satisfaction levels make it less likely that they’ll feel a need to retaliate against their organization. Second, even if they do perceive some slight or injustice, their dependable and reliable nature should prevent them from violating organizational norms by engaging in negative actions. 99
Figure 9-8 also reveals that conscientious employees tend to be more committed to their organization. 100 They’re less likely to engage in day-to-day psychological and physical
Conscientiousness has a moderate positive effect on Performance. Conscientious employees have higher levels of Task Performance. They are also more likely to engage in Citizenship Behavior and less likely to engage in Counterproductive Behavior.
Conscientiousness has a moderate positive effect on Commitment. Conscientious employees have higher levels of Affective Commitment and higher levels of Normative Commitment. Conscientiousness has no effect on Continuance Commitment.
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
RR
RR
R
RR
RRRR
Job Performance
Conscient- iousness
Organizational Commitment
Conscient- iousness
FIGURE 9-8 Effects of Personality on Performance and Commitment
Sources: M.R. Barrick, M.K. Mount, and T.A. Judge, “Personality and Performance at the Beginning of the New Mil- lennium: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go Next?” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 9 (2001), pp. 9–30; C.M. Berry, D.S. Ones, and P.R. Sackett, “Interpersonal Deviance, Organizational Deviance, and Their Com- mon Correlates: A Review and Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 410–24; A. Cooper-Hakim and C. Viswesvaran, “The Construct of Work Commitment: Testing an Integrative Framework,” Psychological Bulletin 131 (2005), pp. 241–59; L.M. Hough and A. Furnham, “Use of Personality Variables in Work Settings,” in Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 12, eds. W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, and R.J. Klimoski (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003), pp. 131–69; J.E. Mathieu and D.M. Zajac, “A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organizational Commitment,” Psychological Bulletin 108 (1990), pp. 171–94; and J.F. Salgado, “The Big Five Per- sonality Dimensions and Counterproductive Behaviors,” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 10 (2002), pp. 117–25.
9.6 How does personality affect job performance and organizational commitment?
H d
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning and
Decision Making
Chapter 8
Welcome to Chapter 8 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
8-*
Class Agenda
- Learning defined
- Methods of learning
- Decision making defined
- Decision-making problems
- How important is learning?
- Best practices
8-*
Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going.
8-*
Why Do Some Employees Learn to Make Decisions Better than Others?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides presents a “question of the day.” The question is a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
8-*
Learning Defined
- Permanent changes in an employee’s knowledge or skill that result from experience
- Employees learn two types of knowledge:
- Explicit - easy to communicate and teach
- Tacit - more difficult to communicate; gained with experience
Try This! Ask students to raise their hand if they consider themselves to be experts at something. Maybe you have expert musicians or athletes in the class, or maybe students are experts at certain hobby or task-related activities. Then ask some of the experts to explain how to do their skill to students who are novices at that activity. Are they able to articulate the tacit knowledge that they may have taken for granted?
8-*
Methods of Learning
- How do employees learn?
- Reinforcement
8-*
Methods of Learning
A good point of discussion here is pets. Which students have pets, and which forms of reinforcement have they used to train those pets?
8-*
Methods of Learning
8-*
Methods of Learning
- How do employees learn?
- Reinforcement
- Observation
8-*
Methods of Learning
8-*
Methods of Learning
- OB on Screen: The Karate Kid
- What kind of learning methods are being used?
- What kind of knowledge is Dre gaining?
OB on Screen: The Karate Kid. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 1:09:43 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:14:25 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it starts with Chapter 15 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Dre Parker (The Karate Kid) putting on and taking off the jacket, getting frustrated with the seemingly pointless process, and then Mr. Han (Jackie Chan) bringing through the lessons. The scene provides a chance to watch learning in action, including the passing on of somewhat tacit knowledge from a mentor to an apprentice. An interesting discussion in class could revolve around asking students to talk about times they did things for a job that were assigned to them by a mentor, thinking they were extremely boring at the time – even being angry about having to do them, but then coming to realize how valuable having done those tasks were later on when the job became more complicated or they were forced to make their own decisions. Students generally can come up with multiple examples which leads to a fruitful discussion of the passing along of tacit knowledge. It is also worth pointing out that sometimes we are learning even when we don’t realize it. Doing the same things over and over again helps us later on to process decisions more quickly. Ask the students for examples of these types of tasks that they learned to do quickly simply through repetition. Another topic for class discussion is where in a business environment can they watch an expert in order to learn from them. You can point out that every time they watch an executive make a speech or a manager deal with employees, they can take mental notes of what seems to work well and what doesn’t. They can also note how outstanding performers at work differentiate themselves from average or poor workers – what habits do they have, what do they do on a daily basis that sets them apart? This type of behavioral observation is extremely important to learning in a company as we aren’t always in a position to actually do the things we will have to perform at some point in the future. Please email Jason Colquitt ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
8-*
Methods of Learning
- Some people learn differently, as a function of the goals and activities that they prioritize
- Goal orientation
- Learning
- Performance-prove
- Performance-avoid
8-*
Learning
Performance
Prove
Performance
Avoid
20
15
15
The average scores for the three dimensions in this index are shown in blue on the slide (13, 15, and 20, in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Goal Orientation. This brief assessment will allow your students to determine their own goal orientation. Use a show of hands to see how many students fell above and below the average level, and see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores. Ask students how especially high and low levels of learning orientation impact the kinds of classes students sign up for, and the way they approach those classes. Then ask the same kinds of questions about performance-prove and performance-avoid orientations.
8-*
Decision Making
- The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.
- Learning has a significant impact on decision making
8-*
Decision Making
Identify the problem
Is the problem recognized? Has it been dealt with before?
Programmed Decisions
Nonprogrammed Decisions
(Intuition, “Gut feeling”)
(Rational decision
making model)
Yes
No
8-*
Decision Making
- Nonprogrammed decisions
- Rational decision-making model
Here you might ask the students what the last truly critical decision they made was. Maybe it was a large purchase, maybe it was the decision about where to live, or where to go to school. Did they do it in a programmed way or a nonprogrammed way? If the latter, did they follow the steps of the rational decision-making model?
8-*
Decision Making Problems
- Common reasons for making bad decisions
- Limited information
- Faulty perceptions
- Faulty attributions
- Escalation of commitment
8-*
Limited Information
8-*
Faulty Perceptions
- Heuristics and decision-making biases
- Availability
- Anchoring
- Framing
- Representativeness
- Contract
- Recency
- Ratio Bias
8-*
Faulty Attributions
8-*
Escalation of Commitment
- The decision to continue to follow a failing course of action
- Throwing good money after bad
8-*
Why Do Some Employees Learn to Make Decisions Better than Others?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
8-*
Why Do Some Employees Learn to Make Decisions Better than Others?
Reinforcement
Goal Orientation
Observation
Faulty Attributions
Escalation of Commitment
Faulty Perceptions
Limited Information
Reinforcement
Goal Orientation
Observation
Limited Information
Faulty Perceptions
Faulty Attributions
Escalation of Commitment
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will answer the “question of the day” in this fashion. It is often a bit unclear why some employees learn to make decisions better than others. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Some employees learn to make better decisions because of reinforcement or observation, or because of their goal orientation. On the flip side, some employees struggle to make good decisions because of limited information, faulty perceptions, faulty attributions, and escalation of commitment. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in learning and decision making. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
8-*
Beginning with Chapter 4, the previous slide will always be followed up with the concluding and integrating figure of the chapter. It essentially provides an answer to the very same question.
8-*
How Important is Learning?
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will also include this diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
8-*
Application
- Training
- Behavior modeling
- Communities of practice
- Transfer of training
- Climate for transfer
Try This! Ask students to share training experiences they’ve had in jobs that they’ve held. What method of instruction was used to impart explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge? What did the organizations do that was effective and what did they do that was ineffective?
8-*
Best Practices: Tennessee Valley
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will end with a Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from a previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Tennessee Valley Authority.
8-*
Best Practices: Tennessee Valley
Largest public power company in the US
Working to retain the knowledge of retirees (average at is 48 years old)
Each employee gives nonbinding planned retirement age
Shadowing and apprenticeship programs used to transfer knowledge
Managers assign a “critical knowledge score” for each employee
All of these bullets about Tennessee Valley Authority are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
Job Satisfaction
Learning & Decision Making
chapter
Learning and Decision Making
8
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241C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
primarily the consequences of actions that drive behavior. This entire process of reinforcement is a continuous cycle, and the repetition of behaviors is strengthened to the degree that reinforce- ment continues to occur. There are four specific consequences typically used by organizations to modify employee behavior, known as the contingencies of reinforcement . 23 Figure 8-2 sum- marizes these contingencies. It’s important to separate them according to what they’re designed to do, namely, increase desired behaviors or decrease unwanted behaviors.
Two contingencies of reinforcement are used to increase desired behaviors. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behavior. It’s perhaps the most common type of reinforcement and the type we think of when an employee receives some type of “reward.” Increased pay, promotions, praise from a manager or coworkers, and public recogni- tion would all be considered positive reinforcement when given as a result of an employee exhib- iting desired behaviors. For positive reinforcement to be successful, employees need to see a direct link between their behaviors and desired outcomes (see Chapter 6 on Motivation for more discussion of such issues). If the consequences aren’t realized until long after the specific behav- iors, then the odds that employees will link the two are minimized. Negative reinforcement occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior. Have you ever performed a task for the specific reason of not getting yelled at? If so, you learned to perform certain behaviors through the use of negative reinforcement. Perhaps there are some tasks your job requires that you don’t enjoy. If your manager removes these responsibilities specifically because you perform well at another aspect of your job, then this could also be seen as negative reinforcement. It’s important to remember that even though the word “negative” has a sour con- notation to it, it’s designed to increase desired behaviors.
The next two contingencies of reinforcement are designed to decrease undesired behaviors. Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior. Punishment is exactly what it sounds like. In other words, employees are given something they don’t like as a result of performing behaviors that the organization doesn’t like. Sus- pending an employee for showing up to work late, assigning job tasks generally seen as demeaning for not following safety procedures, or even firing an employee for gross mis- conduct are all examples of punish- ment. Extinction occurs when there is the removal of a consequence fol- lowing an unwanted behavior. The use of extinction to reinforce behav- ior can be purposeful or accidental. Perhaps employees receive attention
Wanted outcome
Consequence is added
Consequence is removed
Unwanted outcome
Increases desired behaviors
Decreases unwanted behaviors
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment
FIGURE 8-2 Contingencies of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement, like public recognition, both encourages employees and helps ensure that desirable behaviors will be imitated and repeated.
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242 C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
from coworkers when they act in ways that are somewhat childish at work. Finding a way to remove the attention would be a purposeful act of extinction. Similarly though, perhaps employ- ees work late every now and then to finish up job tasks when work gets busy, but their manager stops acknowledging that hard work. Desired behavior that’s not reinforced will diminish over time. In this way, a manager who does nothing to reinforce good behavior is actually decreasing the odds that it will be repeated!
In general, positive reinforcement and extinction should be the most common forms of rein- forcement used by managers to create learning among their employees. Positive reinforcement doesn’t have to be in the form of material rewards to be effective. There are many ways for man- agers to encourage wanted behaviors. Offering praise, providing feedback, public recognition, and small celebrations are all ways to encourage employees and increase the chances they will continue to exhibit desired behaviors. At the same time, extinction is an effective way to stop unwanted behaviors. Both of these contingencies deliver their intended results, but perhaps more importantly, they do so without creating feelings of animosity and conflict. Although punishment and negative reinforcement will work, they tend to bring other, detrimental consequences along with them.
Whereas the type of reinforcement used to modify behavior is important, research also shows that the timing of reinforcement is equally important. 24 Therefore, it’s important to examine the timing of when the contingencies are applied, referred to as schedules of reinforcement . Table 8-2 provides a summary of the five schedules of reinforcement. Continuous reinforce- ment is the simplest schedule and happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a desired behavior. New learning is acquired most rapidly under a continuous schedule. 25 For most jobs, continuous reinforcement is impractical. As a manager, can you imag- ine providing positive reinforcement every time someone exhibits a desired behavior? It’s a good thing that research also shows that under many circumstances, continuous reinforcement might be considered the least long lasting, because as soon as the consequence stops, the desired behav- ior stops along with it. 26 Once a behavior has been acquired, some form of intermittent schedul- ing is more effective. 27
The other four schedules differ in terms of their variability and the basis of the consequences. Two schedules are interval based; that is, they distribute reinforcement based on the amount of time that passes. A fixed interval schedule is probably the single most common form of rein- forcement schedule. With this schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods stays the same. Every time employees get a paycheck after a predetermined period of time, they’re being reinforced on a fixed inter- val schedule. Variable interval schedules are designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in time. A supervisor walking around at different points of time every day is a good example of a variable interval schedule. If that supervisor walked around at the same exact
TABLE 8-2 Schedules of Reinforcement
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
REWARD GIVEN FOLLOWING
POTENTIAL LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE
EXAMPLE
Continuous Every desired behavior High, but difficult to maintain Praise
Fixed Interval Fixed time periods Average Paycheck
Variable Interval Variable time periods Moderately high Supervisor walk-by
Fixed Ratio Fixed number of desired behaviors
High Piece-rate pay
Variable Ratio Variable number of desired behaviors
Very high Commission pay
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245C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
For behavioral modeling to occur successfully, a number of processes have to take place. These steps are shown in Figure 8-3 . First, the learner must focus attention on an appropriate model and accurately perceive the critical behavior the model exhibits. That model might be a supervisor, a coworker, or even a subordinate. Some organizations go out of their way to sup- ply role models for newcomers or inexperienced workers to watch and learn from. For instance, BASF, the German chemical giant, rewards and encourages older workers to model behavior and share their knowledge. In this way, not only does explicit knowledge get passed on but also tacit knowledge. BASF CFO Kurt Bock says, “For the engineers, transferring knowledge to their successors is easier said than done.” 32 In fact, because tacit knowledge is so difficult to communicate, modeling might be the single best way to acquire it. For that reason, modeling is a continual process that is used at all levels of many organizations. Ursula Burns’s ascent to CEO of Xerox was carefully controlled as she was allowed to closely observe and model former CEO Anne Mulcahy for a number of years before taking control. 33 Needless to say, choosing a good model is important, and not all models are good ones. There is a great deal of evidence that supports the notion that employees will learn to behave unethically when in the presence of oth- ers who model that same behavior. 34 Salomon Brothers, the New York–based investment bank, learned this lesson the hard way when employees began to model the unethical behaviors of their managers and leaders. 35
Second, the learner needs to remember exactly what the model’s behavior was and how they did it. This step is very difficult when watching experts perform their job, because so much of what they do remains unspoken and can occur at a rapid pace. Third, the learner must undertake production processes, or actually be able to reproduce what the model did. Not only must the learner have the requisite knowledge and physical skills to be able to perform the task; now he or she must translate what’s been observed into action. Do you remember the first time
FIGURE 8-3 The Modeling Process
Learner focuses
attention on the critical behaviors
exhibited by the model
Attentional Processes
Learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the
model is no longer present
Retention Processes
Learner must have the
appropriate skill set and be
able to reproduce the
behavior
Production Processes
Learner must view the model
receiving reinforcement for the behavior and
then receive it themselves
Reinforcement
Source: Adapted from H.M. Weiss, “Learning Theory and Industrial and Organizational Psychology,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, eds. M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough. (Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA, 1990), pp. 75–169.
Ursula Burns was provided an unusual opportunity to learn by observation and behavioral modeling before becoming CEO of Xerox. She essentially co-led with her predeces- sor for two years to gain insider experience before taking the helm.
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247C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
GOAL ORIENTATION What does your goal orientation look like? This assessment is designed to measure all three dimensions of goal orientation. Please write a number next to each statement that indicates the extent to which it accurately describes your attitude toward work while you are on the job. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then sum up your answers for each of the three dimensions. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect. mcgraw-hill.com.)
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION Learning Orientation: Sum up items 1–5. _____ Performance-Prove Orientation: Sum up items 6–9. _____ Performance-Avoid Orientation: Sum up items 10–13. _____
For learning orientation, scores of 20 or more are above average, and scores of 19 or less are below average. For the two performance orientations, scores of 15 or more are above average, and scores of 14 or less are below average.
Source: From J.F. Brett and D. VandeWalle, “Goal Orientation and Goal Content as Predictors of Performance in a Train- ing Program,” Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (1999), pp. 863–73. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Associated. Reprinted with permission. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association.
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 NEUTRAL
4 AGREE
5 STRONGLY AGREE
1. I am willing to select challenging assignments that I can learn a lot from.
2. I often look for opportunities to develop new skills and knowledge.
3. I enjoy challenging and difficult tasks where I’ll learn new skills.
4. For me, development of my ability is important enough to take risks.
5. I prefer to work in situations that require a high level of ability and talent.
6. I like to show that I can perform better than my coworkers.
7. I try to figure out what it takes to prove my ability to others at work.
8. I enjoy it when others at work are aware of how well I am doing.
9. I prefer to work on projects where I can prove my ability to others.
10. I would avoid taking on a new task if there was a chance that I would appear incompetent to others.
11. Avoiding a show of low ability is more important to me than learning a new skill.
12. I’m concerned about taking on a task at work if my performance would reveal that I had low ability.
13. I prefer to avoid situations at work where I might perform poorly.
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248 C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Experts tend to recognize problems more quickly than novices
Programmed Decisions Nonprogrammed Decisions (using rational decision-making model)
Experts have the ability to recognize patterns and situations that novices don't
Identify the problem
Is the problem recognized? Has it been dealt with
before?
Does the solution deliver the expected
outcome?
Implement appropriate solution
Does the solution deliver the expected
outcome?
Determine appropriate criteria
for making a decision
Generate list of available alternatives
Evaluate the alternatives against
criteria
Choose the solution that maximizes value
Implement appropriate solution
FIGURE 8-4 Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions
To experts, programmed decisions sometimes comes across as intuition or a “gut feeling.” Intuition can be described as emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick, non- conscious, and holistic associations. 41 There is almost unanimous consent among researchers that intuition is largely a function of learning—tacit knowledge gained through reinforcement, observation, and experience allow a decision maker to decide more quickly and confidently. 42 Because of their tacit knowledge, experts sometimes cannot put into words why they know that a
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250 C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
assumes that decision makers have perfect information—that they know and are able to identify the available alternatives and the outcomes that would be associated with those alternatives. The model further assumes that time and money are generally not issues when it comes to mak- ing a decision, that decision makers always choose the solution that maximizes value, and that they will act in the best interests of the organization. Given all these assumptions, perhaps we shouldn’t label the model as “rational” after all!
D E C I S I O N - M A K I N G P R O B L E M S Because employees don’t always make rational decisions, it’s easy to second-guess decisions after the fact. Many decisions made inside organizations look good at the time and were made with perfectly good justifications to support them but turn out to have what are perceived as “bad results.” The reality, however, is that it’s a lot easier to question decisions in hindsight. As Warren Buffett, CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, is often quoted as saying, “In the business world, the rear- view mirror is always clearer than the windshield.” 49 Our responsibility here is not to rehash all the poor decisions employees and managers have made (and there are many of them!) but rather to detail some of the most common reasons for bad decision making—in other words, when are people most likely to falter in terms of the rational decision-making model and why?
LIMITED INFORMATION. Although most employees perceive themselves as rational deci- sion makers, the reality is that they are all subject to bounded rationality . Bounded rational- ity is the notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision. 50 A comparison of bounded rationality and rational decision making is presented in Table 8-3 . This limit results in two major problems for making decisions. First, people have to filter and simplify information to make sense of their complex environment and the myriad of potential choices they face. 51 This sim- plification leads them to miss information when perceiving problems, generating and evaluat- ing alternatives, or judging the results. Second, because people cannot possibly consider every single alternative when making a decision, they satisfice. Satisficing results when decision mak- ers select the first acceptable alternative considered. 52 For more discussion of such issues, see our OB at the Bookstore feature.
Sources: Adapted from H.A. Simon, “Rational Decision Making in Organizations,” American Economic Review 69 (1979), pp. 493–513; D. Kahneman, “Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Economics,” The American Economic Review 93 (2003), pp. 1449–75; and S.W. Williams, Making Better Business Decisions (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2002).
TABLE 8-3 Rational Decision Making vs. Bounded Rationality
TO BE RATIONAL DECISION MAKERS, WE SHOULD. . .
BOUNDED RATIONALITY SAYS WE ARE LIKELY TO. . .
Identify the problem by thoroughly examining the situation and considering all interested parties.
Boil the problem down to something that is easily understood.
Develop an exhaustive list of alternatives to consider as solutions.
Come up with a few solutions that tend to be straightforward, familiar, and similar to what is currently being done.
Evaluate all the alternatives simultaneously.
Evaluate each alternative as soon as we think of it.
Use accurate information to evaluate alternatives.
Use distorted and inaccurate information during the evaluation process.
Pick the alternative that maximizes value. Pick the first acceptable alternative (satisfice).
8.5 What decision-making problems can prevent employees from translating their learning into accurate decisions?
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254 C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
FAULTY ATTRIBUTIONS. Another category of decision-making problems centers on how we explain the actions and events that occur around us. Research on attributions suggests that when people witness a behavior or outcome, they make a judgment about whether it was internally or externally caused. For example, when a coworker of yours named Joe shows up late to work and misses an important group presentation, you’ll almost certainly make a judgment about why that happened. You might attribute Joe’s outcome to internal factors—for example, suggesting that he is lazy or has a poor work ethic. Or you might attribute Joe’s outcome to external factors—for example, suggesting that there was unusually bad traffic that day or that other factors prevented him from arriving on time.
The fundamental attribution error argues that people have a tendency to judge others’ behaviors as due to internal factors. 60 This error suggests that you would likely judge Joe as hav- ing low motivation, poor organizational skills, or some other negative internal attribute. What if you yourself had showed up late? It turns out that we’re less harsh when judging ourselves. The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own suc- cesses to internal factors. Interestingly, evidence suggests that attributions across cultures don’t always work the same way; see our OB Internationally feature for more discussion of this issue.
One model of attribution processes suggests that when people have a level of familiarity with the person being judged, they’ll use a more detailed decision framework. This model is illus- trated in Figure 8-5 . 61 To return to our previous example, if we want to explore why Joe arrived late to work, we can ask three kinds of questions:
Consensus: Did others act the same way under similar situations? In other words, did others arrive late on the same day?
Distinctiveness: Does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? In other words, is Joe responsible when it comes to personal appointments, not just work appointments?
Consistency: Does this person always do this when performing this task? In other words, has Joe arrived late for work before?
The way in which these questions are answered will determine if an internal or external attri- bution is made. An internal attribution, such as laziness or low motivation for Joe, will occur if
Behavior is observed
Consensus
Lo w
H ig
h
Distinctiveness
Lo w
H ig
h
Consistency
Lo w
H ig
h
Environmental factors are to
blame
External attributionIndividual factors such as ability, motivation, or
attitudes are to blame
Internal attribution
FIGURE 8-5 Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency
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257C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
8.6 How does learning affect job performance and organi zational commitment?
Decision-Making Problems Limited Information Faulty Perceptions Faulty Attributions Escalation of Commitment
Reinforcement Observation GoalOrientation
Programmed Decision Accuracy
Nonprogrammed Decision Accuracy
Expertise
Explicit Knowledge
Tacit Knowledge
FIGURE 8-6 Why Do Some Employees Learn to Make Decisions Better Than Others?
performance focuses on explicit knowledge, which is more practical to measure. It’s difficult to measure tacit knowledge because of its unspoken nature, but clearly such knowledge is relevant to task performance. Learning seems less relevant to citizenship behavior and counterproduc- tive behavior however, given that those behaviors are often less dependent on knowledge and expertise.
Figure 8-7 also reveals that learning is only weakly related to organizational commitment. 71
In general, having higher levels of job knowledge is associated with slight increases in emotional attachment to the firm. It’s true that companies that have a reputation as organizations that value learning tend to receive higher-quality applicants for jobs. 72 However, there’s an important dis- tinction between organizations that offer learning opportunities and employees who take advan- tage of those opportunities to actually gain knowledge. Moreover, it may be that employees with higher levels of expertise become more highly valued commodities on the job market, thereby reducing their levels of continuance commitment.
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258 C H A P T E R 8 Learning and Decision Making
A P P L I C AT I O N : T R A I N I N G
How can organizations improve learning in an effort to boost employee expertise and, ultimately, improve decision making? One approach is to rely on training , which represents a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior. Orga- nizations spent $125 billion on employee learning and development in 2009, or $1,081 per employee. 73 A full discussion of all the types of training companies offer is beyond the scope of this section, but suffice it to say that companies are using many different methods to help their employees acquire explicit and tacit knowledge. Technological changes are altering the way those methods are delivered, as instructor-led classroom training has declined while online self- study programs and other forms of e-learning have increased to 36.5 percent of learning hours. 74
In addition to traditional training experiences, companies are also heavily focused on knowledge transfer from their older, experienced workers to their younger employees. Some companies are using variations of behavior modeling training to ensure that employees have the ability to observe and learn from those in the company with significant amounts of tacit knowledge. For example, Raytheon, the Waltham, Massachusetts–based defense and aerospace supplier, has created a train- ing program called “Leave-a-Legacy” that pairs employees holding vital knowledge with high- potential subordinates. Raytheon’s program is not one of those “have lunch once a month” mentor programs; it’s a relatively regimented program in which younger workers follow older workers around for extended periods of time, ensuring adequate opportunities for observation. Each pair of employees is also assigned a third-party coach that helps the knowledge transfer take place. 75 Such sharing of information between workers is not always easy, especially in competitive or political
Job Performance Learning
Organizational CommitmentLearning
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
Learning has a moderate positive effect on Performance. Employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have higher levels of Task Performance. Not much is known about the impact of learning on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.
Learning has a weak positive effect on Commitment. Employees who gain more knowledge and skill tend to have slightly higher levels of Affective Commitment. Not much is known about the impact of learning on Continuance Commitment or Normative Commitment.
FIGURE 8-7 Effects of Learning on Performance and Commitment
Sources: G.M. Alliger, S.I. Tannenbaum, W. Bennett Jr., H. Traver, and A. Shotland, “A Meta-Analysis of the Relations among Training Criteria,” Personnel Psychology 50 (1997), pp. 341–58; J.A. Colquitt, J.A. LePine, and R.A. Noe, “Toward an Integrative Theory of Training Motivation: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis of 20 Years of Research,” Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (2000), pp. 678–707; and J.P. Meyer, D.J. Stanley, L. Herscovitch, and L. Topolnytsky, “Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 61 (2002), pp. 20–52.
8.7 What steps can organi- zations take to foster learning?
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trust, Justice,
and Ethics
Chapter 7
Welcome to Chapter 7 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
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Class Agenda
- Trust defined
- Types of trust
- Using justice to gauge trust
- Using ethics to gauge trust
- How important is trust?
- Best practices
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Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going.
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Why are Some Authorities
More Trusted than Others?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides presents a “question of the day.” The question is a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
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Trust Defined
- OB on Screen: Slumdog Millionaire
OB on Screen: Slumdog Millionaire. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 1:27:29 mark of the film, continuing until about the 1:35:16 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapter 23 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Jamal Malik’s dilemma as the host of the game show apparently sneaks him the answer to the next question. The clip provides a dramatic demonstration of the definition as trust, as Jamal must decide whether to accept vulnerability to the host by saying that answer, with a chance at a million dollars on the line. Poll the class to see how many would have gone with the answer that the host provided. Then ask them which trustworthiness dimension would have been most relevant to their trust levels. They will probably draw most on integrity, given that the host himself has broken the rules of the show by sharing an answer. However, they may also realize that the host lacks benevolence, as he doesn’t want Jamal’s fame to surpass his own. Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
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Trust Defined
- The willingness to be vulnerable to an authority based on positive expectations about the authority’s actions and intentions
- Trust = willing to be vulnerable
- Risk = actually becoming vulnerable
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Trust Drivers
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Disposition-Based Trust
- Trust Propensity
- A general expectation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon
- Which is more damaging in organizational life: being too trusting or being too suspicious?
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21
For all the OB Assessments, instruct students to “reverse” the bolded items (items 1 and 4 in this case). 1 becomes 5, 2 becomes 4, 4 becomes 2, and 5 becomes 1. After doing that reversing, they should perform the calculations in the formula. The average score for this index is shown in blue on the slide (21 in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Trust Propensity. This brief assessment helps students to determine their inherent levels of trust. Use a show of hands to see how many students fell above and below the average level, and see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores. When discussing the results of the assessment, ask students to vote on which is more damaging: being too trusting or being too suspicious. Ask students to describe the consequences of being too trusting (most will note that you can be taken advantage of or you could delegate to ineffective people). Also ask students to describe the consequences of being too suspicious (many will note the strain that would be brought on by monitoring, checking up, and not delegating, or the harm to interpersonal relationships when someone fails to trust).
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Cognition-Based Trust
- Trustworthiness
- The characteristics of a trustee that inspire trust
- Ability
- Benevolence
- Integrity
- Which are most important with subordinates? With supervisors?
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Affect-Based Trust
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Justice
- Trustworthiness can sometimes be difficult to judge, especially early in work relationships
- Justice-relevant acts can serve as behavioral evidence of trustworthiness
- Distributive justice
- Procedural justice
- Interpersonal justice
- Informational justice
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Distributive and Procedural Justice
Try This! Take some decision making procedure that a number of students will be familiar with. It could be the procedure used to elect U.S. Presidents, the procedure used to crown a college football champion, the procedure used to decide which students are eligible for tickets to university sporting events--anything with which most students would be familiar. Then ask the students to analyze the fairness of the procedure using the procedural justice rules in Table 7-2. How is the process fair, or how is the process unfair?
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Distributive and Procedural Justice
A good example to use for this slide is grades on an exam. If students feel they got the grade they deserved (the green High Distributive Justice line), then they don’t stop and consider how fair the grading process was. If, however, they don’t feel they got the grade they deserved (the red Low Distributive Justice line), then they carefully attend to how accurate the grading was, how unbiased it was, and whether certain choices can be appealed. In those circumstances, Procedural Justice becomes a strong driver of reaction levels.
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Interpersonal & Informational Justice
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Interpersonal & Informational Justice
A good takeaway from the discussion of this study is that Interpersonal and Informational Justice are essentially free--all they require is time--but they can yield significant economic benefits.
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Ethics
- The degree to which the behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms
- Unethical behavior
- “Merely ethical” behavior
- “Especially ethical” behavior
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Ethics
- Exercise
- Read the scenario on the next four slides
- Come up with three ideas for reducing theft in this grocery store
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7-*
7-*
7-*
The Four Component Model
As you reflect on the ideas that came out of the exercise, how many of those ideas would primarily build Moral Awareness? How many would primarily build Moral Judgment? How many would primarily build Moral Intent?
Try This! Describe a scenario for your students that could be used as an example for the parts of the four-component model. For example: assume a student “heard through the grapevine” that other students had obtained an advanced copy of the final exam in the class. Should the student report this to the professor? Based on Table 7-4, how morally intense is this issue, and why? Based on Table 7-6, which course of action is most morally right, and why?
7-*
Ethics
- Can companies benefit from having better moral awareness and moral judgment, even if their costs rise as a result? How?
7-*
Why are Some Authorities
More Trusted than Others?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
7-*
Why are Some Authorities
More Trusted than Others?
Benevolence
Ability
Integrity
Justice
Trust Propensity
Feelings toward Trustee
Ethics
Ability
Benevolence
Integrity
Justice
Trust Propensity
Ethics
Feelings Toward Trustee
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will answer the “question of the day” in this fashion. It is often a bit unclear why some authorities are more trusted than others. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Some authorities are more trusted than others because they are trustworthy, in terms of ability, benevolence, and ethics, and because they act in a just and ethical way. However, those authorities may also be more trusted because the employee is high in trust propensity, or being the employee has positive feelings about the authority. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in trust. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
7-*
Beginning with Chapter 4, the previous slide will always be followed up with the concluding and integrating figure of the chapter. It essentially provides an answer to the very same question.
7-*
How Important is Trust?
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will also include this diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
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Application
- Corporate Social Responsibility
- Legal component
- Ethical component
- Social component
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Best Practices: Nike
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will end with a Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from the previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Nike.
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Best Practices: Nike
In 1998, brand evoked slave wages, forced overtime, abuse
Now posts names and locations of all 700 factories on the Web
Pays auditors to inspect plants and provide letter grades
Now limiting last-minute design adjustments that strain the system
Helps to convert factories to more modern technologies
Working to make shoes more environmentally sustainable
All of these bullets about Nike are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
7-*
Next Time
- Learning & Decision Making
- Chapter 8
Confirming Pages
INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning & Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Job Performance
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Organizational Commitment
chapter Trust, Justice, and Ethics 7
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202 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
W H Y A R E S O M E A U T H O R I T I E S M O R E T R U S T E D T H A N O T H E R S ?
Think about a particular boss or instructor—someone you’ve spent a significant amount of time around. Do you trust that person? Would you be willing to let that person have significant influ- ence over your professional or educational future? For example, would you be willing to let that person serve as a reference for you or write you a letter of recommendation, even though you’d have no way of monitoring what he or she said about you? When you think about the level of trust you feel for that particular authority, what exactly makes you feel that way? This question speaks to the factors that drive trust—the factors that help inspire a willingness to be vulnerable.
T R U S T As shown in Figure 7-1 , trust is rooted in three different kinds of factors. Sometimes trust is disposition-based, meaning that your personality traits include a general propensity to trust oth- ers. Sometimes trust is cognition-based, meaning that it’s rooted in a rational assessment of the authority’s trustworthiness. 15 Sometimes trust is affect-based, meaning that it depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment. 16 The sections that follow describe each of these trust forms in more detail.
7.2 In what three sources can trust be rooted?
Trust
Ability
Benevolence
Integrity
Trust Propensity
Feelings toward Trustee
Disposition-Based Trust
Cognition-Based Trust
Affect-Based Trust
Trustworthiness
FIGURE 7-1 Factors That Influence Trust Levels
Sources: Adapted from R.C. Mayer, J.H. Davis, and F.D. Schoorman, “An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust,” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995), pp. 709–34; and D.J. McAllister, “Affect- and Cognition-Based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations,” Academy of Management Journal 38 (1995), pp. 24–59.
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O B A S S E S S M E N T S
203C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
DISPOSITION-BASED TRUST. Disposition-based trust has less to do with a particular author- ity and more to do with the trustor. Some trustors are high in trust propensity —a general expec- tation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon. 17 Some have argued that trust propensity represents a sort of “faith in human nature,” in that trust- ing people view others in more favorable terms than do suspicious people. 18 The importance of trust propensity is most obvious in interactions with strangers, in which any acceptance of vul- nerability would amount to “blind trust.” 19 On the one hand, people who are high in trust propen- sity may be fooled into trusting others who are not worthy of it. 20 On the other hand, those who are low in trust propensity may be penalized by not trusting someone who is actually deserving of it. Both situations can be damaging; as one scholar noted, “We are doomed if we trust all and equally doomed if we trust none.” 21 Where do you stack up on trust propensity? See our OB Assessments feature to find out.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION If your scores sum up to 21 or above, you tend to be trusting of other people, which means you’re often willing to accept some vulnerability to others under conditions of risk. If your scores sum up to 20 or below, you tend to be suspicious of other people, which means you’re rarely willing to accept such vulnerability.
Sources: R.C. Mayer and J.H. Davis, “The Effect of the Performance Appraisal System on Trust for Management: A Field Quasi-Experiment,” Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (1999), pp. 123–36. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without writ- ten permission from the American Psychological Association. See also F.D. Schoorman, R.C. Mayer, C. Roger, and J.H. Davis. “Empowerment in Veterinary Clinics: The Role of Trust in Delegation.” Presented in a Symposium on Trust at the 11th Annual Conference, Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), (April 1996), San Diego.
TRUST PROPENSITY Are you a trusting person or a suspicious person by nature? This assessment is designed to mea- sure trust propensity—a dispositional willingness to trust other people. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then subtract your answers to the boldfaced questions from 6, with the difference being your new answers for those questions. For example, if your original answer for question 4 was “4,” your new answer is “2” (6 – 4). Then sum up your answers for the eight questions. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect. mcgraw-hill.com.)
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 NEUTRAL
4 AGREE
5 STRONGLY
AGREE
1. One should be very cautious with strangers.
2. Most experts tell the truth about the limits of their knowledge.
3. Most people can be counted on to do what they say they will do.
4. These days, you must be alert or someone is likely to take advantage of you.
5. Most salespeople are honest in describing their products.
6. Most repair people will not overcharge people who are ignorant of their specialty.
7. Most people answer public opinion polls honestly.
8. Most adults are competent at their jobs.
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206 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
in its sauce, use better cheese, and add a special glaze to its crust. The end result is a better-tasting pizza (in our humble opinion, anyway!), an increase in sales, 37 and the sense that Domino’s man- agement “tells it how it is.”
Questions about integrity extend beyond senior management, however. For example, stud- ies suggest that rank-and-file employees lie more frequently when communicating by e-mail because there are no “shifty eyes” or nervous ticks to give them away. Indeed, one study showed that people were more likely to lie via e-mail than when writing letters using pen and paper. 38
Why would those contexts differ, when neither is face-to-face? It may be that e-mail feels more fleeting than paper, and that the ability to delete what you write—even if you ultimately don’t— makes you choose words more casually. Regardless, the lies can begin even before employees are hired, as one survey of managers by CareerBuilder.com revealed that 49 percent had caught an applicant lying on a résumé. 39 Among the more colorful “exaggerations” were claims of mem- bership in Mensa, listing a degree from a fictitious university, and pretending to be a Kennedy. For more discussion of lying and trustworthiness, see our OB on Screen feature.
AFFECT-BASED TRUST. Although ability, benevolence, and integrity provide three good rea- sons to trust an authority, the third form of trust isn’t actually rooted in reason. Affect-based trust is more emotional than rational. With affect-based trust, we trust because we have feelings for the person in question; we really like them and have a fondness for them. Those feelings are what prompt us to accept vulnerability to another person. Put simply, we trust them because we like them. Some of that trust can even be chemical, as research shows that something as common as a hug can stimulate a hormone called oxytocin—sometimes called the “cuddle chemical”—that causes your brain to be more trusting. 40
Affect-based trust acts as a supplement to the types of trust discussed previously. 41 Figure 7-3 describes how the various forms of trust can build on one another over time. In new relation- ships, trust depends solely on our own trust propensity. In most relationships, that propensity eventually gets supplemented by knowledge about ability, benevolence, or integrity, at which point cognition-based trust develops. In a select few of those relationships, an emotional bond develops, and our feelings for the trustee further increase our willingness to accept vulnerability. These relationships are characterized by a mutual investment of time and energy, a sense of deep attachment, and the realization that both parties would feel a sense of loss if the relationship were dissolved. 42
Time
Disposition- Based Trust
Cognition- Based Trust
Affect- Based Trust
New Relationships
Most Relationships
Few Relationships
FIGURE 7-3 Types of Trust Over Time
Sources: Adapted from R.J. Lewicki and B.B. Bunker, “Developing and Maintaining Trust in Work Relationships,” in Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research, eds. R.M. Kramer and T.R. Tyler (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), pp. 114–39; and R.C. Mayer, J.H. Davis, and F.D. Schoorman, “An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust,” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995), pp. 709–34.
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208 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
of an authority’s decision making along four dimensions: distributive justice, procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and informational justice.
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. Distributive justice reflects the perceived fairness of decision- making outcomes. 44 Employees gauge distributive justice by asking whether decision outcomes, such as pay, rewards, evaluations, promotions, and work assignments, are allocated using proper norms. In most business situations, the proper norm is equity, with more outcomes allocated to those who contribute more inputs (see Chapter 6 on Motivation for more discussion of such issues). The equity norm is typically judged to be the fairest choice in situations in which the goal is to maximize the productivity of individual employees. 45
However, other allocation norms become appropriate in situations in which other goals are critical. In team-based work, building harmony and solidarity in work groups can become just as important as individual productivity. In such cases, an equality norm may be judged fairer, such that all team members receive the same amount of relevant rewards. 46 The equality norm is typi- cally used in student project groups, in which all group members receive exactly the same grade on a project, regardless of their individual productivity levels. In cases in which the welfare of a particular employee is the critical concern, a need norm may be judged fairer. For example, some organizations protect new employees from committee assignments and other extra activities, so that they can get their careers off to a productive start.
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE. In addition to judging the fairness of a decision outcome, employ- ees may consider the process that led to that outcome. Procedural justice reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making processes. 47 Procedural justice is fostered when authorities adhere to
7.4 What dimensions can be used to describe the fairness of an authority’s decision making?
TABLE 7-2 The Four Dimensions of Justice
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE RULES DESCRIPTION
Equity vs. equality vs. need Are rewards allocated according to the proper norm?
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE RULES
Voice Correctability Consistency Bias Suppression Representativeness Accuracy
Do employees get to provide input into procedures? Do procedures build in mechanisms for appeals? Are procedures consistent across people and time? Are procedures neutral and unbiased? Do procedures consider the needs of all groups? Are procedures based on accurate information?
INTERPERSONAL JUSTICE RULES
Respect Propriety
Do authorities treat employees with sincerity? Do authorities refrain from improper remarks?
INFORMATIONAL JUSTICE RULES
Justification Truthfulness
Do authorities explain procedures thoroughly? Are those explanations honest?
Sources: J.S. Adams, “Inequity in Social Exchange,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–99; R.J. Bies and J.F. Moag, “Interactional Justice: Commu- nication Criteria of Fairness,” in Research on Negotiations in Organizations, Vol. 1, eds. R.J. Lewicki, B.H. Sheppard, and M.H. Bazerman (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986), pp. 43–55; G.S. Leventhal, “The Distribution of Rewards and Resources in Groups and Organizations,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 9, eds. L. Berkowitz and W. Walster (New York: Academic Press, 1976), pp. 91–131; G.S. Leventhal, “What Should Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relationships,” in Social Exchange: Advances in Theory and Research, eds. K. Gergen, M. Greenberg, and R. Willis (New York: Plenum Press, 1980), pp. 27–55; and J. Thibaut and L. Walker, Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1975).
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210 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
high. However, when outcomes are bad, procedural justice becomes enormously important, as illustrated by the red line in the figure. Research shows that negative or unexpected events trigger a thorough examination of process issues, making adherence to rules like consistency, bias sup- pression, and accuracy much more vital. 60 It’s a good bet that Apple studied Consumer Reports ’ procedures thoroughly when the company refused to recommend its iPhone, due to concerns about antenna strength. 61
In fact, research shows that procedural justice tends to be a stronger driver of reactions to authorities than distributive justice. For example, a meta-analysis of 183 studies showed that procedural justice was a stronger predictor of satisfaction with supervision, overall job satisfac- tion, and organizational commitment than distributive justice. 62 Why does the decision-making process sometimes matter more than the decision-making outcome? Likely because employees understand that outcomes come and go—some may be in your favor while others may be a bit disappointing. Procedures, however, are longer lasting and stay in place until the organization redesigns them or a new authority arrives to revise them.
INTERPERSONAL JUSTICE. In addition to judging the fairness of decision outcomes and pro- cesses, employees might consider how authorities treat them as the procedures are implemented. Interpersonal justice reflects the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities. 63 Interpersonal justice is fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules. The respect rule pertains to whether authorities treat employees in a dignified and sin- cere manner, and the propriety rule reflects whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks. From this perspective, interpersonal injustice occurs when authorities are rude or disrespectful to employees, or when they refer to them with inappropriate labels. 64
When taken to the extremes, interpersonally unjust actions create abusive supervision, defined as the sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors, excluding physical contact. 65 A national study suggests that approximately 15 percent of employees are victims of abusive behaviors, ranging from angry outbursts to public ridiculing to being used as scapegoats for negative events. 66 Estimates also indicate that such actions cost U.S. businesses around $24 billion annually due to absenteeism, health care costs, and lost productivity. 67 Employees who are abused by their supervisors report more anxiety, burnout, and strain, as well as less satisfac- tion with their lives in general. 68 They are also more likely to strike back at their supervisors with counterproductive behaviors—a response that may even spill over to their coworkers and the larger organization. 69
Low High Procedural Justice
R e ac
ti o
n s
to A
u th
o ri
ty
High Distributive Justice
Low Distributive Justice
FIGURE 7-4 Combined Effects of Distributive and Procedural Justice
Source: Adapted from J. Brockner and B.M. Wiesenfeld, “An Integrative Framework for Explaining Reactions to Decisions: Interactive Effects of Outcomes and Procedures,” Psychological Bulletin 120 (1996), pp. 189–208.
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208 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
of an authority’s decision making along four dimensions: distributive justice, procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and informational justice.
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. Distributive justice reflects the perceived fairness of decision- making outcomes. 44 Employees gauge distributive justice by asking whether decision outcomes, such as pay, rewards, evaluations, promotions, and work assignments, are allocated using proper norms. In most business situations, the proper norm is equity, with more outcomes allocated to those who contribute more inputs (see Chapter 6 on Motivation for more discussion of such issues). The equity norm is typically judged to be the fairest choice in situations in which the goal is to maximize the productivity of individual employees. 45
However, other allocation norms become appropriate in situations in which other goals are critical. In team-based work, building harmony and solidarity in work groups can become just as important as individual productivity. In such cases, an equality norm may be judged fairer, such that all team members receive the same amount of relevant rewards. 46 The equality norm is typi- cally used in student project groups, in which all group members receive exactly the same grade on a project, regardless of their individual productivity levels. In cases in which the welfare of a particular employee is the critical concern, a need norm may be judged fairer. For example, some organizations protect new employees from committee assignments and other extra activities, so that they can get their careers off to a productive start.
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE. In addition to judging the fairness of a decision outcome, employ- ees may consider the process that led to that outcome. Procedural justice reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making processes. 47 Procedural justice is fostered when authorities adhere to
7.4 What dimensions can be used to describe the fairness of an authority’s decision making?
TABLE 7-2 The Four Dimensions of Justice
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE RULES DESCRIPTION
Equity vs. equality vs. need Are rewards allocated according to the proper norm?
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE RULES
Voice Correctability Consistency Bias Suppression Representativeness Accuracy
Do employees get to provide input into procedures? Do procedures build in mechanisms for appeals? Are procedures consistent across people and time? Are procedures neutral and unbiased? Do procedures consider the needs of all groups? Are procedures based on accurate information?
INTERPERSONAL JUSTICE RULES
Respect Propriety
Do authorities treat employees with sincerity? Do authorities refrain from improper remarks?
INFORMATIONAL JUSTICE RULES
Justification Truthfulness
Do authorities explain procedures thoroughly? Are those explanations honest?
Sources: J.S. Adams, “Inequity in Social Exchange,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–99; R.J. Bies and J.F. Moag, “Interactional Justice: Commu- nication Criteria of Fairness,” in Research on Negotiations in Organizations, Vol. 1, eds. R.J. Lewicki, B.H. Sheppard, and M.H. Bazerman (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986), pp. 43–55; G.S. Leventhal, “The Distribution of Rewards and Resources in Groups and Organizations,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 9, eds. L. Berkowitz and W. Walster (New York: Academic Press, 1976), pp. 91–131; G.S. Leventhal, “What Should Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relationships,” in Social Exchange: Advances in Theory and Research, eds. K. Gergen, M. Greenberg, and R. Willis (New York: Plenum Press, 1980), pp. 27–55; and J. Thibaut and L. Walker, Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1975).
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212 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
a poor evaluation, or a missed promotion. Ironically, that defense mechanism is typically coun- terproductive, because research suggests that honest and adequate explanations are actually a powerful strategy for reducing retaliation responses against the organization. 78 In fact, low levels of informational justice can come back to haunt the organization if a wrongful termination claim is actually filed. How? Because the organization typically needs to provide performance evalu- ations for the terminated employee over the past few years, to show that the employee was fired for poor performance. 79 If managers refrained from offering candid and honest explanations on those evaluations, then the organization can’t offer anything to justify the termination.
One study provides a particularly effective demonstration of the power of informational jus- tice (and interpersonal justice). The study occurred in three plants of a Midwestern manufac- turing company that specialized in small mechanical parts for the aerospace and automotive industries. 80 The company had recently lost two of its largest contracts and was forced to cut wages by 15 percent in two of the three plants. The company was planning to offer a short, impersonal explanation for the pay cut to both of the affected plants. However, as part of a research study, the company was convinced to offer a longer, more sincere explanation at one of the plants. Theft levels were then tracked before, during, and after the 10-week pay cut using the company’s standard accounting formulas for inventory “shrinkage.”
The results of the study are shown in Figure 7-5 . In the plant without the pay cut, no change in theft levels occurred over the 10-week period. In the plant with the short, impersonal expla- nation, theft rose dramatically during the pay cut, likely as a means of retaliating for perceived inequity, before falling to previous levels once the cut had passed. Importantly, in the plant with the long, sincere explanation, the rise in theft was much less significant during the pay cut, with theft levels again falling back to normal levels once the cut had ended. Clearly, the higher levels of informational and interpersonal justice were worth it from a cost-savings perspective. The dif- ference in theft across the two plants is remarkable, given that the long, sincere explanation was only a few minutes longer than the short, impersonal explanation. What’s a few extra minutes if it can save a few thousand dollars?
SUMMARY. Taken together, distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice can be used to describe how fairly employees are treated by authorities. When an authority
Before 2.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
AfterDuring
Time Period Relative to Pay Cut
A ve
ra g
e %
R at
e o
f E
m p
lo ye
e T
h e ft
Long, Sincere Explanation for Pay Cut Short, Impersonal Explanation for Pay Cut No Pay Cut
FIGURE 7-5 The Effects of Justice on Theft During a Pay Cut
Source: Adapted from J. Greenberg, “Employee Theft as a Reaction to Underpayment Inequity: The Hidden Cost of Paycuts,” Journal of Applied Psychol- ogy 75 (1990), pp. 561–68.
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227C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
E X E R C I S E : U N E T H I C A L B E H AV I O R
The purpose of this exercise is to explore how authorities can prevent unethical behaviors on the part of their employees. This exercise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps: 7.1 Read the following scenario: Alex Grant recently graduated from college and is excited to be starting his first job as
a store manager for The Grocery Cart, a large supermarket chain. The company has a very good management training program, and it is one of the fastest growing chains in the nation. If Alex does well managing his first store, there are a number of promising advancement opportunities in the company. After completing the store management train- ing program, Alex met with Regina Hill, his area supervisor. She informed Alex that he would be taking charge of a medium-volume store ($250,000 in sales/week) in an upper- class neighborhood. This store had been operating without a store manager for the past six months. The store had also not made a profit in any of the monthly financial reports for the last year.
Hill also shared the following information with Alex: Because the store has been with- out a store manager for the last six months, the assistant manager (Drew Smith) has been in charge. Drew is known for being highly competent and a solid performer. However, there have been complaints that he is frequently rude to employees and insults and ridi- cules them whenever they make mistakes. Turnover among sales clerks and cashiers at this store has been somewhat higher than in other stores in the area. The average pay of clerks and cashiers is $6.44/hour. The last two semiannual inventories at this store showed sig- nificant losses. There has been a large amount of theft from the store stockroom (an area where only employees are allowed). Given that the store has generally done well in sales (compared with others in the area) and that most expenses seem well under control, Hill believes that the profitability problem for this store is primarily due to theft. Therefore, she suggested that Alex’s plans for the store should focus on this priority over any others.
7.2 As a manager, what steps should Alex take to reduce employee theft? Come up with a list of three ideas. Elect a group member to write the group’s three ideas on the board or on a transparency.
7.3 Now read the following scenario: When Alex arrived for his first day of work in his new store, he saw that Drew was in the
process of terminating an employee (Rudy Johnson) who had been caught stealing. Alex immediately went to the break room of the store where the termination interview was being conducted to learn more about the situation. Drew informed Alex that Rudy had been a grocery clerk for the past six weeks and that he had apparently figured out how to tell if the alarms to the stockroom doors were off. Rudy would then open the back stock- room doors and stack cases of beer outside the store to pick up after his shift. After Drew caught Rudy doing this, Drew had a conversation with one of his friends who works as a restaurant manager down the street. Drew’s friend noted that he had hired Rudy a few months ago and that he’d been caught stealing there too.
Turning to Rudy, Drew asked, “So, Rudy, what do you have to say for yourself?” Rudy quickly replied: “Look here, [expletive], you don’t pay me enough to work here and put up with this garbage. In fact, you’re always riding everyone like they’re your personal servant or something. So I was trying to get some beer. I’ve seen you let stockers take home dam- aged merchandise a dozen times. So just because they cut open a box of cookies, which
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E X E R C I S E : U N E T H I C A L B E H AV I O R
The purpose of this exercise is to explore how authorities can prevent unethical behaviors on the part of their employees. This exercise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps: 7.1 Read the following scenario: Alex Grant recently graduated from college and is excited to be starting his first job as
a store manager for The Grocery Cart, a large supermarket chain. The company has a very good management training program, and it is one of the fastest growing chains in the nation. If Alex does well managing his first store, there are a number of promising advancement opportunities in the company. After completing the store management train- ing program, Alex met with Regina Hill, his area supervisor. She informed Alex that he would be taking charge of a medium-volume store ($250,000 in sales/week) in an upper- class neighborhood. This store had been operating without a store manager for the past six months. The store had also not made a profit in any of the monthly financial reports for the last year.
Hill also shared the following information with Alex: Because the store has been with- out a store manager for the last six months, the assistant manager (Drew Smith) has been in charge. Drew is known for being highly competent and a solid performer. However, there have been complaints that he is frequently rude to employees and insults and ridi- cules them whenever they make mistakes. Turnover among sales clerks and cashiers at this store has been somewhat higher than in other stores in the area. The average pay of clerks and cashiers is $6.44/hour. The last two semiannual inventories at this store showed sig- nificant losses. There has been a large amount of theft from the store stockroom (an area where only employees are allowed). Given that the store has generally done well in sales (compared with others in the area) and that most expenses seem well under control, Hill believes that the profitability problem for this store is primarily due to theft. Therefore, she suggested that Alex’s plans for the store should focus on this priority over any others.
7.2 As a manager, what steps should Alex take to reduce employee theft? Come up with a list of three ideas. Elect a group member to write the group’s three ideas on the board or on a transparency.
7.3 Now read the following scenario: When Alex arrived for his first day of work in his new store, he saw that Drew was in the
process of terminating an employee (Rudy Johnson) who had been caught stealing. Alex immediately went to the break room of the store where the termination interview was being conducted to learn more about the situation. Drew informed Alex that Rudy had been a grocery clerk for the past six weeks and that he had apparently figured out how to tell if the alarms to the stockroom doors were off. Rudy would then open the back stock- room doors and stack cases of beer outside the store to pick up after his shift. After Drew caught Rudy doing this, Drew had a conversation with one of his friends who works as a restaurant manager down the street. Drew’s friend noted that he had hired Rudy a few months ago and that he’d been caught stealing there too.
Turning to Rudy, Drew asked, “So, Rudy, what do you have to say for yourself?” Rudy quickly replied: “Look here, [expletive], you don’t pay me enough to work here and put up with this garbage. In fact, you’re always riding everyone like they’re your personal servant or something. So I was trying to get some beer. I’ve seen you let stockers take home dam- aged merchandise a dozen times. So just because they cut open a box of cookies, which
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E X E R C I S E : U N E T H I C A L B E H AV I O R
The purpose of this exercise is to explore how authorities can prevent unethical behaviors on the part of their employees. This exercise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps: 7.1 Read the following scenario: Alex Grant recently graduated from college and is excited to be starting his first job as
a store manager for The Grocery Cart, a large supermarket chain. The company has a very good management training program, and it is one of the fastest growing chains in the nation. If Alex does well managing his first store, there are a number of promising advancement opportunities in the company. After completing the store management train- ing program, Alex met with Regina Hill, his area supervisor. She informed Alex that he would be taking charge of a medium-volume store ($250,000 in sales/week) in an upper- class neighborhood. This store had been operating without a store manager for the past six months. The store had also not made a profit in any of the monthly financial reports for the last year.
Hill also shared the following information with Alex: Because the store has been with- out a store manager for the last six months, the assistant manager (Drew Smith) has been in charge. Drew is known for being highly competent and a solid performer. However, there have been complaints that he is frequently rude to employees and insults and ridi- cules them whenever they make mistakes. Turnover among sales clerks and cashiers at this store has been somewhat higher than in other stores in the area. The average pay of clerks and cashiers is $6.44/hour. The last two semiannual inventories at this store showed sig- nificant losses. There has been a large amount of theft from the store stockroom (an area where only employees are allowed). Given that the store has generally done well in sales (compared with others in the area) and that most expenses seem well under control, Hill believes that the profitability problem for this store is primarily due to theft. Therefore, she suggested that Alex’s plans for the store should focus on this priority over any others.
7.2 As a manager, what steps should Alex take to reduce employee theft? Come up with a list of three ideas. Elect a group member to write the group’s three ideas on the board or on a transparency.
7.3 Now read the following scenario: When Alex arrived for his first day of work in his new store, he saw that Drew was in the
process of terminating an employee (Rudy Johnson) who had been caught stealing. Alex immediately went to the break room of the store where the termination interview was being conducted to learn more about the situation. Drew informed Alex that Rudy had been a grocery clerk for the past six weeks and that he had apparently figured out how to tell if the alarms to the stockroom doors were off. Rudy would then open the back stock- room doors and stack cases of beer outside the store to pick up after his shift. After Drew caught Rudy doing this, Drew had a conversation with one of his friends who works as a restaurant manager down the street. Drew’s friend noted that he had hired Rudy a few months ago and that he’d been caught stealing there too.
Turning to Rudy, Drew asked, “So, Rudy, what do you have to say for yourself?” Rudy quickly replied: “Look here, [expletive], you don’t pay me enough to work here and put up with this garbage. In fact, you’re always riding everyone like they’re your personal servant or something. So I was trying to get some beer. I’ve seen you let stockers take home dam- aged merchandise a dozen times. So just because they cut open a box of cookies, which
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E X E R C I S E : U N E T H I C A L B E H AV I O R
The purpose of this exercise is to explore how authorities can prevent unethical behaviors on the part of their employees. This exercise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps: 7.1 Read the following scenario: Alex Grant recently graduated from college and is excited to be starting his first job as
a store manager for The Grocery Cart, a large supermarket chain. The company has a very good management training program, and it is one of the fastest growing chains in the nation. If Alex does well managing his first store, there are a number of promising advancement opportunities in the company. After completing the store management train- ing program, Alex met with Regina Hill, his area supervisor. She informed Alex that he would be taking charge of a medium-volume store ($250,000 in sales/week) in an upper- class neighborhood. This store had been operating without a store manager for the past six months. The store had also not made a profit in any of the monthly financial reports for the last year.
Hill also shared the following information with Alex: Because the store has been with- out a store manager for the last six months, the assistant manager (Drew Smith) has been in charge. Drew is known for being highly competent and a solid performer. However, there have been complaints that he is frequently rude to employees and insults and ridi- cules them whenever they make mistakes. Turnover among sales clerks and cashiers at this store has been somewhat higher than in other stores in the area. The average pay of clerks and cashiers is $6.44/hour. The last two semiannual inventories at this store showed sig- nificant losses. There has been a large amount of theft from the store stockroom (an area where only employees are allowed). Given that the store has generally done well in sales (compared with others in the area) and that most expenses seem well under control, Hill believes that the profitability problem for this store is primarily due to theft. Therefore, she suggested that Alex’s plans for the store should focus on this priority over any others.
7.2 As a manager, what steps should Alex take to reduce employee theft? Come up with a list of three ideas. Elect a group member to write the group’s three ideas on the board or on a transparency.
7.3 Now read the following scenario: When Alex arrived for his first day of work in his new store, he saw that Drew was in the
process of terminating an employee (Rudy Johnson) who had been caught stealing. Alex immediately went to the break room of the store where the termination interview was being conducted to learn more about the situation. Drew informed Alex that Rudy had been a grocery clerk for the past six weeks and that he had apparently figured out how to tell if the alarms to the stockroom doors were off. Rudy would then open the back stock- room doors and stack cases of beer outside the store to pick up after his shift. After Drew caught Rudy doing this, Drew had a conversation with one of his friends who works as a restaurant manager down the street. Drew’s friend noted that he had hired Rudy a few months ago and that he’d been caught stealing there too.
Turning to Rudy, Drew asked, “So, Rudy, what do you have to say for yourself?” Rudy quickly replied: “Look here, [expletive], you don’t pay me enough to work here and put up with this garbage. In fact, you’re always riding everyone like they’re your personal servant or something. So I was trying to get some beer. I’ve seen you let stockers take home dam- aged merchandise a dozen times. So just because they cut open a box of cookies, which
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we all know they do on purpose, they get to take stuff home for free. For that matter, we’ve all seen you do the same thing! I’ve never seen you make a big deal about this stuff before. Why can’t I get a few cases of beer? What’s the big deal?”
7.4 Do these events give you any additional insights into how to decrease employee theft in this store? If so, elect a group member to write an additional one or two reasons in your spot on the board or on your transparency.
7.5 Class discussion (whether in groups or as a class) should center on whether the theft that’s occurring at The Grocery Cart reveals a problem of moral awareness, moral judgment, or moral intent. In addition, does the theft point to a problem with “bad apples,” a “bad bar- rel,” or both? 143
E N D N O T E S
7.1 Whole Foods Market. “About Whole Foods,” (n.d.), http://www. wholefoodsmarket. com/company/ .
7.2 Tkaczyk, C. “Whole Foods Market.” For- tune, May 23, 2011, p. 30.
7.3 Burchell, M., and J. Robin. The Great Workplace. San Fran- cisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011.
7.4 Levering, R., and M. Moskowitz. “The 100 Best Companies to Work For.” Fortune, February 8, 2010, pp. 77–88.
7.5 Burchell and Robin, The Great Workplace.
7.6 M. Moskowitz; R. Levering; and C. Tkac- zyk, “100 Best Com- panies to Work For.” Fortune, February 7, 2011, PP. 91–101.
7.7 Rindova, V.P.; I.O. Wil- liamson; A.P. Petkova; and J.M. Sever. “Being Good or Being Known: An Empirical Exami- nation of the Dimen- sions, Antecedents, and
Consequences of Orga- nizational Reputation.” Academy of Man- agement Journal 48 (2005), pp. 1033–49.
7.8 Frauenheim, E. “Does Reputation Matter?” Workforce Manage- ment, November 20, 2006, pp. 22–26.
7.9 Ibid.
7.10 Mayer, R.C.; J.H. Davis; and F.D. Schoo- rman. “An Integrative Model of Organiza- tional Trust.” Academy of Management Review 20 (1995), pp. 709–34; and Rousseau, D.M.; S.B. Sitkin; R.S. Burt; and C. Camerer. “Not So Different After All: A Cross-Discipline View of Trust.” Acad- emy of Management Review 23 (1998), pp. 393–404.
7.11 Kiley, D., and B. Helm. “The Great Trust Offensive.” Busi- nessWeek, September 29, 2008, pp. 38–41.
7.12 Greenberg, J. “A Taxonomy of Orga- nizational Justice Theories.” Academy of
Management Review 12 (1987), pp. 9–22.
7.13 Lind, E.A. “Fairness Heuristic Theory: Justice Judgments as Pivotal Cognitions in Organizational Rela- tions.” In Advances in Organizational Justice, eds. J. Greenberg and R. Cropanzano. Stan- ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001, pp. 56–88; Van den Bos, K. “Fairness Heu- ristic Theory: Assess- ing the Information to Which People Are Reacting Has a Pivotal Role in Understand- ing Organizational Justice.” In Theoretical and Cultural Perspec- tives on Organizational Justice, eds. S. Gillil- and, D. Steiner, and D. Skarlicki. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, 2001, pp. 63–84; and Van den Bos, K.; E.A. Lind; and H.A.M. Wilke. “The Psychology of Procedural and Distributive Justice Viewed from the Per- spective of Fairness Heuristic Theory.” In
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214 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
Situational Factors (Good vs. Bad Barrels)
Individual Factors (Good vs. Bad Apples)
Ethical Behavior
Moral Intent
Moral Judgment
Moral Awareness
FIGURE 7-6 The Four-Component Model of Ethical Decision Making
Source: Adapted from J.R. Rest, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory (New York: Praeger, 1986).
come equipped with “red flags” that mark them as morally sensitive. 95 Sometimes authorities act unethically simply because they don’t perceive that moral issues are relevant in a given situation, so the ethical merits of certain actions are never debated. For example, let’s say you own a clothing retailer that specializes in fashion-forward styles at low prices. You know that Diane von Furst- enberg’s styles are hot this year, and your buying team just discovered a vendor that makes cheap knockoffs of those styles. Do you buy clothes from that vendor and hang them on your racks?
Is there an ethical issue at play here? On the one hand, you might be tempted to say that imita- tion is the way that fashion trends spread—that the “gurus of style” expect their products to be copied. Besides, a skirt is a skirt, and knockoffs are part of the game in a lot of businesses. On the other hand, Diane von Furstenberg’s styles are her intellectual property, and the people that work for her label put a great deal of time, effort, and talent into their clothes. It turns out this scenario has played out with Forever 21, the Los Angeles–based specialty retailer. 98 Beginning in 2004, over 50 labels have sued Forever 21 for copying their clothes, including Diane von Furst- enberg, Anna Sui, and Anthropologie. “Their design is swathed in mystery,” notes one expert on copyright law. “But it probably looks a bit like a crime scene, with the chalk outline of the gar- ments they’re copying.” 99 Such charges are difficult to prove because U.S. copyright law protects original prints and graphics, not actual designs. Forever 21 wound up settling those lawsuits, noting that the company ultimately has to trust the integrity of its clothing vendors. Indeed, one executive notes that she chooses from among 400 items a day, spending only about 90 seconds to review a piece.
Moral awareness depends in part on characteristics of the issue itself, as some issues have more built-in ethical salience than others. A concept called moral intensity captures the degree to which an issue has ethical urgency. 100 As described in Table 7-3 , moral intensity is driven by two general concerns, both of which have more specific facets. 101 First and foremost, a particular issue is high in moral intensity if the potential for harm is perceived to be high. An act that could injure 1,000 people is more morally intense than an act that could injure 10 people, and an act that could result in death is more morally intense than an act that could result in illness. 102 Sec- ond, a particular issue is high in moral intensity if there is social pressure surrounding it. An act that violates a clear social norm is more morally intense than an act that seems similar to what everyone else is doing. In the case of Forever 21, moral intensity might seem low because selling cheap knockoffs benefits its customers, and interactions with customers are much more common and salient than interactions with designers.
7.5 What is the four-compo- nent model of ethical decision making?
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221C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
The figure reveals that trust does affect job performance. Why? One reason is that trust is mod- erately correlated with task performance. A study of employees in eight plants of a tool manu- facturing company sheds some light on why trust benefits task performance. 123 The study gave employees survey measures of their trust in two different authorities: their plant’s manager and the company’s top management team. Both trust measures were significant predictors of employ- ees’ ability to focus, which reflects the degree to which employees can devote their attention to work, as opposed to “covering their backside,” “playing politics,” and “keeping an eye on the boss.” The ability to focus is clearly vital to task performance in many jobs, particularly when job duties become more complex.
Trust
Ability
Benevolence
Integrity
Trust Propensity
Feelings toward Trustee
Trustworthiness
Distributive Justice
Procedural Justice
Interpersonal Justice
Informational Justice
Justice
Moral Awareness
Moral Judgment
Moral Intent
Ethical Behavior
Ethics
FIGURE 7-7 Why Are Some Authorities More Trusted Than Others?
7.6 How does trust affect job performance and organi- zational commitment?
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222 C H A P T E R 7 Trust, Justice, and Ethics
Trust also influences citizenship behavior and counterproductive behavior. Why? One reason is that the willingness to accept vulnerability changes the nature of the employee–employer rela- tionship. Employees who don’t trust their authorities have economic exchange relationships that are based on narrowly defined, quid pro quo obligations that are specified in advance and have an explicit repayment schedule. 124 Economic exchanges are impersonal and resemble contractual agreements, such that employees agree to fulfill the duties in their job description in exchange for financial compensation. As trust increases, social exchange relationships develop that are based on vaguely defined obligations that are open-ended and long term in their repayment schedule. 125 Social exchanges are characterized by mutual investment, such that employees agree to go above and beyond their duties in exchange for fair and proper treatment by authorities. In social exchange contexts, employees are willing to engage in beneficial behaviors because they trust that those efforts will eventually be rewarded (see Chapter 3 on Organizational Commit- ment for more discussion of such issues).
Figure 7-8 also reveals that trust affects organizational commitment. Why? One reason is that trusting an authority increases the likelihood that an emotional bond will develop, 126 par- ticularly if that trust is rooted in positive feelings for the authority. Trusting an authority also makes it more likely that a sense of obligation will develop, because employees feel more confident that the authority deserves that obligation. When negative events occur, employ- ees who trust the authority are willing to accept the vulnerability that comes with continued employment, 127 remaining confident in their belief that the situation will eventually improve. For more discussion of the importance of trust in the workplace, see our OB at the Bookstore feature.
Trust has a moderate positive effect on Performance. Employees who are willing to be vulnerable to authorities tend to have higher levels of Task Performance. They are also more likely to engage in Citizenship Behavior and less likely to engage in Counterproductive Behavior.
Trust has a strong positive effect on Commitment. Employees who are willing to be vulnerable to authorities tend to have higher levels of Affective Commitment and higher levels of Normative Commitment. Trust has no effect on Continuance Commitment.
Job Performance Trust
Organizational CommitmentTrust
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
FIGURE 7-8 Effects of Trust on Performance and Commitment
Sources: K.T. Dirks and D.L. Ferrin, “Trust in Leadership: Meta-Analytic Findings and Implications for Research and Practice,” Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002), pp. 611–28; and J.A. Colquitt, B.A. Scott, and J.A. LePine, “Trust, Trustworthiness, and Trust Propensity: A Meta-Analytic Test of their Unique Relationships with Risk Taking and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 909–27.
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motivation
Chapter 6
Welcome to Chapter 6 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
6-*
Class Agenda
- Motivation defined
- Theories of motivation
- Expectancy theory
- Goal setting theory
- Equity theory
- Psychological empowerment
- How important is motivation?
- Best practices
6-*
Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going.
6-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Motivated than Others?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides presents a “question of the day.” The question is a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
6-*
Motivation Defined
- A set of energetic forces that originate within and outside an employee that initiates work-related effort and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence
- What do you do?
- How hard do you do it?
- How long do you do it?
6-*
Theories of Motivation
- Several theories attempt to summarize the key factors that foster high motivation:
- Expectancy theory
- Goal setting theory
- Equity theory
- Psychological empowerment
6-*
Expectancy Theory
- Motivation is fostered when the employee believes three things:
- That effort will result in performance
- That performance will result in outcomes
- That those outcomes will be valuable
6-*
Expectancy Theory
A good example to use for this theory is students’ motivation in the course. The most motivated students have a confidence that if they try hard, they can do well on assignments (expectancy). They also see a clear linkage between doing well on assignments and earning a good grade (instrumentality). Finally, they see a lot of value in good grades (valence).
6-*
Expectancy
- Effort → Performance
- Can be hindered by:
- Lack of necessary resources
- Lack of supportive leadership
- Low self-efficacy
6-*
Expectancy
Try This! Ask the students if there are any current or former athletes in the room. Then ask them to think about the things their coaches would say during practices, before games, or during games. Did those things reflect the sources of self-efficacy, such as past accomplishments, verbal persuasion, or emotional cues? Can any students provide some good example quotes?
6-*
Instrumentality
- Performance → Outcomes
- Can be hindered by:
- Poor methods for measuring performance, as Instrumentality could actually be rewritten to be Performance → Evaluation → Outcomes
- Inadequate budget to provide outcomes, even when performance is high
- Use of policies that reward things besides performance, such as attendance or seniority
- Time delays in doling out rewards
6-*
Valence
- Anticipated value of outcomes
- Extrinsic
- Intrinsic
6-*
Valence
It’s helpful to return to the example of motivation in the course for this slide. Motivation will be increased if the outcome that students attach to doing well is not just a good grade, but also a sense of accomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development, and so forth.
6-*
Valence
- Why does pay have such a high valence?
- The meaning of money
- Achievement
- Respect
- Freedom
6-*
13
15
20
Achieve
Respect
Freedom
The average scores for the three dimensions in this index are shown in blue on the slide (13, 15, and 20, in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Meaning of Money. This questionnaire gives students a sense of the meaning they attach to money. Prior to asking students to take this assessment, ask them if they have ever left a job because they wanted to make more money. If they have, why did they need the money at the time? What did it give them? If they haven’t, what factors kept them on the job? Were other jobs that paid more not available, or were they getting something from the job that was more important than money?
6-*
Expectancy Theory
- Motivation = (E→P) x Σ[(P→O) x V]
- Key aspect: multiplicative effects
- Motivation is zero if either expectancy, instrumentality, or valence is zero
6-*
Expectancy Theory
- Taken together, the instrumentality and valence components resemble a concept from a famous movie franchise
- OB on Screen: Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps
OB on Screen: Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 49:20 mark of the film, continuing until about the 54:18 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapter 11 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Jake Moore meeting with Bretton James, some time after Moore started a rumor that hurt James’s company. Focus the discussion on what money seems to mean to James, and of the meaning of his one word answer to Moore’s “what’s your number question”? In what ways might James’s greed aid him in his working life? In what ways might it hurt him? Are there ways in which “greed is good?”, in terms of the original Wall Street? What are the limits on that goodness? Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
6-*
Expectancy Theory
- Motivation = (E→P) x Σ[(P→O) x V]
- Motivation = (E→P) x Greed?
- Is greed indeed “good”?
- How could greed be “channeled”?
I find that an interesting discussion develops around the distinction between “instrumentality x valence” and “greed.” The former represents getting what someone values, while the latter represents an insatiable version of that. I often divide the class into two sides to debate the classic Wall Street sentiment that “greed is good.” On the one hand, greed motivates and triggers innovation. On the other hand, greed is selfish, discourages altruism, and breeds counterproductive behavior.
The takeaway is often that greed is present in organizations, and can be a motivator, if properly channeled. That channeling provides a good segue to Goal Setting Theory. If incentives are tied to goal achievement, goals can be used channel greed.
6-*
Goal Setting Theory
- Motivation is fostered when employees are given specific and difficult goals
- Rather than no goals, easy goals, or “do your best” goals
6-*
Goal Setting Theory
6-*
Goal Setting Theory
Task strategies is an important element of the theory that students may not fully appreciate. It’s the “working smarter”, to the “working harder” represented in the two effort components. Sometimes working harder isn’t enough to meet a specific and difficult goal--employees realize they must also change how they work.
6-*
Equity Theory
- Motivation is maximized when an employee’s ratio of “outcomes” to “inputs” matches those of some “comparison other”
- Thus motivation also depends on the outcomes received by other employees
Try This! Before going over the specifics of equity theory, focus the class on a professional athlete who is particularly highly paid, such as Alex Rodriguez, third baseman for the New York Yankees, who makes around $25 million a year. Ask the students whether Rodriguez feels guilty that he makes more than a typical employee in the Yankees organization. They’ll likely answer “no,” but the key question is “why?” Guide the discussion toward the issue of the value of Rodriguez’s inputs (being among the best in the world at what he does) and the likely comparison other that Rodriguez’s focuses on (other professional athletes).
6-*
Equity Theory
- Are these really equal?
6-*
Equity Theory
- What emotion do you feel in this case?
- What methods can be used to restore equity?
Here you feel anger. You can restore equity by shrinking your inputs by reducing motivation, or by increasing your outcomes by increasing counterproductive behavior.
6-*
Equity Theory
- What emotion do you feel in this case?
- What methods can be used to restore equity?
Here you feel guilt. You can restore equity by increasing your inputs through increased motivation. In reality though, people often just readjust the way they conceptualize their inputs to seem bigger.
6-*
Psychological Empowerment
- An intrinsic form of motivation derived from the belief that one’s work tasks are contributing to some larger purpose
- Fostered by four beliefs:
- Meaningfulness
- Self-Determination
- Competence
- Impact
6-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Motivated than Others?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
6-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Motivated than Others?
Instrumentality
Expectancy
Valence
Specific & Difficult Goals
Empowerment
Equity
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
Empowerment
Specific & Difficult Goals
Equity
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will answer the “question of the day” in this fashion. It is often a bit unclear why some employees are more motivated than others. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Some employees are more motivated than others because they have more expectancy, instrumentality, and valence, because they are given specific and difficult goals, or because they feel a sense of equity and empowerment. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in motivation. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
6-*
Beginning with Chapter 4, the previous slide will always be followed up with the concluding and integrating figure of the chapter. It essentially provides an answer to the very same question.
6-*
How Important is Motivation?
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will also include this diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
6-*
Application
Try This! Ask students who are currently working or have worked recently to describe the compensation elements that they’ve experienced. How many have experienced piece-rate, merit pay, lump-sum bonuses or recognition awards? How many have experienced gainsharing or profit sharing? Which elements do the students find most effective and motivational?
6-*
Best Practices: Enterprise
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will end with a Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from the previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Enterprise Rent-a-Car.
6-*
Best Practices: Enterprise
Hires more college grads than any other company
Clear promotion ladder: 100% of top managers started as trainees
Emphasizes energy, enthusiasm, and positivity in hiring
Promotions depend on branch performance on customer service
Bonuses paid based on supplemental insurance
Salary supplemented with branch-based profit sharing
All of these bullets about Enterprise are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning & Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
Motivation
chapter Motivation 6
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166 C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
Figure 6-1. However, some of them are uniquely suited to explaining the direction of effort, whereas others do a better job of explaining the intensity and persistence of effort.
E X P E C TA N C Y T H E O RY What makes you decide to direct your effort to work assignments rather than taking a break or wasting time? Or what makes you decide to be a “good citizen” by helping out a colleague or attending some optional company function? Expectancy theory describes the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses. 14 Drawing on earlier models from psychology, expectancy theory argues that employee behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain or, more generally, toward certain outcomes and away from others. 15 How do employees make the choices that take them in the “right direction”? The theory suggests that our choices depend on three specific beliefs that are based in our past learning and experience: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. These three beliefs are summarized in Figure 6-2 , and we review each of them in turn.
EXPECTANCY. Expectancy represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task. More technically, expectancy is a subjective prob- ability, ranging from 0 (no chance!) to 1 (a mortal lock!) that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level of performance (abbreviated E P). Think of a task at which you’re not particularly good, such as writing romantic poetry. You may not be very motivated to write romantic poetry because you don’t believe that your effort, no matter how hard you try, will result in a poem that “moves” your significant other. As another example, you’ll be more moti- vated to work on the assignment described in Figure 6-1 if you’re confident that trying hard will allow you to complete it successfully.
FIGURE 6-2 Expectancy Theory
? ? Effort Performance
Outcomes
1 or 2 ?
1 or 2 ?
1 or 2 ?
Instrumentality: If I perform well, will I receive outcomes?
Valence: Will the outcomes be
satisfying?
Expectancy: If I exert a lot of effort, will I
perform well?
1 or 2 ?
Source: Adapted from V.H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1964).
6.2 What three beliefs help determine work effort, according to expectancy theory?
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167C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
What factors shape our expectancy for a particular task? One of the most critical factors is self-efficacy, defined as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behav- iors required for task success. 16 Think of self-efficacy as a kind of self-confidence or a task- specific version of self-esteem. 17 Employees who feel more “efficacious” (that is, self-confident) for a particular task will tend to perceive higher levels of expectancy—and therefore be more likely to choose to exert high levels of effort. Why do some employees have higher self-efficacy for a given task than other employees? Figure 6-3 can help explain such differences.
When employees consider efficacy levels for a given task, they first consider their past accomplishments —the degree to which they have succeeded or failed in similar sorts of tasks in the past. 18 They also consider vicarious experiences by taking into account their observations and discussions with others who have performed such tasks. 19 Self-efficacy is also dictated by verbal persuasion, because friends, coworkers, and leaders can persuade employees that they can “get the job done.” Finally, efficacy is dictated by emotional cues, in that feelings of fear or anxiety can create doubts about task accomplishment, whereas pride and enthusiasm can bolster confidence levels. 20 Taken together, these efficacy sources shape analyses of how difficult the task requirements are and how adequate an employee’s personal and situational resources will prove to be. 21 They also explain the content of most pregame speeches offered by coaches before the big game; such speeches commonly include references to past victories (past accomplish- ments), pep talks about how good the team can be (verbal persuasion), and cheers to rally the troops (emotional cues).
INSTRUMENTALITY. Instrumentality represents the belief that successful performance will result in some outcome(s). 22 More technically, instrumentality is a set of subjective probabilities, each ranging from 0 (no chance!) to 1 (a mortal lock!) that successful performance will bring a set of outcomes (abbreviated P O). The term “instrumentality” makes sense when you consider the meaning of the adjective “instrumental.” We say something is “instrumental” when it helps attain something else—for example, reading this chapter is instrumental for getting a good grade in an OB class (at least, we hope so!). 23 Unfortunately, evidence indicates that many employees don’t perceive high levels of instrumentality in their workplace. One survey of more
FIGURE 6-3 Sources of Self-Efficacy
Analysis of Task
Requirements
Assessment of Personal and Situational Resources
Source: Adapted from A. Bandura, “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change,” Psychological Review 84 (1977), pp. 191–215; and M.E. Gist and T.R. Mitchell, “Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of its Determi- nants and Malleability,” Academy of Management Review 17 (1992), pp. 183–211.
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170 C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
MOTIVATIONAL FORCE. According to expectancy theory, the direction of effort is dictated by three beliefs: expectancy (E P), instrumentality (P O), and valence (V). More specifi- cally, the theory suggests that the total “motivational force” to perform a given action can be described using the following formula: 46
The ∑ symbol in the equation signifies that instrumentalities and valences are judged with var- ious outcomes in mind, and motivation increases as successful performance is linked to more and more attractive outcomes. Note the significance of the multiplication signs in the formula: Moti- vational force equals zero if any one of the three beliefs is zero. In other words, it doesn’t matter how confident you are if performance doesn’t result in any outcomes. Similarly, it doesn’t matter how well performance is evaluated and rewarded if you don’t believe you can perform well.
G O A L S E T T I N G T H E O RY So, returning to the choice shown in Figure 6-1 , let’s say that you feel confident you can perform well on the assignment your boss gave you and that you also believe successful performance will bring valued outcomes. Now that you’ve chosen to direct your effort to that assignment, two critical questions remain: How hard will you work, and for how long? To shed some more light on these questions, you stop by your boss’s office and ask her, “So, when exactly do you need this done?” After thinking about it for a while, she concludes, “Just do your best.” After returning
TABLE 6-2 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Outcomes
Sources: Adapted from E.E. Lawler III and J.L. Suttle, “Expectancy Theory and Job Behavior,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 9 (1973), pp. 482–503; J. Galbraith and L.L. Cummings, “An Empirical Investigation of the Motivational Determinants of Task Performance: Interactive Effects between Instrumentality–Valence and Motivation– Ability,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 2 (1967), pp. 237–57; E. McAuley, S. Wraith, and T.E. Dun- can, “Self-Efficacy, Perceptions of Success, and Intrinsic Motivation for Exercise,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 21 (1991), pp. 139–55; and A.S. Waterman, S.J. Schwartz, E. Goldbacher, H. Green, C. Miller, and S. Philip, “Predicting the Subjective Experience of Intrinsic Motivation: The Roles of Self-Determination, the Balance of Challenges and Skills, and Self-Realization Values,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003), pp. 1447–58.
EXTRINSIC OUTCOMES INTRINSIC OUTCOMES
Pay Enjoyment
Bonuses Interestingness
Promotions Accomplishment
Benefits and perks Knowledge gain
Spot awards Skill development
Praise Personal expression
Job security (Lack of) Boredom
Support (Lack of) Anxiety
Free time (Lack of) Frustration
(Lack of) Disciplinary actions
(Lack of) Demotions
(Lack of) Terminations
Motivational Force = E P × ! [(P O) × V ]
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171C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
to your desk, you realize that you’re still not sure how much to focus on the assignment, or how long you should work on it before turning to something else.
Goal setting theory views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort. 47 Goals are defined as the objective or aim of an action and typically refer to attaining a specific standard of proficiency, often within a specified time limit. 48 More specifically, the
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
THE MEANING OF MONEY How do you view money—what meaning do you attach to it? This assessment will tell you where you stand on the three facets of the meaning of money—money as achievement, money as respect, and money as freedom. Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then follow the instructions below to score yourself. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com.)
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 SLIGHTLY DISAGREE
4 NEUTRAL
5 SLIGHTLY AGREE
6 AGREE
7 STRONGLY
AGREE
1. Money represents one’s achievement.
2. Money is a symbol of success.
3. Money is the most important goal in my life.
4. Money can buy everything.
5. Money makes people respect you in the community.
6. Money will help you express your competence and abilities.
7. Money can bring you many friends.
8. Money is honorable.
9. Money gives you autonomy and freedom.
10. Money can give you the opportunity to be what you want to be.
11. Money in the bank is a sign of security.
12. Money means power.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION Money as Achievement: Sum up items 1–4. Money as Respect: Sum up items 5–8. Money as Freedom: Sum up items 9–12.
Money as Achievement: High = 13 or above. Low = 12 or below. Money as Respect: High = 15 or above. Low = 14 or below. Money as Freedom: High = 20 or above. Low = 19 or below.
If you scored high on all three dimensions, then you view money as having multiple, non- economic meanings. This result means that money is likely to be a powerful motivator for you.
Source: Adapted from T.L. Tang, “The Meaning of Money Revisited,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 13 (1992), pp. 197–202.
6.3 What two qualities make goals strong predictors of task performance, accord- ing to goal setting theory?
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172 C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
theory argues that assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or “do-your-best” goals. 49 Why are specific and difficult goals more effective than do-your-best ones? After all, doesn’t “your best” imply the highest possible levels of effort? The reason is that few people know what their “best” is (and even fewer managers can tell whether employees are truly doing their “best”). Assigning specific and difficult goals gives people a number to shoot for—a “measuring stick” that can be used to tell them how hard they need to work and for how long. So if your boss had said, “Have the assignment on my desk by 10:30 a.m. on Tuesday, with no more than two mistakes,” you would have known exactly how hard to work and for how long.
Of course, a key question then becomes, “What’s a difficult goal?” Figure 6-4 illustrates the predicted relationship between goal difficulty and task performance. When goals are easy, there’s no reason to work your hardest or your longest, so task effort is lower. As goals move from moderate to difficult, the intensity and persistence of effort become maximized. At some point, however, the limits of a person’s ability get reached, and self-efficacy begins to diminish. Also at that point, goals move from difficult to impossible, and employees feel somewhat helpless when attempting to achieve them. In turn, effort and performance inevitably decline. So a difficult goal is one that stretches employees to perform at their maximum level while still staying within the boundaries of their ability.
The effects of specific and difficult goals on task performance have been tested in several hundred studies using many kinds of settings and tasks. A sampling of those settings and tasks is shown in Table 6-3 . 50 Overall, around 90 percent of the goal setting studies support the beneficial effects of specific and difficult goals on task performance. 51 Although some of the settings and tasks shown in the table are unlikely to be major parts of your career (archery, handball, LEGO construction), others should be very relevant to the readers (and authors!) of this book (managing and supervision, studying, faculty research). Then again, who wouldn’t want a career in LEGO construction?
Why exactly do specific and difficult goals have such positive effects? Figure 6-5 presents goal setting theory in more detail to understand that question better. 52 First, the assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes people’s own self-set goals —the internalized goals that peo- ple use to monitor their own task progress. 53 In the absence of an assigned goal, employees may not even consider what their own goals are, or they may self-set relatively easy goals that
FIGURE 6-4 Goal Difficulty and Task Performance
Source: Adapted from E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).
Goal Difficulty
T as
k P
e rf
o rm
an ce
Easy Moderate Difficult Impossible
Intensity and Persistence Maximized
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173C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
TABLE 6-3 Settings and Tasks Used in Goal Setting Research
SETTINGS AND TASKS
Air traffic control Management training
Archery Marine recruit performance
Arithmetic Maze learning
Beverage consumption Mining
Chess Proofreading
Computer games Production and manufacturing
Course work Puzzles
Energy conservation Safety behaviors
Exercise Sales
Faculty research Scientific and R&D work
Juggling Sit-ups
LEGO construction Studying
Logging Weight lifting
Managing and supervision Weight loss
Source: Adapted from E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).
FIGURE 6-5 Goal Setting Theory
Sources: Adapted from E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990); E.A. Locke and G.P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,” American Psychologist 57 (2002), pp. 705–17; and G.P. Latham, “Motivate Employee Performance through Goal-Setting,” in Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behavior, ed. E.A. Locke (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000), pp. 107–19.
Specific and Difficult
Assigned Goal
Task Performance
Self-Set Goal
Goal Commitment
Task ComplexityFeedback
Intensity of Effort
Persistence of Effort
Task Strategies
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177C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
Chapter 7 on Trust, Justice, and Ethics for more on such issues). 74 More relevant to this chapter, another means of restoring balance is to shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity and persis- tence of effort. Remember, it’s not the total outcomes or inputs that matter in equity theory—it’s only the ratio.
The third possibility is that your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than your comparison other’s ratio. Equity distress again gets experienced, and the tension likely creates negative emo- tions such as guilt or anxiety. Balance could be restored by shrinking your outcomes (taking less money, giving something back to the comparison other), but the theory acknowledges that such actions are unlikely in most cases. 75 Instead, the more likely solution is to increase your inputs in some way. You could increase the intensity and persistence of your task effort or decide to engage in more “extra mile” citizenship behaviors. At some point though, there may not be enough hours in the day to increase your inputs any further. An alternative (and less labor-intensive) means of increasing your inputs is to simply rethink them—to reexamine your mental ledger to see if you may have “undersold” your true contributions. On second thought, maybe your education or seniority is more critical than you realized, or maybe your skills and abilities are more vital to the organization. This cognitive distortion allows you to restore balance mentally, without altering your behavior in any way.
There is one other way of restoring balance, regardless of underreward or overreward circum- stances, that’s not depicted in Figure 6-6 : Change your comparison other. After all, we compare our “lots in life” to a variety of other individuals. Table 6-6 summarizes the different kinds of comparison others that can be used. 76 Some of those comparisons are internal comparisons, meaning that they refer to someone in the same company. 77 Others are external comparisons,
FIGURE 6-6 Three Possible Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons
COMPARISON RESULT: WAYS TO RESTORE BALANCE:
Shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity or persistence of effort.
Grow your outcomes by talking to your boss or by stealing from the company.
Grow your inputs through more high quality work or through some "cognitive distortion."
Shrink your outcomes (yeah, right!... let's see what we can do about those inputs...).
No actions needed.
Equity
=
Underreward Inequity
<
Overreward Inequity
>
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Sources: Adapted from J.S. Adams, “Inequity in Social Exchange,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–99.
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177C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
Chapter 7 on Trust, Justice, and Ethics for more on such issues). 74 More relevant to this chapter, another means of restoring balance is to shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity and persis- tence of effort. Remember, it’s not the total outcomes or inputs that matter in equity theory—it’s only the ratio.
The third possibility is that your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than your comparison other’s ratio. Equity distress again gets experienced, and the tension likely creates negative emo- tions such as guilt or anxiety. Balance could be restored by shrinking your outcomes (taking less money, giving something back to the comparison other), but the theory acknowledges that such actions are unlikely in most cases. 75 Instead, the more likely solution is to increase your inputs in some way. You could increase the intensity and persistence of your task effort or decide to engage in more “extra mile” citizenship behaviors. At some point though, there may not be enough hours in the day to increase your inputs any further. An alternative (and less labor-intensive) means of increasing your inputs is to simply rethink them—to reexamine your mental ledger to see if you may have “undersold” your true contributions. On second thought, maybe your education or seniority is more critical than you realized, or maybe your skills and abilities are more vital to the organization. This cognitive distortion allows you to restore balance mentally, without altering your behavior in any way.
There is one other way of restoring balance, regardless of underreward or overreward circum- stances, that’s not depicted in Figure 6-6 : Change your comparison other. After all, we compare our “lots in life” to a variety of other individuals. Table 6-6 summarizes the different kinds of comparison others that can be used. 76 Some of those comparisons are internal comparisons, meaning that they refer to someone in the same company. 77 Others are external comparisons,
FIGURE 6-6 Three Possible Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons
COMPARISON RESULT: WAYS TO RESTORE BALANCE:
Shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity or persistence of effort.
Grow your outcomes by talking to your boss or by stealing from the company.
Grow your inputs through more high quality work or through some "cognitive distortion."
Shrink your outcomes (yeah, right!... let's see what we can do about those inputs...).
No actions needed.
Equity
=
Underreward Inequity
<
Overreward Inequity
>
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Sources: Adapted from J.S. Adams, “Inequity in Social Exchange,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–99.
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177C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
Chapter 7 on Trust, Justice, and Ethics for more on such issues). 74 More relevant to this chapter, another means of restoring balance is to shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity and persis- tence of effort. Remember, it’s not the total outcomes or inputs that matter in equity theory—it’s only the ratio.
The third possibility is that your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than your comparison other’s ratio. Equity distress again gets experienced, and the tension likely creates negative emo- tions such as guilt or anxiety. Balance could be restored by shrinking your outcomes (taking less money, giving something back to the comparison other), but the theory acknowledges that such actions are unlikely in most cases. 75 Instead, the more likely solution is to increase your inputs in some way. You could increase the intensity and persistence of your task effort or decide to engage in more “extra mile” citizenship behaviors. At some point though, there may not be enough hours in the day to increase your inputs any further. An alternative (and less labor-intensive) means of increasing your inputs is to simply rethink them—to reexamine your mental ledger to see if you may have “undersold” your true contributions. On second thought, maybe your education or seniority is more critical than you realized, or maybe your skills and abilities are more vital to the organization. This cognitive distortion allows you to restore balance mentally, without altering your behavior in any way.
There is one other way of restoring balance, regardless of underreward or overreward circum- stances, that’s not depicted in Figure 6-6 : Change your comparison other. After all, we compare our “lots in life” to a variety of other individuals. Table 6-6 summarizes the different kinds of comparison others that can be used. 76 Some of those comparisons are internal comparisons, meaning that they refer to someone in the same company. 77 Others are external comparisons,
FIGURE 6-6 Three Possible Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons
COMPARISON RESULT: WAYS TO RESTORE BALANCE:
Shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity or persistence of effort.
Grow your outcomes by talking to your boss or by stealing from the company.
Grow your inputs through more high quality work or through some "cognitive distortion."
Shrink your outcomes (yeah, right!... let's see what we can do about those inputs...).
No actions needed.
Equity
=
Underreward Inequity
<
Overreward Inequity
>
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Other's Outcomes
Other's Inputs
Your Outcomes
Your Inputs
Sources: Adapted from J.S. Adams, “Inequity in Social Exchange,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press, 1965), pp. 267–99.
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184 C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
FIGURE 6-7 Why Are Some Employees More Motivated Than Others?
Meaningfulness
Self- Determination
Competence
Impact
Specific and Difficult
Assigned Goal
Direction of Effort
Intensity of Effort
Persistence of Effort
Self-Set Goal
PE O
Psychological Empowerment
Other's Outcomes
Your Outcomes
MOTIVATING FORCES
Expectancy Instrumentality
Valence
Other's Inputs
Your Inputs
EFFORT
=
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185C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
those actions themselves require extra effort. The best evidence in support of that claim comes from research on equity. Specifically, employees who feel a sense of equity on the job are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors, particularly when those behaviors aid the organiza- tion. 107 The same employees are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors, because such behaviors often serve as a retaliation against perceived inequities. 108
As with citizenship behaviors, the relationship between motivation and organizational com- mitment seems straightforward. After all, the psychological and physical forms of withdrawal that characterize less committed employees are themselves evidence of low levels of motivation. Clearly employees who are daydreaming, coming in late, and taking longer breaks are struggling to put forth consistently high levels of work effort. Research on equity and organizational com- mitment offers the clearest insights into the motivation–commitment relationship. Specifically, employees who feel a sense of equity are more emotionally attached to their firms and feel a stronger sense of obligation to remain. 109
FIGURE 6-8 Effects of Motivation on Performance and Commitment
Motivation has a strong positive effect on Job Performance. People who experience higher levels of motivation tend to have higher levels of Task Performance. Those effects are strongest for self-efficacy/competence, followed by goal difficulty, the valence-instrumentality-expectancy combination, and equity. Less is known about the effects of motivation on Citizenship and Counterproductive Behavior, though equity has a moderate positive effect on the former and a moderate negative effect on the latter.
Less is known about the effects of Motivation on Organizational Commitment. However, equity has a moderate positive effect. People who experience higher levels of equity tend to feel higher levels of Affective Commitment and higher levels of Normative Commitment. Effects on Continuance Commitment are weaker.
Motivation JobPerformance
Motivation Organizational Commitment
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
Sources: Y. Cohen-Charash and P.E. Spector, “The Role of Justice in Organizations: A Meta-Analysis,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 86 (2001), pp. 287–321; J.A. Colquitt, D.E. Conlon, M.J. Wesson, C.O.L.H. Porter, and K.Y. Ng, “Justice at the Millennium: A Meta-Analytic Review of 25 Years of Organizational Justice Research,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001), pp. 425–45; J.P. Meyer, D.J. Stanley, L. Herscovitch, and L. Topolnytsky, “Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 61 (2002), pp. 20–52; A.D. Stajkovic and F. Luthans, “Self-Efficacy and Work-Related Performance: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin 124 (1998), pp. 240–61; W. Van Eerde and H. Thierry, “Vroom’s Expectancy Models and Work-Related Criteria: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996), pp. 575–86; and R.E. Wood, A.J. Mento, and E.A. Locke, “Task Complexity as a Moderator of Goal Effects: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1987), pp. 416–25.
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186 C H A P T E R 6 Motivation
A P P L I C AT I O N : C O M P E N S AT I O N S Y S T E M S
The most important area in which motivation concepts are applied in organizations is in the design of compensation systems. Table 6-7 provides an overview of many of the elements used in typical compensation systems. We use the term “element” in the table to acknowledge that most organizations use a combination of multiple elements to compensate their employees. Two points must be noted about Table 6-7 . First, the descriptions of the elements are simplistic; the reality is that each of the elements can be implemented and executed in a variety of ways. 110
Second, the elements are designed to do more than just motivate. For example, plans that put pay “at risk” rather than creating increases in base salary are geared toward control of labor costs. As another example, elements that stress individual achievement are believed to alter the composi- tion of a workforce over time, with high achievers drawn to the organization while less moti- vated employees are selected out. Finally, plans that reward unit or organizational performance are designed to reinforce collaboration, information sharing, and monitoring among employees, regardless of their impact on motivation levels.
One way of judging the motivational impact of compensation plan elements is to consider whether the elements provide difficult and specific goals for channeling work effort. Merit pay and profit sharing offer little in the way of difficult and specific goals, because both essentially challenge employees to make next year as good (or better) than this year. In contrast, lump-sum
TABLE 6-7 Compensation Plan Elements
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
Individual-Focused
Piece-Rate
Merit Pay
Lump-Sum Bonuses
Recognition Awards
A specified rate is paid for each unit produced, each unit sold, or each service provided.
An increase to base salary is made in accordance with perfor- mance evaluation ratings.
A bonus is received for meeting individual goals but no change is made to base salary. The potential bonus represents “at risk” pay that must be re-earned each year. Base salary may be lower in cases in which potential bonuses may be large.
Tangible awards (gift cards, merchandise, trips, special events, time off, plaques) or intangible awards (praise) are given on an impromptu basis to recognize achievement.
Unit-Focused
Gainsharing A bonus is received for meeting unit goals (department goals, plant goals, business unit goals) for criteria controllable by employees (labor costs, use of materials, quality). No change is made to base salary. The potential bonus represents “at risk” pay that must be re-earned each year. Base salary may be lower in cases in which potential bonuses may be large.
Organization-Focused
Profit Sharing A bonus is received when the publicly reported earnings of a company exceed some minimum level, with the magnitude of the bonus contingent on the magnitude of the profits. No change is made to base salary. The potential bonus represents “at risk” pay that must be re-earned each year. Base salary may be lower in cases in which potential bonuses may be large.
6.7 What steps can organiza- tions take to increase employee motivation?
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress
Chapter 5
Welcome to Chapter 5 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
5-*
Class Agenda
- Stress defined
- Types of stressors
- What can you do?
- What can organizations do?
- How important is stress?
- Best practices
5-*
Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I’d note that we’re still discussing concepts that directly impact Job Performance and Organizational Commitment.
5-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?
This slide is intentionally blurry.
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides presents a “question of the day.” The question is a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer.
The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.
5-*
Stress
- Definition
- A psychological response to demands where there is something at stake and where coping with the demands taxes or exceeds a person’s capacity or resources
- Do you want a stress-free job?
Most students will say that they don’t want a stress-free job...that they want some challenge in their work. Indeed, if we think back to Job Characteristics Theory from Chapter 4, many of the characteristics that create fulfilling work (Variety, Identity, Significance, Autonomy, Feedback) also bring with them a certain amount of stress.
5-*
Stress
- Which jobs are more and less stressful, in general?
Try This! For students who have not yet read the chapter and have not yet seen Table 5-1, ask them to guess what some of the least stressful jobs are, and what some of the most stressful jobs are. Write them in two different columns on the board. Then, as you go through the list of challenge and hindrance stressors later in the lecture, keep coming back to your list on the board. Do the least stressful jobs really have lower levels of challenge and hindrance stressors? Which stressors are lowest? Do the most stressful jobs really have higher levels of challenge and hindrance stressors? Which stressors are most salient?
5-*
Stress
- Which jobs are more and less stressful, in general?
5-*
Transactional Theory of Stress
5-*
Work Stressors
- Challenge stressors
- Time pressure
- Work complexity
- Work responsibility
For the students that said they don’t want a stress free job, many of them want these things. Here I make the point that Challenge Stressors cause growth and development. They make you a better employee, a better performer. So it’s an oversimplification to suggest that organizations should reduce the stress level of their workforce, because these types of stressors are beneficial.
5-*
Work Stressors
- Hindrance stressors
- Role conflict
- Role ambiguity
- Role overload
- Daily hassles
Unlike Challenge Stressors, dealing with Hindrance Stressors does not cause growth. They do not make someone a better employee. So organizations should indeed attempt to reduce these.
Try This! Ask students to think about their current job, or the job they will pursue as their career after graduation. Have them describe the role conflict inherent in that job. At a minimum, most jobs will have a built-in conflict between quality and quantity that the students can identify. However, sometimes there will be more unique examples, such as strictly adhering to rule following versus providing customers with a uniquely pleasing customer service experience.
5-*
Work Stressors
- OB on Screen: Devil Wears Prada
- What kinds of stressors does Andy seem to be experiencing?
OB on Screen: The Devil Wears Prada. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 11:50 mark of the film, continuing until about the 18:00 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapters 5-6 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Andy Sachs on the first day of her new job as “second assistant” to a fashion magazine editor. The scene provides very interesting and vivid examples of hindrance stressors, most notably, role ambiguity and role overload. One way to begin class discussion would be to have students identify the demands that Andy faces and explain how she probably appraises them. Another topic for class discussion is the role of Emily, the editor’s first assistant. Although she isn’t a source of stressful demands, she’s not very supportive either. Class discussion could then turn to means by which Andy could deal with the situation. Some students are likely to say, “just quit”, but there may be other students in class who recognize the instrumental value of stressful jobs, and will offer thoughts about how to manage the situation. Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
5-*
Family Stressors
- Challenge stressors
- Family time demands
- Personal development
- Positive life events
Here I ask students why we should be discussing family stressors, given that this class isn’t called “Family Behavior.” Of course, the answer is that employees are affected at work by what’s going on in their family life.
5-*
Family Stressors
- Hindrance stressors
- Work-family conflict
- Financial uncertainty
- Negative life events
5-*
Life Events
This table underscores the importance of understanding family stressors. The 7 most impactful life events are all in the family sphere.
Try This! Together with your students, create a “university life event scale” for your university, along the lines of Table 5-2. List events on the board, guessing at a stress score for each one. For example, a negative event might be getting a bad grade on an exam, or breaking up with a significant other. A positive event might be winning an important sporting event or planning for graduation. The specific numbers will be guesses of course, but the interesting part will be to make sure the numbers make comparative, relative sense (e.g., that the number associated with the exam make sense relative to the number associated with the breakup. You may also want to use Table 5-2 as a guide for the numbers, meaning that most events listed will be in the thirties or below.
5-*
Coping with Stressors
5-*
Accounting for Individuals
- People differ in their ability to cope with stressors, as a function of:
- Social support
- Instrumental support
- Emotional support
- Type A Behavior Pattern
5-*
Type A Behavior Pattern
53
For all the OB Assessments, instruct students to “reverse” the bolded items (3, 8, and 12 in this case). 1 becomes 7, 2 becomes 6, 3 becomes 5, 5 becomes 3, 6 becomes 2, and 7 becomes 1. After doing that reversing, they should perform the calculations in the formula. The average score for this index is shown in blue on the slide (53 in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Type A. This assessment measures the extent to which students exhibit the “Type A” behavior pattern. When discussing the results with students, it is important to point out that while people who exhibit Type A behaviors tend to be more “stressed” than other people, other factors also come into play – the type of stressors people encounter, the amount of social support they have, etc. It might also be worth pointing out that this was originally developed as a tool by medical doctors to diagnose the predisposition for coronary problems.
5-*
Consequences
of Stress
For each category, I ask the students whether they’ve experienced these forms of strain most typically. For example, many students will admit to getting sick, having stomachaches, feeling forgetful, or grinding their teeth.
5-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?
This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.
5-*
Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?
Family Challenge Stressors
Family Hindrance Stressors
Work Hindrance Stressors
Work Challenge Stressors
Coping Strategies
Type A Behavior Pattern
Social Support
Work Hindrance Stressors
Work Challenge Stressors
Family Challenge Stressors
Family Hindrance Stressors
Coping Strategies
Type A Behavior Pattern
Social Support
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will answer the “question of the day” in this fashion. It is often a bit unclear why some employees are more stressed than others. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Some employees are more stressed than others because they experience more challenge and hindrance stressors in the work domain, or because they experience more challenge and hindrance stressors in the family domain, or because they are different in their coping strategies, Type A behavior, and social support. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in stress. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!
5-*
Beginning with Chapter 4, the previous slide will always be followed up with the concluding and integrating figure of the chapter. It essentially provides an answer to the very same question.
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How Important is Stress?
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will also include this diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.
This is the only chapter that has two of these diagrams, to showcase the distinction between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors.
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How Important is Stress?
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Application
- Stress Management
- Exercise
- Managing hindrance stressors
- Improving work-life balance
- Improving hardiness
This exercise mirrors many of the components of stress management programs used in organizations. I usually have the groups talk through all three parts themselves, while asking for 1-2 students to volunteer to share their own learning points. So, for example, one student would share their strategies for confronting hindrance stressors, their takeaways regarding their life balance “pie pieces”, and their strategies for improving hardiness.
5-*
Application
5-*
Application
5-*
Application
5-*
Application
- What can organizations do?
- Assessment
- Reducing stressors
- Providing resources
- Reducing strains
5-*
Best Practices: Humana
Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will end with a Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from the previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”
In this case that company is Humana.
5-*
Best Practices: Humana
Fortune 100 company that administers health care benefits
“Freewheelin” program used by 28% of employees
10 minutes of bike riding per day can reduce depression
30 minutes of bike riding per day can reduce risk of heart disease and stroke
Would a different program appeal to a larger % of employees?
All of these bullets about Humana are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning & Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
Stress
chapter Stress 5
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131C H A P T E R 5 Stress
experience stress are called stressors . The negative consequences that occur when demands tax or exceed a person’s capacity or resources are called strains . This definition of stress illustrates that it depends on both the nature of the demand and the person who confronts it. People differ in terms of how they perceive and evaluate stressors and the way they cope with them. As a result, different people may experience different levels of stress even when confronted with the exact same situation.
W H Y A R E S O M E E M P L O Y E E S M O R E “ S T R E S S E D ” T H A N O T H E R S ?
To fully understand what it means to feel “stressed,” it’s helpful to consider the transactional theory of stress . This theory explains how stressors are perceived and appraised, as well as how people respond to those perceptions and appraisals. 14 When people first encounter stressors, the
TABLE 5-1 Jobs Rated from Least Stressful (1) to Most Stressful (250)
LEAST STRESSFUL JOBS STRESS LEVEL
MOST STRESSFUL JOBS STRESS LEVEL
1. Musical instrument repairer 18.77 212. Registered nurse 62.14
2. Florist 18.80 220. Attorney 64.33
4. Actuary 20.18 223. Newspaper reporter 65.26
6. Appliance repairer 21.12 226. Architect 66.92
8. Librarian 21.40 228. Lumberjack 67.60
10. File clerk 21.71 229. Fisherman 69.82
11. Piano tuner 22.29 230. Stockbroker 71.65
12. Janitor 22.44 231. U.S. Congressperson 72.05
16. Vending machine repairer 23.47 233. Real estate agent 73.06
18. Barber 23.62 234. Advertising account exec 74.55
24. Mathematician 24.67 238. Public relations exec 78.52
29. Cashier 25.11 240. Air traffic controller 83.13
30. Dishwasher 25.32 241. Airline pilot 85.35
32. Pharmacist 25.87 243. Police officer 93.89
40. Biologist 26.94 244. Astronaut 99.34
44. Computer programmer 27.00 245. Surgeon 99.46
50. Astronomer 28.06 246. Taxi driver 100.49
56. Historian 28.41 248. Senior corporate exec 108.62
67. Bank teller 30.12 249. Firefighter 110.93
78. Accountant 31.13 250. U.S. President 176.55
Source: Adapted from L. Krantz, Jobs Rated Almanac, 6th ed. (Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, Inc., 2002). The stress level score is calculated by summing points in 21 categories, including deadlines, competitiveness, environmental condi- tions, speed required, precision required, initiative required, physical demands, and hazards encountered.
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132 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
process of primary appraisal is triggered. 15 As shown in Figure 5-1 , primary appraisal occurs as people evaluate the significance and the meaning of the stressor they’re confronting. Here, people first consider whether a demand causes them to feel stressed, and if it does, they consider the implications of the stressor in terms of their personal goals and overall well-being.
As an example of a primary appraisal, consider the job of a cashier at a well-run conve- nience store. In this store, cashiers engage in routine sales transactions with customers. Cus- tomers walk in the store and select merchandise, and the cashiers on duty ring up the sale and collect the money. Under normal day-to-day circumstances at this store, well-trained cashiers would not likely feel that these transactions are overly taxing or exceed their capacity, so those cashiers would not likely appraise these job demands as stressful. Job demands that tend not to be appraised as stressful are called benign job demands .
However, consider how convenience store cashiers would react in a different store in which the cash register and credit card machine break down often and without warning. The cashiers who work at this store would likely view their job as being more stressful. This is because they would have to diagnose and fix problems with equipment while dealing with customers who are growing more and more impatient. Furthermore, the cashiers in this store might appraise the stressful situation as one that unnecessarily prevents them from achieving their goal of being viewed as an effective employee in the eyes of the customers and the store manager.
Finally, consider a third convenience store in which the cashiers’ workload is higher due to additional responsibilities that include receiving merchandise from vendors, taking physical inventory, and training new employees. In this store, the cashiers may appraise their jobs as stressful because of the higher workload and the need to balance different priorities. However, in contrast to the cashiers in the previous example, cashiers in this store might appraise these demands as providing an opportunity to learn and demonstrate the type of competence that often is rewarded with satisfying promotions and pay raises.
T Y P E S O F S T R E S S O R S In the previous two examples, the cashiers were confronted with demands that a primary appraisal would label as “stressful.” However, the specific demands in the two examples have an important difference. Having to deal with equipment breakdowns or unhappy customers is not likely to be perceived by most employees as having implications that are personally beneficial;
FIGURE 5-1 Transactional Theory of Stress
Hindrance Challenge
Work
Nonwork
Stressors
Role conflict Role ambiguity Role overload Daily hassles
• • • •
Work–family conflict Negative life events
•
•
Time pressure Work complexity Work responsibility
• • •
Family time demands Personal development Positive life events
•
•
•
STRESS
Primary Appraisal Is this stressful?
Secondary Appraisal How can I cope?
Financial uncertainty
•
5.2 What are the four main types of stressors?
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136 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
NONWORK HINDRANCE STRESSORS. Although the majority of people in the United States spend more time at the office than anywhere else, 33 there are a number of stressful demands outside of work that have implications for managing behavior in organizations. 34 In essence, stressors experienced outside of work may have effects that “spill over” to affect the employee at work. 35 One example of nonwork hindrance stressors is work–family conflict , a special form of role conflict in which the demands of a work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands of a family role (or vice versa). 36 We most often think of cases in which work demands hinder effec- tiveness in the family context, termed “work to family conflict.” For example, employees who have to deal with lots of hindrances at work may have trouble switching off their frustration after they get home, and as a consequence, they may become irritable and impatient with family and friends. However, work–family conflict can occur in the other direction as well. For example, “family to work conflict” would occur if a salesperson experiencing the stress of marital conflict comes to work harboring emotional pain and negative feelings, which makes it difficult to inter- act with customers effectively.
Nonwork hindrance stressors also come in the form of negative life events . 37 Research has revealed that a number of life events are perceived as quite stressful, particularly when they result in significant changes to a person’s life. 38 Table 5-2 provides a listing of some commonly experienced life events, along with a score that estimates how stressful each event is perceived to be. As the table reveals, many of the most stressful life events do not occur at work. Rather, they include family events such as the death of a spouse or close family member, a divorce or mari- tal separation, a jail term, or a personal illness. These events would be classified as hindrance stressors because they hinder the ability to achieve life goals and are associated with negative emotions.
TABLE 5-2 Stressful Life Events
LIFE EVENT STRESS SCORE
LIFE EVENT STRESS SCORE
Death of a spouse 100 Trouble with in-laws 29
Divorce 73 Outstanding achievement 28
Marital separation 65 Begin or end school 26
Jail term 63 Change in living conditions 25
Death of close family member 63 Trouble with boss 23
Personal illness 53 Change in work hours 20
Marriage 50 Change in residence 20
Fired at work 47 Change in schools 20
Marital reconciliation 45 Change in social activities 18
Retirement 45 Change in sleeping habits 16
Pregnancy 40 Change in family get-togethers 15
Gain of new family member 39 Change in eating habits 15
Death of close friend 37 Vacations 13
Change in occupation 36 The holiday season 12
Child leaving home 29 Minor violations of the law 11
Source: Adapted from T.H. Holmes and R.H. Rahe, “The Social Re-Adjustment Rating Scale,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 11 (1967), pp. 213–18.
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137C H A P T E R 5 Stress
A third type of nonwork hindrance stressor is financial uncertainty . This type of stressor refers to conditions that create uncertainties with regard to the loss of livelihood, savings, or the ability to pay expenses. This type of stressor is highly relevant during recessions or economic downturns. When people have concerns about losing their jobs, homes, and life savings because of economic factors that are beyond their control, it’s understandable why nearly half of the respondents to a recent survey indicated that stress was making it hard for them to do their jobs. 39
NONWORK CHALLENGE STRESSORS. Of course, the nonwork domain can be a source of challenge stressors as well. 40 Family time demands refer to the time that a person commits to participate in an array of family activities and responsibilities. Specific examples of family time demands include time spent involved in family pursuits such as traveling, attending social events and organized activities, hosting parties, and planning and making home improvements. Examples of personal development activities include participation in formal education pro- grams, music lessons, sports-related training, hobby-related self-education, participation in local government, or volunteer work. Finally, Table 5-2 includes some positive life events that are sources of nonwork challenge stressors. For example, marriage, the addition of a new family member, and graduating from school are stressful in their own way. However, each is associated with more positive, rather than negative, emotions.
H O W D O P E O P L E C O P E W I T H S T R E S S O R S ? According to the transactional theory of stress, after people appraise a stressful demand, they ask themselves, “What should I do?” and “What can I do?” to deal with this situation. These ques- tions, which refer to the secondary appraisal shown in Figure 5-1 , center on the issue of how people cope with the various stressors they face. 41 Coping refers to the behaviors and thoughts that people use to manage both the stressful demands they face and the emotions associated with those stressful demands. 42 As Table 5-3 illustrates, coping can involve many different types of activities, and these activities can be grouped into four broad categories based on two dimen- sions. 43 The first dimension refers to the method of coping (behavioral versus cognitive), and the second dimension refers to the focus of coping (problem solving versus regulation of emotions).
The first part of our coping definition highlights the idea that methods of coping can be cat- egorized on the basis of whether they involve behaviors or thoughts. Behavioral coping involves the set of physical activities that are used to deal with a stressful situation. 44 In one example of behavioral coping, a person who is confronted with a lot of time pressure at work might choose to cope by working faster. In another example, an employee who has several daily hassles might cope by avoiding work—coming in late, leaving early, or even staying home. As a final example, employees often cope with the stress of an international assignment by returning home from the assignment prematurely. As our OB Internationally feature illustrates, international assign- ments are becoming increasingly prevalent, and the costs of these early returns to organizations can be significant.
5.3 How do individuals cope with stress?
TABLE 5-3 Examples of Coping Strategies
PROBLEM-FOCUSED EMOTION-FOCUSED
Behavioral Methods • Working harder • Seeking assistance • Acquiring additional
resources
• Engaging in alternative activities • Seeking support • Venting anger
Cognitive Methods • Strategizing • Self-motivation • Changing priorities
• Avoiding, distancing, and ignoring • Looking for the positive in the
negative • Reappraising
Source: Adapted from J.C. Latack and S.J. Havlovic, “Coping with Job Stress: A Conceptual Evaluation Framework for Coping Measures,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 13 (1992), pp. 479–508.
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142 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
slowly, chances are that you’re a Type A person. With that said, one way to tell for sure is to fill out the Type A questionnaire in our OB Assessments feature.
In the context of this chapter, the Type A Behavior Pattern is important because it can influ- ence stressors, stress, and strains. First, the Type A Behavior Pattern may have a direct influence on the level of stressors that a person confronts. To understand why this might be true, consider that Type A persons tend to be hard-driving and have a strong desire to achieve. Because the behaviors that reflect these tendencies are valued by the organization, Type A individuals receive
5.4 How does the Type A Behavior Pattern influence the stress process?
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN Do you think that you’re especially sensitive to stress? This assessment is designed to measure the extent to which you’re a Type A person—someone who typically engages in hard-driving, competitive, and aggressive behavior. Answer each question using the response scale provided. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com .)
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 SLIGHTLY DISAGREE
4 NEUTRAL
5 SLIGHTLY AGREE
6 AGREE
7 STRONGLY
AGREE
1. Having work to complete “stirs me into action” more than other people.
2. When a person is talking and takes too long to come to the point, I frequently feel like hurrying the person along.
3. Nowadays, I consider myself to be relaxed and easygoing.
4. Typically, I get irritated extremely easily.
5. My best friends would rate my general activity level as very high.
6. I definitely tend to do most things in a hurry.
7. I take my work much more seriously than most.
8. I seldom get angry.
9. I often set deadlines for myself work-wise.
10. I feel very impatient when I have to wait in line.
11. I put much more effort into my work than other people do.
12. Compared with others, I approach life much less seriously.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION Subtract your answers to the boldfaced questions from 8, with the difference being your new answers for those questions. For example, if your original answer for Question 3 was “2,” your new answer is “6” (8 – 2). Then sum your answers for the twelve questions. If your scores sum up to 53 or above, you would be considered a Type A person, which means that you may perceive higher stress levels in your life and be more sensitive to that stress. If your scores sum up to 52 or below, you would be considered a Type B person. This means that you sense less stress in your life and are less sensitive to the stress that’s experienced.
Source: C.D. Jenkins, S.J. Zyzanski, and R.H. Rosenman, “Progress Toward Validation of a Computer Scored Test for the Type A Coronary Prone Behavior Pattern,” Psychosomatic Medicine Vol. 22, 193, 202 (1971). Reprinted with permission of Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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140 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
you. Although people react to stress differently, you may have felt unusually exhausted, irritable, and achy. What might be surprising to you is that the mechanism within your body that gives you the ability to function effectively in the face of stressful demands is the same mechanism that ends up causing you these problems. So what is this mechanism?
Essentially, the body has a set of responses that allow it to adapt and function effectively in the face of stressful demands, but if the stressful demands do not ramp down or the demands occur too frequently, the body’s adaptive responses become toxic. 56 More specifically, when people are confronted with a stressor, their bodies secrete chemical compounds that increase their heart rate and blood pressure, as blood is redirected away from vital organs, such as the spleen, to the brain and skeletal muscles. 57 Unfortunately, if the chemicals in the blood remain elevated because of prolonged or repeated exposure to the stressor, the body begins to break down, and several negative consequences are set into motion. As shown in Figure 5-2 , those negative consequences come in three varieties: physiological strains, psychological strains, and behavioral strains. 58
Physiological strains that result from stressors occur in at least four systems of the human body. First, stressors can reduce the effectiveness of the body’s immune system, which makes it more difficult for the body to ward off illness and infection. Have you ever noticed that you’re more likely to catch a cold during or immediately after final exam week? Second, stressors can harm the body’s cardiovascular system, cause the heart to race, increase blood pressure, and
FIGURE 5-2 Examples of Strain
STRESS
Physiological Strains
(illness, high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, headaches, back pain,
stomachaches)
Psychological Strains
(depression, anxiety, irritability, forgetfulness, inability to think clearly,
reduced confidence, burnout)
Behavioral Strains
(alcohol and drug use, teeth grinding, compulsive
behaviors, overeating)
Source: From M.E. Burke, 2005 Benefits Survey Report, Society of Human Resource Management.
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144 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
nonwork domains. However, feeling stressed also depends on how those stressors are appraised and coped with, and the degree to which physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains are experienced. Finally, answering the question depends on whether the employee is “Type A” or “Type B” and whether the employee has a high or low amount of social support. Understand- ing all of these factors can help explain why some people can shoulder stressful circumstances for weeks at a time, whereas others seem to be “at the end of their rope” when faced with even relatively minor job demands.
H O W I M P O RTA N T I S S T R E S S ?
In the previous sections, we described how stressors and the stress process influence strains and, ultimately, people’s health and well-being. Although these relationships are important to under- stand, you’re probably more curious about the impact that stressors have on job performance and organizational commitment, the two outcomes in our integrative model of OB. Figure 5-4 summarizes the research evidence linking hindrance stressors to performance and commitment, and Figure 5-5 summarizes the research evidence linking challenge stressors to performance and commitment. We limit our discussion to relationships with work stressors rather than nonwork stressors, because this is where researchers have focused the most attention.
Figure 5-4 reveals that hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship with job perfor- mance. 76 A general explanation for this negative relationship is that hindrance stressors result in strains and negative emotions that reduce the overall level of physical, cognitive, and emotional
FIGURE 5-3 Why Are Some Employees More “Stressed” Than Others?
Stressors
Type A Behavior Pattern
Social Support
Hindrance Challenge
Work
Nonwork
STRESS Psychological Strains
Physiological Strains
Behavioral Strains
5.5 How does stress affect job performance and organiza- tional commitment?
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145C H A P T E R 5 Stress
energy that people could otherwise bring to their job duties. 77 The detrimental effect that strains have on job performance becomes quite easy to understand when you consider the nature of the individual strains that we mentioned in the previous section. Certainly, you would agree that physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains in the form of illnesses, exhaustion, and drunkenness would detract from employee effectiveness in almost any job context.
Figure 5-4 also reveals that hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with orga- nizational commitment. 78 Why might this be? Well, hindrance stressors evoke strains, which are generally dissatisfying to people, and as we discussed in the previous chapter, satisfaction has a strong impact on the degree to which people feel committed to their organization. 79 People who work at jobs that they know are causing them to feel constantly sick and exhausted will likely be dissatisfied with their jobs and feel less desire to stay with the organization and more desire to consider alternatives.
Turning now to challenge stressors, the story becomes somewhat different. As shown in Figure 5-5 , challenge stressors have a weak relationship with job performance and a moderate relation- ship with organizational commitment. However, in contrast to the results for hindrance stressors, the relationships are positive rather than negative. 80 In other words, employees who experience higher levels of challenge stressors also tend to have higher levels of job performance and orga- nizational commitment. These relationships stand in sharp contrast with the lower levels of job performance and organizational commitment that result when employees confront higher levels of hindrance stressors. So what explains this difference? Although challenge stressors result in strains, which detract from performance and commitment, they also tend to trigger the type of positive emotions and problem-focused coping strategies that are characteristic of employees who are highly engaged in their jobs. 81 The net benefits of these positive emotions, problem-focused
FIGURE 5-4 Effects of Hindrance Stressors on Performance and Commitment
Hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship with job performance. People who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of task performance. Not much is known about the impact of hindrance stressors on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.
N E G A T I V E
N E G A T I V E
Job Performance
Hindrance Stressors
Organizational Commitment
Hindrance Stressors
Hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with Organizational Commitment. People who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment. Relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker.
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
Sources: J.A. LePine, N.P. Podsakoff, and M.A. LePine, “A Meta-Analytic Test of the Challenge Stressor– Hindrance Stressor Framework: An Explanation for Inconsistent Relationships Among Stressors and Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 48 (2005), pp. 764–75; N.P. Podsakoff, J.A. LePine, and M.A. LePine, “Differential Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Relationships with Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 438–54.
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146 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
coping strategies, and engagement outweigh the costs of the added strain, meaning that challenge stressors tend to be beneficial to employee performance and commitment when both the posi- tives and negatives are considered. 82 These positive effects of challenge stressors have been dem- onstrated for executives, 83 employees in lower-level jobs, 84 and even students. 85 It’s important to point out, however, that high levels of challenge stressors may have negative consequences that only become apparent over the long term. People whose jobs are filled with challenge stressors experience strains that can result in illness, but because they tend to be more satisfied, commit- ted, and engaged with their jobs, they come to work anyway. This phenomenon, which is referred to as presenteeism, can result in prolonged illness, as well as the spread of illness, and ultimately a downward spiral of impaired performance and employee health. 86 In fact, it may surprise you to learn that the reductions in productivity that result from presenteeism are even larger than reductions in productivity that result from employee absenteeism. 87
A P P L I C AT I O N : S T R E S S M A N A G E M E N T
Previously, we described how employee stress results in strains that cost organizations in terms of reduced employee performance and commitment. However, there are other important costs to consider that relate to employee health. Most organizations provide some sort of health care benefits for their employees, 88 and all but the smallest organizations pay worker’s compensation insurance, the rates for which are determined, in part, by the nature of the job and the organiza- tion’s history of work-related injuries and illnesses. So what role does stress play in these costs?
FIGURE 5-5 Effects of Challenge Stressors on Performance and Commitment
Challenge stressors have a weak positive relationship with job performance. People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of task performance. Not much is known about the impact of challenge stressors on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.
Challenge stressors have a moderate positive relationship with Organizational Commitment. People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment. Relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker.
Job Performance
Challenge Stressors
Organizational Commitment
Challenge Stressors
Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).
Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).
Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).
Sources: J.A. LePine, N.P. Podsakoff, and M.A. LePine, “A Meta-Analytic Test of the Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Framework: An Explanation for Inconsistent Relationships Among Stressors and Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 48 (2005), pp. 764–75; N.P. Podsakoff, J.A. LePine, and M.A. LePine, “Differential Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Relationships with Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 438–54.
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Although Google offers some fairly extravagant perks to help employees manage their strains—for example, massage, yoga, and meditation—none compare with the MetroNap Energy Pods the company uses. 121 An Energy Pod consists of a reclining chair with an egg- shaped cap that folds down to cover the occupant’s head and torso. The occupant listens to music in an isolated cocoon-like environment and drifts off to sleep, and then after a short rest, light and vibration provide gentle cues that it’s time to wake up. 122 The idea behind the Energy Pods is that a short rest of 20 minutes or so helps people recover from the demands of working hard so that they’re reenergized for the work that lies ahead. In fact, research has demonstrated that naps can reduce stress, as well as improve cognitive-functioning, memory, and mood. 123 These benefits may be especially important given that people in the United States do not get enough sleep at night, 124 and short naps may help people overcome associated sleepiness. 125
It’s important to note that although naps may be revitalizing, they cannot bring people all the way back to their peak level of health and performance if they continuously overwork and lose sleep at night. 126 Moreover, the idea of a company paying people to sleep while at work is likely to seem quite strange. That said, companies spend significant resources on practices that help employees cope with stress and strains, and there are indications that these programs have a pos- itive return on investment. For example, 40 percent of all large companies in the United States spend more than $200,000 a year on programs that promote employee health and wellness, 127 and there’s a reduction of about $1.65 in health care expenses for every dollar an organization invests in these types of programs. 128 Although the Energy Pods retail for approximately $8,000, it’s unknown how much Google paid for them, how much they cost to maintain, and what type of return they expect from this investment. It is clear, however, that Google is willing to invest in innovations they believe will promote and maintain a healthy and productive workforce.
5.1 Describe how the work that’s done at Google can result in employees feeling both very stressed and also very positive about their work and the company. In what way do these effects depend on Google being able to hire the “right” kind of employees?
5.2 Describe the different ways that the Energy Pods influence the stress process. Might there be any differences in how employees use the Energy Pods to cope with hindrance stressors as opposed to challenge stressors?
5.3 Describe how individuals who exhibit the Type A Behavior Pattern would likely react to the Energy Pods. What role could social support play in promoting the acceptance of Energy Pods and similar strain-reducing practices?
E X E R C I S E : M A N A G I N G S T R E S S
The purpose of this exercise is to explore ways of managing stress to reduce strain. This exer- cise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps:
5.1 One method of managing stress is finding a way to reduce the hindrance stressors encoun- tered on the job. In your group, describe the hindrance stressors that you currently are experiencing. Each student should describe the two to three most important stressors fol- lowing the chart below. Other students should then offer strategies for reducing or alleviat- ing the stressors.
HINDRANCE STRESSORS EXPERIENCED STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING STRESSORS
Role Conflict:
Role Ambiguity:
Role Overload:
Daily Hassles:
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154 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
5.2 Another method of managing stress is to improve work–life balance. The circle below rep- resents how “waking hours” are divided among five types of activities: school, work, per- sonal relaxation, time with friends, and time with family. Draw two versions of your own circle: your waking hours as they currently are, and your waking hours as you wish them to be. Other students should then offer strategies for making the necessary life changes.
School
Time w/ Friends
Work Time w/ Family
Personal Relaxation
5.3 A third method of managing stress is improving hardiness —a sort of mental and physical health that can act as a buffer, preventing stress from resulting in strain. The table below lists a number of questions that can help diagnose your hardiness. Discuss your answers for each question, then with the help of other students, brainstorm ways to increase that hardiness factor.
HARDINESS FACTOR STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING FACTOR
Relaxation: Do you spend enough time reading, listening to music, meditating, or pursuing your hobbies?
Exercise: Do you spend enough time doing cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility sorts of exercises?
Diet: Do you manage your diet adequately by eating healthily and avoiding foods high in fat?
5.4 Class discussion (whether in groups or as a class) should center on two issues. First, many of the stress-managing factors, especially in Steps 2 and 3, take up precious time. Does this make them an ineffective strategy for managing stress? Why or why not? Second, consider your Type A score in the OB Assessments for this chapter. If you are high on Type A, does that make these strategies more or less important? 129
E N D N O T E S
5.1 Elgin, B. “Google’s Leap May Slow Rival’s Growth.” Business- Week, July 18, 2005, p. 45; Ferguson, C.H. “What’s Next for Google?” Technology Review, January 2005, pp. 38–46.
5.2 “Press Release: March 2011 U.S. Search Engine Rankings.” comScore, March 20, 2011, http:// www.comscore.com/ Press_Events/Press_ Releases/2011/4/ comScore_Releases_
March_2011_U.S._ Search_Engine_Rank- ings .
5.3 “Google History.” Google Corporate Website, (n.d.), http:// www.google.com/ corporate/history.html .
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154 C H A P T E R 5 Stress
5.2 Another method of managing stress is to improve work–life balance. The circle below rep- resents how “waking hours” are divided among five types of activities: school, work, per- sonal relaxation, time with friends, and time with family. Draw two versions of your own circle: your waking hours as they currently are, and your waking hours as you wish them to be. Other students should then offer strategies for making the necessary life changes.
School
Time w/ Friends
Work Time w/ Family
Personal Relaxation
5.3 A third method of managing stress is improving hardiness —a sort of mental and physical health that can act as a buffer, preventing stress from resulting in strain. The table below lists a number of questions that can help diagnose your hardiness. Discuss your answers for each question, then with the help of other students, brainstorm ways to increase that hardiness factor.
HARDINESS FACTOR STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING FACTOR
Relaxation: Do you spend enough time reading, listening to music, meditating, or pursuing your hobbies?
Exercise: Do you spend enough time doing cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility sorts of exercises?
Diet: Do you manage your diet adequately by eating healthily and avoiding foods high in fat?
5.4 Class discussion (whether in groups or as a class) should center on two issues. First, many of the stress-managing factors, especially in Steps 2 and 3, take up precious time. Does this make them an ineffective strategy for managing stress? Why or why not? Second, consider your Type A score in the OB Assessments for this chapter. If you are high on Type A, does that make these strategies more or less important? 129
E N D N O T E S
5.1 Elgin, B. “Google’s Leap May Slow Rival’s Growth.” Business- Week, July 18, 2005, p. 45; Ferguson, C.H. “What’s Next for Google?” Technology Review, January 2005, pp. 38–46.
5.2 “Press Release: March 2011 U.S. Search Engine Rankings.” comScore, March 20, 2011, http:// www.comscore.com/ Press_Events/Press_ Releases/2011/4/ comScore_Releases_
March_2011_U.S._ Search_Engine_Rank- ings .
5.3 “Google History.” Google Corporate Website, (n.d.), http:// www.google.com/ corporate/history.html .
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Organizational
Commitment
Chapter 3
Welcome to Chapter 3 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
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Class Agenda
- Organizational commitment
- Types of commitment
- Reactions to negative events
- Types of employees
- Withdrawal behaviors
- Application
- Organizational support
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Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I’d note that we’re still working our way through the two major outcomes of interest in OB: Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Reflecting back on last class, it’s not enough to have employees that engage in high levels of task performance and citizenship behavior, and low levels of counterproductive behavior. You also need to keep them!
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Organizational Commitment
- Consider this scenario:
- You’ve worked at your current employer for 5 years, and have recently been approached by a competing organization
- What would cause you to stay?
- Do those reasons fit into different kinds of categories?
Try This! Open the class by asking students to picture a scenario where they’ve worked for their first employer for a number of years and have been approached by a competitor. Ask them what factors would cause them to stay and list those factors on the board, subtly grouping them into affective, continuance, and normative factors (without using those terms). Allow the students to guess what the groupings reflect. This process will result in a table similar to Table 3-1.
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Organizational Commitment
- A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization
- Comes in three forms
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Affective Commitment
- A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of an emotional attachment to, or involvement in, that organization
- You stay because you want to
- What would you feel if you left anyway?
If you created a three-column list in reaction to the scenario two slides back, note for the students which column reflects Affective Commitment.
With respect to what you would feel if you left anyway, you’d feel sad. So affectively committed people stay, as much as anything, to avoid feeling sad.
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Affective Commitment
For all the OB Assessments, instruct students to “reverse” the bolded items (3, 4 and 6 in this case). 1 becomes 5, 2 becomes 4, 4 becomes 2, and 5 becomes 1. After doing that reversing, they should sum up their scores. The average score for this scale is shown in blue on the slide (20 in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
In the case of Affective Commitment, low scores often signal a part time job that the student didn’t invest in heavily. Sometimes a student will be part of a family business, which often results in an especially high score.
OB Assessments: Affective Commitment. This brief survey can be used to give students a feel for their affective commitment levels, if they are currently working (or have recently worked). Use a show of hands to see how many students fell above and below the average level, and see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores. Ask students with particularly high scores what explains their levels, and do the same for students with particularly low scores. Do the part-time employees in the class feel less committed than the full-time employees? Why might that be?
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Affective Commitment
Affective commitment depends in large part on connections among people. Ask the students to guess which person in this social network diagram is most at risk for turning over. The Erosion Model would say the individual with only one linkage to other people. This same sort of diagram is relevant to the Social Influence model, which argues that people with linkages to “leavers” will become at risk for turning over.
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Continuance Commitment
- A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving
- You stay because you need to
- What would you feel if you left anyway?
If you created a three-column list in reaction to the scenario a few slides back, note for the students which column reflects Continuance Commitment.
With respect to what you would feel if you left anyway, you’d feel nervous or anxious. So continuance committed people stay, as much as anything, to avoid feeling anxiety.
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Continuance Commitment
As you go through the facets of embeddedness, ask students how much they feel the various pieces. Most classes will have a stark differentation between the students who were born and raised in the local area and the students who are going to school from out of state.
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Continuance Commitment
- OB on Screen: Up in the Air
- Does Ryan Bingham seem to feel much continuance commitment? How embedded is he?
OB on Screen: Up in the Air. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 5:50 mark of the film, continuing until about the 9:42 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapters 1-2 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Ryan Bingham as he supplements his busy travel schedule for work with a speaking engagement at a Hampton Inn in Columbus. Ask the students whether they agree with the “moving is living” sentiment, that a life of attachments winds up weighing a person is down. Ask them how an individual might come to feel that way, and what the plusses and minuses to his/her employee might be. Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
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Normative Commitment
- A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of a feeling of obligation
- You stay because you ought to
- What would you feel if you left anyway?
If you created a three-column list in reaction to the scenario a few slides back, note for the students which column reflects Normative Commitment. Often this is the column that comes up less often. Key reasons here might be the sense that the firm hired you when no one else would, that they’ve invested in you and you need to repay that, or that you’ve recruited other people to come to work with you.
With respect to what you would feel if you left anyway, you’d feel guilty. So normatively committed people stay, as much as anything, to avoid feeling guilt.
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Organizational Commitment
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Organizational Commitment
- Exercise: Reacting to Negative Events
- Consider the following three scenarios depicted on the following slide
- Come to consensus on two specific behaviors that capture your likely response (i.e., what you would probably do, as opposed to what you wish you would do)
If you have the whiteboard space, I have the groups write their consensus answers on the whiteboard. It’s then helpful to refer to those results in the slides that lay ahead.
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Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect
- A framework that includes potential responses to negative events
- Exit
- Ending or restricting organizational membership
- Voice
- A constructive response where individuals attempt to improve the situation
If you did the exercise, it’s helpful to refer back to the results to see which behaviors were indicative of Exit or Voice.
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Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect
- A framework that includes potential responses to negative events
- Loyalty
- A passive response where the employee remains supportive while hoping for improvement
- Neglect
- Interest and effort in the job is reduced
If you did the exercise, it’s helpful to refer back to the results to see which behaviors were indicative of Loyalty or Neglect.
Note that there might be some exercise results that were indicative of Counterproductive Behavior, and that don’t really fit into the Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect framework. For example, “Complain about boss” doesn’t really fall cleanly into one of the four categories.
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Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect
Have the students guess which kind of employee will engage in Exit, Voice, Loyalty, or Neglect. The Star will engage in Voice, because they are motivated to improve the place and have the credibility to do so. The Lone Wolf also has the credibility, but not the motivation to improve, so they would engage in Exit. The Citizen will engage in Loyalty, and the Apathetic will engage in Neglect.
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Withdrawal
- A set of actions that employees perform to avoid the work situation
- One study found that 51% of employees’ time was spent working
- The other 49% was allocated to coffee breaks, late starts, early departures, and personal things
The study in question asked employees to record their activities in a diary. This kind of study would today be performed using smartphones with survey apps. Regardless, it’s worth noting that the 51% could be an exaggeration, given that it’s what employees self-reported in their diary.
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Withdrawal
So the study mentioned in the prior slide would suggest that most people are in the yellow part of this diagram: around 50% commitment, based on their behavior, and 50% withdrawal. Of course, it’s worth noting that no organization would ever want their employees to be 100-0. That would be a recipe for burnout, along with other problems.
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Withdrawal
Ask students if they have examples of these forms, either from observing coworkers or from their own working life.
Try This!: Have an in-class debate about whether managers should actively monitor internet usage, and punish employees who seem to be engaging in too much cyberloafing. Assign one side of the class to be the “yes” side and the other to be the “no” side, writing the arguments on the board. Then allow students to switch sides to make additional arguments. Then take a vote to see if the class as a whole is in favor of monitoring internet usage.
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Withdrawal
- Key question:
- How exactly are the different forms of withdrawal related to one another?
- Independent forms
- Compensatory forms
- Progression
Try This! After going through all of the psychological and physical forms of withdrawal, ask students whether they think they are positively, negatively, or uncorrelated with respect to their frequency. Try to direct discussion in such a way that students provide logic for all three positions, because all are somewhat intuitive in their own way.
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Withdrawal
- Answer:
- The various forms of withdrawal are almost always moderately to strongly correlated
- Those correlations suggest a progression, as lateness is strongly related to absenteeism, and absenteeism is strongly correlated to quitting
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Application
- Employees are more committed when employers are committed to them
- Perceived organization support
- Fostered when organizations:
- Protect job security
- Provide rewards
- Improve work conditions
- Minimize politics
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning & Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
chapter Organizational Commitment 3
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66 C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
It’s safe to say that if managers could choose which type of commitment they’d like to instill in their employees, they’d choose affective commitment. Moreover, when a manager looks at an employee and says “She’s committed” or “He’s loyal,” that manager usually is referring to a behavioral expression of affective commitment. 19 For example, employees who are affectively committed to their employer tend to engage in more interpersonal and organizational citizenship behaviors, such as helping, sportsmanship, and boosterism. One meta-analysis of 22 studies with more than 6,000 participants revealed a moderately strong correlation between affective com- mitment and citizenship behavior. 20 (Recall that a meta-analysis averages together results from multiple studies investigating the same relationship.) Such results suggest that emotionally com- mitted employees express that commitment by “going the extra mile” whenever they can.
Because affective commitment reflects an emotional bond to the organization, it’s only natu- ral that the emotional bonds among coworkers influence it. 21 We can therefore gain a better understanding of affective commitment if we take a closer look at the bonds that tie employees together. Assume you were given a sheet with the names of all the employees in your department
AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT How emotionally attached are you to your employer? This assessment is designed to measure affective commitment—the feeling that you want to stay with your current organization. Think about your current job or the last job that you held (even if it was a part-time or summer job). Answer each question using the response scale provided. Then subtract your answers to the boldfaced questions from 6, with the difference being your new answers for those questions. For example, if your original answer for Question 3 was “4,” your new answer is “2” (6 – 4). Then sum your answers for the six questions. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com .)
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION If your scores sum up to 20 or above, you feel a strong sense of affective commitment to your current or past employer, which means that you feel an emotional attachment to the company, or the people within it, making it less likely that you would leave voluntarily. If your scores sum up to less than 20, you have a weaker sense of affective commitment to your current or past employer. This result is especially likely if you responded to the questions in reference to a part- time or summer job, as there might not have been enough time to develop an emotional bond.
Source: From J.P. Meyer and N.J. Allen, 1997, Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research, and Application. Reproduced with permission of Sage Publications, Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 DISAGREE
3 NEUTRAL
4 AGREE
5 STRONGLY
AGREE
1. I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this organization.
2. I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.
3. I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization.
4. I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this organization.
5. This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.
6. I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization.
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67C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
or members of your class. Then assume you were asked to rate the frequency with which you communicated with each of those people, as well as the emotional depth of those communica- tions. Those ratings could be used to create a “social network” diagram that summarizes the bonds among employees. Figure 3-3 provides a sample of such a diagram. The lines connect- ing the 10 members of the work unit represent the communication bonds that tie each of them together, with thicker lines representing more frequent communication with more emotional depth. The diagram illustrates that some employees are “nodes,” with several direct connections to other employees, whereas others remain at the fringe of the network.
The erosion model suggests that employees with fewer bonds will be most likely to quit the organization. 22 If you look at Figure 3-3 , who’s most at risk for turning over? That’s right—the employee who only has one bond with someone else (and a relatively weak bond at that). From an affective commitment perspective, that employee is likely to feel less emotional attachment to work colleagues, which makes it easier to decide to leave the organization. Social network diagrams can also help us understand another explanation for turnover. The social influence model sug- gests that employees who have direct linkages with “leavers” will themselves become more likely to leave. 23 In this way, reduc- tions in affective commitment become contagious, spreading like a disease across the work unit. Think about the damage that would be caused if the cen- tral figure in the network (the one who has linkages to five other people) became unhappy with the organization.
More and more compa- nies are beginning to under- stand the value in helping employees connect. SAS, the Cary, North Carolina–based
FIGURE 3-3 A Social Network Diagram
SAS, the Cary, North Carolina–based software company, offers a number of recreational perks to help employees stay connected to one another.
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69C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
than doubles the most generous rates of other companies, allowing employees to build a comfort- able “nest egg” for retirement more quickly. Clearly, employees would feel a bit anxious about giving up that benefit if a competitor came calling.
NORMATIVE COMMITMENT. Now consider the reasons for staying listed in the right-hand column of Table 3-1 . What would you feel if, even after taking all those reasons into account, you decided to leave your organization to join another one? Answer: You’d feel a sense of guilt. Normative commitment exists when there is a sense that staying is the “right” or “moral” thing to do. 38 The sense that people should stay with their current employers may result from personal work philosophies or more general codes of right and wrong developed over the course of their lives. They may also be dictated by early experiences within the company, if employees are socialized to believe that long-term loyalty is the norm rather than the exception. 39
Aside from personal work philosophies or organizational socialization, there seem to be two ways to build a sense of obligation-based commitment among employees. One way is to create a feeling that employees are in the organization’s debt—that they owe something to the organi- zation. For example, an organization may spend a great deal of money training and developing an employee. In recognition of that investment, the employee may feel obligated to “repay” the organization with several more years of loyal service. 40 Think about how you’d feel if your employer paid your tuition, allowing you to further your education, while also providing you with training and developmental job assignments that increased your skills. Wouldn’t you feel a bit guilty if you took the first job opportunity that came your way?
Another possible way to build an obligation-based sense of commitment is by becoming a particularly charitable organization. Did you ever wonder why organizations spend time and money on charitable things—for example, building playgrounds in the local community? Don’t those kinds of projects take away from research and development, product improvements, or profits for shareholders? Well, charitable efforts have several potential advantages. First, they can provide good public relations for the organization, potentially generating goodwill for its products and services and helping attract new recruits. 41 Second, they can help existing employ- ees feel better about the organization, creating a deeper sense of normative commitment. Those benefits may be particularly relevant with younger employees. Some evidence indicates that members of Generation Y (those born between 1977 and 1994) are somewhat more charitably minded than other generations. In support of that view, a growing number of MBA graduates
TABLE 3-2 Embeddedness and Continuance Commitment
“Embedded” People Feel:
FACET FOR THE ORGANIZATION: FOR THE COMMUNITY:
Links • I’ve worked here for such a long time. • I’m serving on so many teams and
committees.
• Several close friends and family live nearby.
• My family’s roots are in this community.
Fit • My job utilizes my skills and talents well.
• I like the authority and responsibility I have at this company.
• The weather where I live is suitable for me.
• I think of the community where I live as home.
Sacrifice • The retirement benefits provided by the organization are excellent.
• I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job.
• People respect me a lot in my community.
• Leaving this community would be very hard.
Source: Adapted from T.R. Mitchell, B.C. Holtom, T.W. Lee, C.J. Sablynski, and M. Erez, “Why People Stay: Using Job Embeddedness to Predict Voluntary Turnover,” Academy of Management Journal 44 (2001), pp. 1102–21.
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65C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
Figure 3-2 also shows that organizational commitment depends on more than just “the organi- zation.” That is, people aren’t always committed to companies; they’re also committed to the top management that leads the firm at a given time, the department in which they work, the manager who directly supervises them, or the specific team or coworkers with whom they work most closely. 16 We use the term focus of commitment to refer to the various people, places, and things that can inspire a desire to remain a member of an organization. For example, you might choose to stay with your current employer because you’re emotionally attached to your work team, worry about the costs associated with losing your company’s salary and benefits package, and feel a sense of obligation to your current manager. If so, your desire to remain cuts across mul- tiple types of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative) and multiple foci (or focuses) of commitment (work team, company, manager). Now that you’re familiar with the drivers of commitment in a general sense, let’s go into more depth about each type.
AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT. One way to understand the differences among the three types of commitment is to ask yourself what you would feel if you left the organization. Consider the reasons listed in the left-hand column of Table 3-1 . What would you feel if, even after taking all those reasons into account, you decided to leave your organization to join another one? Answer: You’d feel a sense of sadness. Employees who feel a sense of affective commitment identify with the organization, accept that organization’s goals and values, and are more willing to exert extra effort on behalf of the organization. 17 By identifying with the organization, they come to view organizational membership as important to their sense of self. 18 Is affective commitment something that you feel for your current employer or have felt for a past employer? Check the OB Assessments feature to find out.
FIGURE 3-2 Drivers of Overall Organizational Commitment
Normative Commitment
Affective Commitment
Continuance Commitment
OVERALL ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT
Felt in Reference to One's:
Company
Top Management
Department
Manager
Work Team
Specific Coworkers
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84 C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
3.2 In groups, compare and contrast your likely responses to the three scenarios. Come to a consensus on the two most likely responses for the group as a whole. Elect one group member to write the two likely responses to each of the three scenarios on the board or on a transparency.
3.3 Class discussion (whether in groups or as a class) should center on where the likely responses fit into the exit–voice–loyalty–neglect framework. What personal and situ- ational factors would lead someone to one category of responses over another? Are there any responses that do not fit into the exit–voice–loyalty–neglect framework?
E X E R C I S E : R E A C T I N G T O N E G AT I V E E V E N T S
The purpose of this exercise is to explore how individuals react to three all-too-common sce- narios that represent negative workplace events. This exercise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the fol- lowing steps:
3.1 Individually read the following three scenarios: the annoying boss, the boring job, and pay and seniority. For each scenario, write down two specific behaviors in which you would likely engage in response to that scenario. Write down what you would actually do, as opposed to what you wish you would do. For example, you may wish that you would march into your boss’s office and demand a change, but if you would actually do nothing, write down “nothing.”
Annoying Boss You’ve been working at your current company for about a year. Over time, your boss has become more and more annoying to you. It’s not that your boss is a bad person, or even necessarily a bad boss. It’s more a personality conflict—the way your boss talks, the way your boss manages every little thing, even the facial expressions your boss uses. The more time passes, the more you just can’t stand to be around your boss.
Two likely behaviors:
Boring Job You’ve been working at your current company for about a year. You’ve come to realize that your job is pretty boring. It’s the first real job you’ve ever had, and at first it was nice to have some money and something to do every day. But the “new job” excitement has worn off, and things are actually quite monotonous. Same thing every day. It’s to the point that you check your watch every hour, and Wednesdays feel like they should be Fridays.
Two likely behaviors:
Pay and Seniority You’ve been working at your current company for about a year. The consensus is that you’re doing a great job—you’ve gotten excellent performance evaluations and have emerged as a leader on many projects. As you’ve achieved this high status, how- ever, you’ve come to feel that you’re underpaid. Your company’s pay procedures emphasize seniority much more than job performance. As a result, you look at other members of your project teams and see poor performers making much more than you, just because they’ve been with the company longer.
Two likely behaviors:
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72 C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
TABLE 3-3 Four Types of Employees
Task Performance HIGH LOW
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
HIGH Stars Citizens
LOW Lone wolves Apathetics
Source: Adapted from R.W. Griffeth, S. Gaertner, and J.K. Sager, “Taxonomic Model of Withdrawal Behaviors: The Adaptive Response Model,” Human Resource Management Review 9 (1999), pp. 577–90.
Lone wolves possess low levels of organizational commitment but high levels of task per- formance and are motivated to achieve work goals for themselves, not necessarily for their company. 53 They are likely to respond to negative events with exit. Although their performance would give them the credibility needed to inspire change, their lack of attachment prevents them from using that credibility constructively. Instead, they rely on their performance levels to make them marketable to their next employer. To spot lone wolves, look for the talented employees who never seem to want to get involved in important decisions about the future of the company. Finally, apathetics possess low levels of both organizational commitment and task performance and merely exert the minimum level of effort needed to keep their jobs. 54 Apathetics should respond to negative events with neglect, because they lack the performance needed to be market- able and the commitment needed to engage in acts of citizenship.
It’s clear from this discussion that exit and neglect represent the flip side of organizational commitment: withdrawal behavior. How common is withdrawal behavior within organizations? Quite common, it turns out. One study clocked employees’ on-the-job behaviors over a two-year period and found that only about 51 percent of their time was actually spent working! The other 49 percent was lost to late starts, early departures, long coffee breaks, personal matters, and other forms of withdrawal. 55 As a manager, wouldn’t you like to feel like there was more than a coin- flip’s chance that your employees were actually working during the course of a given day?
As shown in Figure 3-4 , withdrawal comes in two forms: psychological (or neglect) and phys- ical (or exit). Psychological withdrawal consists of actions that provide a mental escape from the work environment. 56 Some business articles refer to psychological withdrawal as “warm- chair attrition,” meaning that employees have essentially been lost even though their chairs remain occupied. 57 This withdrawal form comes in a number of shapes and sizes. 58 The least serious is daydreaming , when employees appear to be working but are actually distracted by random thoughts or concerns. Socializing refers to the verbal chatting about nonwork topics that goes on in cubicles and offices or at the mailbox or vending machines. Looking busy indi- cates an intentional desire on the part of employees to look like they’re working, even when not performing work tasks. Sometimes employees decide to reorganize their desks or go for a stroll around the building, even though they have nowhere to go. (Those who are very good at managing impressions do such things very briskly and with a focused look on their faces!) When employees engage in moonlighting , they use work time and resources to complete something other than their job duties, such as assignments for another job.
Perhaps the most widespread form of psychological withdrawal among white-collar employ- ees is cyberloafing —using Internet, e-mail, and instant messaging access for their personal enjoyment rather than work duties. 59 Some estimates suggest that typical cubicle dwellers stop what they’re doing about once every three minutes to send e-mail, check Facebook or Twit- ter, surf over to YouTube, and so forth. 60 Such distractions consume as much as 28 percent of employees’ workdays and cost some $650 billion a year in lost productivity. Sports fans seem particularly vulnerable. Estimates suggest that Fantasy Football league transactions consume as much as $1.5 billion in productivity during a typical season. 61 The spring isn’t much better, as estimates suggest that employers lose $1.2 billion as employees watch NCAA tournament games online. 62 Some employees view cyberloafing as a way of “balancing the scales” when it comes to personal versus work time. For example, one participant in a cyberloafing study noted, “It is
3.4 What are some exam- ples of psychological withdrawal? Of physical withdrawal? How do the different forms of withdrawal relate to each other?
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63C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
networking and circulating their résumé. 9 Those projections should be scary to any employer because turnover can be quite expensive. Estimates suggest that turnover costs between 90 percent and 200 percent of an employee’s annual salary. 10 Why so expensive? Those estimates include various costs, including the administrative costs involved in the separation, recruitment expenses, screening costs, and training and orientation expenses for the new hire. They also include “hidden costs” due to decreased morale, lost organizational knowledge, and lost productivity.
Organizational commitment is defined as the desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of the organization. 11 Organizational commitment influences whether an employee stays a member of the organization (is retained) or leaves to pursue another job (turns over). Our attention in this chapter is focused primarily on reducing voluntary turnover by keeping the employees that the organization wants to keep, though we will touch on involuntary turnover in a discussion of layoffs and downsizing. Employees who are not committed to their organizations engage in withdrawal behavior , defined as a set of actions that employees perform to avoid the work situation—behaviors that may eventually culminate in quitting the organization. 12 The relationship between commitment and withdrawal is illustrated in Figure 3-1 . Some employees may exhibit much more commitment than withdrawal, finding themselves on the green end of the continuum. Other employees exhibit much more withdrawal than commitment, finding them- selves on the red end of the continuum. The sections that follow review both commitment and withdrawal in more detail.
W H AT D O E S I T M E A N T O B E “ C O M M I T T E D ” ?
One key to understanding organizational commitment is to understand where it comes from. In other words, what creates a desire to remain a member of an organization? To explore this question, consider the following scenario: You’ve been working full-time for your employer for around five years. The company gave you your start in the business, and you’ve enjoyed your time there. Your salary is competitive enough that you were able to purchase a home in a good school system, which is important because you have one young child and another on the way. Now assume that a competing firm contacted you while you were attending a conference and offered you a similar position in its company. What kinds of things might you think about? If you created a list to organize your thoughts, what might that list look like?
T Y P E S O F C O M M I T M E N T One potential list is shown in Table 3-1 . The left-hand column reflects some emotional reasons for staying with the current organization, including feelings about friendships, the atmosphere or culture of the company, and a sense of enjoyment when completing job duties. These sorts of
3.1 What is organizational commitment? What is withdrawal behavior? How are the two connected?
3.2 What are the three types of organizational commitment, and how do they differ?
FIGURE 3-1 Organizational Commitment and Employee Withdrawal
Withdrawal Behavior
Low High
Organizational Commitment
High Low
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74 C H A P T E R 3 Organizational Commitment
which means employees neglect important work functions while away from the office. As a man- ager, you’d like to be sure that employees who leave for lunch are actually going to come back, but sometimes that’s not a safe bet!
Absenteeism occurs when employees miss an entire day of work. 67 Of course, people stay home from work for a variety of reasons, including illness and family emergencies. There’s also a rhythm to absenteeism. For example, employees are more likely to be absent on Mondays or Fridays. Moreover, streaks of good attendance create a sort of pressure to be absent, as personal responsibilities build until a day at home becomes irresistible. 68 That type of absence can some- times be functional, because people may return to work with their “batteries recharged.” 69 Group and departmental norms also affect absenteeism by signaling whether an employee can get away with missing a day here or there without being noticed. 70
One survey suggests that 57 percent of U.S. employees take sick days when they’re not actu- ally sick, a trend that has some companies going to extreme measures. 71 Private investigation
firms charge around $75 per hour to send investi- gators in search of employees who may be playing hooky. Rick Raymond, an investigator in Florida, once followed a supposedly sick employee to Uni- versal Studios. 72 The employee rode three roller coasters that take automatic pictures at the sharpest turns. Raymond bought all three, which conveniently included time and date stamps. When the employee later claimed that the photos weren’t her, Raymond responded by playing back video of her volunteering
FIGURE 3-4 Psychological and Physical Withdrawal
Psychological Withdrawal
(NEGLECT)
WITHDRAWAL BEHAVIOR
Physical Withdrawal
(EXIT)
Daydreaming Quitting
Absenteeism
Missing Meetings
Long Breaks
TardinessCyberloafing
Moonlighting
Looking Busy
Socializing
In an effort to curb absenteeism, some
companies have turned to private inves- tigators to try to catch “sick” employees who
are playing hooky.
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Job
Performance
Chapter 2
Welcome to Chapter 2 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].
Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.
2-*
Class Agenda
- Job performance
- Task performance
- Citizenship behavior
- Counterproductive behavior
- Application
- Tools for managing job performance
2-*
Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I’d note that these next two lectures describe the two major outcomes of interest in OB: Job Performance and Organizational Commitment.
2-*
Job Performance
- The value of the set of behaviors that contribute, either positively or negatively, to organizational goal accomplishment
- Not the consequences or results of behavior--the behavior itself
- What’s good about this distinction?
- What’s bad about this distinction?
The example that I use to illustrate this point is an advertisting agency employee who’s pitching a client on a campaign idea. If the individual does great market research, creates a great presentation, and delivers it flawlessly, job performance is good--even if the client winds up going with another firm.
What’s good about this distinction is that performance is within the control of the employee. And because performance is behavioral, managers and coworkers can give clear advice for improvement. In the scenario above, the client may have gone with a different firm for political or budget reasons--reasons that had nothing to do with the individual’s performance.
What’s bad about this distinction, of course, is that ultimately results do matter. The individual in the ad agency must eventually land a client sometime. I tell the students that this behavior-results stance is not perfect, and that it’s a tension that we’ll see again in the Motivation lecture.
2-*
Task Performance
- The behaviors directly involved in transforming organizational resources into the goods or services an organization produces (i.e., the behaviors included in one’s job description)
- Typically a mix of:
- Routine task performance
- Adaptive task performance
- Creative task performance
Continuing with the ad agency example, I ask students to supply examines of routine, adaptive, and creative task performance in that sort of job.
2-*
Task Performance
- How do we identify relevant behaviors?
- Job analysis
- Divide a job into major dimensions
- List 2 key tasks within each of those major dimensions
- Rate the tasks on frequency and importance
- Use most frequent and important tasks to define task performance
2-*
Task Performance
- Exercise: Performance of a Server
- Do a job analysis
- 4 major dimensions
- 2 tasks per dimension
This exercise from the end-of-chapter materials is helpful for illustrating job analysis, and also sets the stage for the discussion of citizenship behavior and counterproductive behavior a bit later. A server is a good job to use here because many students will have held that job at some point in time, and even students who haven’t will still be familiar with it. If you have a lot of whiteboard space, I usually ask the groups to write the results of their analysis on the board. See the Instructor’s Manual for an example of what students might come up with.
2-*
Task Performance
To provide a frame of reference for what the students came up with, here are the O*NET results for Waiters and Waitresses.
2-*
Job Performance
- Although task performance behaviors vary across jobs, all jobs contain two other performance dimensions:
- Citizenship behavior
- Counterproductive behavior
2-*
Citizenship Behavior
- Academic origin
- A future professor’s account of an experience in a paper mill
- “…while the man’s assistance was not part of his job and gained him no formal credits, he undeniably contributed in a small way to the functioning of the group and, by extension, to the plant and the organization as a whole. By itself, of course, his aid to me might not have been perceptible in any conventional calculus of efficiency, production, or profits. But repeated many times over, by himself and others, over time, the aggregate of such actions must certainly have made that paper mill a more smoothly functioning organization than would have been the case had such actions been rare.”
This is an excerpt from Dennis Organ’s “Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome.” (Lexington Books, 1988). Organ was filling in as a substitute employee in a paper mill, and did not know how to perform his job tasks. As the work flow was beginning to be disrupted, a full-time employee left his station to come and help. That experience so affected Organ that he focused his eventual academic career on the concept of citizenship behavior.
I like describing this passage because it illustrates that OB concepts have been studied by “real people, with real experiences.” Moreover, the second sentence of the passage is a nice tie back to the “Numerous Small Decisions” aspect of the Resource-Based View from Chapter 1. Truly effective organizations have employees who perform a lot of citizenship behaviors, and that becomes an inimitable source of competitive advantage.
2-*
Citizenship Behavior
- Voluntary activities that may or may not be rewarded but that contribute to the organization by improving the quality of the setting where work occurs
After describing what these are, I ask the groups whether their job analysis results for the server included such behaviors. Often the will not have. Does that mean such behaviors aren’t important in a server position?
Try This! Ask students to name examples of organizational citizenship behaviors in jobs that they’ve held. For example, students who have worked as servers might have suggested better menu items (voice), might have paid attention to how other restaurants did things (civic virtue), and might have said good things about the restaurant to their friends, rather than sharing kitchen horror stories (boosterism).
2-*
Helping
For all the OB Assessments, the average score for this scale is shown in blue on the slide (40 in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.
OB Assessments: Helping. This survey helps students to assess how helpful they are under normal circumstances. Since helping behaviors are socially desirable, this may be a good time to point out the value of honest self-assessment to students. If students are unsure of whether or not they can evaluate themselves objectively in this regard, they may want to ask co-workers or class teammates to fill out the form about them. It is also worthwhile to discuss the importance of helping behaviors relative to task performance in the context of teams. Which type of performance is more important? What reactions do team members have when confronted with a team member who is not helpful? Is this the same reaction when a team is confronted with a member who is not effective with respect to task performance?
2-*
Counterproductive Behavior
- Employee behaviors that intentionally hinder organizational goal accomplishment
After describing what these terms represent, I ask students to share examples of these that they’ve seen on the part of other coworkers. They often have interesting stories about many of them--stories which underscore the prevalence of some of these behaviors, and the negative consequences they can have on the workplace.
If you did the job analysis exercise, this is another good time to reflect back on those results. I ask the groups whether their job analysis results for the server included counterproductive behaviors. Often the will not have. Does that mean such behaviors aren’t relevant, and don’t occur in a server position?
I also point out that the Minor vs. Serious continuum is a bit of an oversimplification. One can envision degrees of substance abuse that would indeed be major, and degrees of theft that would instead be minor.
2-*
Counterproductive Behavior
- OB on Screen: Despicable Me
- What examples of counterproductive behavior do you see in the clip?
- Are their examples of task performance and citizenship behavior as well?
OB on Screen: Despicable Me. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 43:37 mark of the film, continuing until about the 52:50 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it’s Chapters 12 and 13 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts the behavior of a criminal mastermind named Gru, and in particular, his interactions with three orphan girls he adopted as part of his plot to steal a shrink-ray gun (that he plans to use to steal the moon). The scene provides an excellent example of the independence of behaviors that are related to job performance. On the one hand, Gru is a criminal, so he obviously engages in behavior that’s deviant. On the other hand, Gru engages in behavior that’s much more positive. One topic for class discussion is how Gru stacks up in terms of his performance. The students should be able to quickly identify examples of task performance, citizenship and counterproductive behavior. Emphasize that the main point of the clip is to illustrate that it’s problematic to assume where someone might stand on one performance dimension using knowledge about where the person stands in terms of another performance dimension. In real world contexts where the intent to is to gather valid information about specific aspects of performance, jumping to these types of conclusions can be problematic. You can ask students to provide examples of where this has happened. Typically, a student will volunteer an example of someone who is a great at task performance but horrible at citizenship behavior or counterproductive behavior. Please email me at [email protected] if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.
2-*
Counterproductive Behaviors
- Key questions:
- Are these all examples of the same general behavior pattern? If you do one, are you likely to do most of the others as well?
- How does counterproductive behavior relate to task performance and citizenship behavior?
2-*
Counterproductive Behaviors
- Answers:
- Research using both anonymous self-reports and supervisor ratings tends to find strong correlations between the categories
- Counterproductive behavior has a strong negative correlation with citizenship behavior, but is only weakly related to task performance
2-*
Application
- What tools do organizations use to manage job performance among employees?
- Management by Objectives (MBO)
- 360-degree feedback
- Social networking systems
- Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)
- Forced rankings
2-*
Application
This provides one last opportunity to return to the server example. How could the job analysis results from the exercise be used to create a BARS for being a server? What would a 7 look like? A 4? A 1? If the students owned their own restaurant, how many of them would see value in such a tool? In what way would it be more “valid” than just relying on customer tips to differentiate high performers from low performers?
2-*
Application
- Forced ranking under Jack Welch at General Electric
Try This! Ask students to debate whether their OB course should be graded on a curve, with a predetermined percentage of students earning an A, B+, B, B-, and so forth. Assign one portion of the class to be the “yes” side and the other portion of the class to be the “no” side. Then, once the two sides have shared their best arguments, allow the class to vote (in a non-binding fashion, of course).
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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES
MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
GROUP MECHANISMS
ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS
Organizational Culture
Organizational Structure
Teams: Processes &
Communication
Motivation
Trust, Justice, & Ethics
Teams: Characteristics &
Diversity Learning &
Decision Making
Ability
Personality & Cultural Values
Stress
Leadership: Power &
Negotiation
Job Satisfaction
Leadership: Styles & Behaviors
Organizational Commitment
Job Performance
chapter Job Performance 2
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39C H A P T E R 2 Job Performance
when the unit is going through tough times. Whining and complaining are contagious; good citi- zens avoid being the squeaky wheel who frequently makes mountains out of molehills.
Although interpersonal citizenship behavior is important in many different job contexts, it may be even more important when employees work in small groups or teams. A team with members who tend to be helpful, respectful, and courteous is also likely to have a positive team atmosphere in which members trust one another. This type of situation is essential to foster the willingness of team members to work toward a common team goal rather than goals that may be more self- serving. 34 In fact, if you think about the behaviors that commonly fall under the “teamwork” heading, you’ll probably agree that most are examples of interpersonal citizenship behavior (see Chapter 12 on Team Processes and Communication for more discussion of such issues). 35
The second category of citizenship behavior is organizational citizenship behavior . These behaviors benefit the larger organization by supporting and defending the company, working to improve its operations, and being especially loyal to it. 36 For example, voice involves speaking up and offering constructive suggestions for change. Good citizens react to bad rules or policies by constructively trying to change them as opposed to passively complaining about them (see Chapter 3 on Organizational Commitment for more discussion of such issues). 37 Civic virtue refers to participating in the company’s operations at a deeper-than-normal level by attending voluntary meetings and functions, reading and keeping up with organizational announcements, and keeping abreast of business news that affects the company. Boosterism means representing the organization in a positive way when out in public, away from the office, and away from work. Think of friends you’ve had who worked for a restaurant. Did they always say good things about the restaurant when talking to you and keep any “kitchen horror stories” to themselves? If so, they were being good citizens by engaging in high levels of boosterism.
Three important points should be emphasized about citizenship behaviors. First, as you’ve probably realized, citizenship behaviors are relevant in virtually any job, regardless of the par- ticular nature of its tasks, 38 and research suggests that these behaviors can boost organizational effectiveness. 39 As examples, research conducted in a paper mill found that the quantity and quality of crew output was higher in crews that included more workers who engaged in citizen- ship behavior. 40 Research in 30 restaurants also showed that higher levels of citizenship behavior promoted higher revenue, better operating efficiency, higher customer satisfaction, higher per- formance quality, less food waste, and fewer customer complaints. 41 Thus, it seems clear that citizenship behaviors have a significant influence on the bottom line.
FIGURE 2-2 Types of Citizenship Behaviors
Organizational
Interpersonal
- Helping - Courtesy - Sportsmanship
- Voice - Civic Virtue - Boosterism
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40 C H A P T E R 2 Job Performance
Second, because citizenship behaviors are relatively discretionary and influenced by the spe- cific situation the employee is working in, they can vary significantly over time. 42 In other words, an employee who engages in citizenship behavior during one point in time might not engage in citizenship behavior at other points in time. As an example, it’s likely that you’ve had a very positive experience working with another student or colleague on a project and were willing to invest a great deal of extra effort in order to be helpful. At some point, however, the person with whom you were working may have done something that made you feel much less positive about the collaboration and, as a consequence, you decided to withhold your extra help so that you could focus your energies elsewhere.
Third, from an employee’s perspective, it may be tempting to discount the importance of citizenship behaviors—to just focus on your own job tasks and leave aside any “extra” stuff. After all, citizenship behaviors appear to be voluntary and optional, whereas task performance requirements are not. However, discounting citizenship behaviors is a bad idea because super- visors don’t always view such actions as optional. In fact, research on computer salespeople, insurance agents, petrochemical salespeople, pharmaceutical sales managers, office furniture
O B A S S E S S M E N T S
HELPING How helpful are you? This assessment is designed to measure helping, an interpersonal form of citizenship behavior. Think of the people you work with most frequently, either at school or at work. The questions below refer to these people as your “work group.” Answer each question using the scale below, then sum up your answers. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com . )
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION If your scores sum up to 40 or higher, you perform a high level of helping behavior, which means you frequently engage in citizenship behaviors directed at your colleagues. This is good, as long as it doesn’t distract you from fulfilling your own job duties and responsibilities. If your scores sum up to less than 40, you perform a low level of helping behaviors. You might consider paying more attention to whether your colleagues need assistance while working on their task duties.
Source: L.V. Van Dyne and J.A. LePine, “Helping and Voice Extra-Role Behaviors: Evidence of Construct and Predictive Validity,” Academy of Management Journal 41 (1998), pp. 108–19.
1 STRONGLY DISAGREE
2 MODERATELY
DISAGREE
3 SLIGHTLY DISAGREE
4 NEITHER
DISAGREE NOR AGREE
5 SLIGHTLY AGREE
6 MODERATELY
AGREE
7 STRONGLY
AGREE
1. I volunteer to do things for my work group.
2. I help orient new members of my work group.
3. I attend functions that help my work group.
4. I assist others in my group with their work for the benefit of the group.
5. I get involved to benefit my work group.
6. I help others in this group learn about the work.
7. I help others in this group with their work responsibilities.
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42 C H A P T E R 2 Job Performance
Property deviance refers to behaviors that harm the organization’s assets and possessions. For example, sabotage represents the purposeful destruction of physical equipment, organizational processes, or company products. Do you know what a laser disc is? Probably not—and the reason you don’t is because of sabotage. A company called DiscoVision (a subsidiary of MCA) manu- factured laser discs in the late 1970s, with popular movie titles like Smokey and the Bandit and Jaws retailing for $15.95. Although this level matches the price of DVDs today, it was far less than the $50–$100 needed to buy videocassettes (which were of inferior quality) at the time. Unfortu- nately, laser discs had to be manufactured in “clean rooms,” because specs of dust or debris could cause the image on the television to freeze, repeat, skip, or drop out. When MCA merged with IBM in 1979, the morale of the employees fell, and counterproductive behaviors began to occur. Employees sabotaged the devices that measured the cleanliness of the rooms. They also began eating in the rooms—even “popping” potato chip bags to send food particles into the air. This sabotage eventually created a 90 percent disc failure rate that completely alienated customers. As a result, despite its much lower production costs and higher-quality picture, the laser disc disap- peared, and the organizations that supported the technology suffered incredible losses. 51
Even if you’ve never heard of the laser disc, you’ve certainly eaten in a restaurant. The cost of counterproductive behaviors in the restaurant industry is estimated to be 2–3 percent of revenues per year, but what may be more disturbing is the nature of those counterproductive behaviors. 52
Thirty-one percent of employees who responded to a survey knowingly served improperly pre- pared food, 13 percent intentionally sabotaged the work of other employees, and 12 percent admitted to intentionally contaminating food they prepared or served to a customer (yuck!). At a minimum, such sabotage of the restaurant’s product can lead to a bad meal and a customer’s promise to never return to that establishment. Of course, such behaviors can also lead to food poisoning, health code violations, and a damaging lawsuit.
Theft represents another form of property deviance and can be just as expensive as sabotage (if not more). Research has shown that up to three-quarters of all employees have engaged in counterproductive behaviors such as theft, and the cost of these behaviors is staggering. 53 For example, one study estimated that 47 percent of store inventory shrinkage was due to employee theft and that this type of theft costs organizations approximately $14.6 billion per year. 54 Maybe you’ve had friends who worked at a restaurant or bar and been lucky enough to get discounted (or even free) food and drinks whenever you wanted. Clearly that circumstance is productive for
FIGURE 2-3 Types of Counterproductive Behaviors
Source: Adapted from S.L. Robinson and R.J. Bennett, “A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviors: A Multidimen- sional Scaling Study,” Academy of Management Journal 38 (1995), pp. 555–72.
Production Deviance - Wasting resources - Substance abuse
Property Deviance - Sabotage - Theft
Political Deviance - Gossiping - Incivility
Personal Aggression - Harassment - Abuse
Organizational
Interpersonal
Minor Serious
2.5 What is counterproductive behavior?
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48 C H A P T E R 2 Job Performance
B E H AV I O R A L LY A N C H O R E D R AT I N G S C A L E S You might have noticed that MBO emphasizes the results of job performance as much as it does the performance behaviors themselves. In contrast, behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) measure performance by directly assessing job performance behaviors. The BARS approach uses “critical incidents”—short descriptions of effective and ineffective behaviors—to create a measure that can be used to evaluate employee performance. As an example of a BARS approach, consider the measure of task performance shown in Table 2-2 , which focuses on the “planning, organizing, and scheduling” dimension of task performance for a manager. 74 The rater reads the behaviors on the far left column of the measure and matches actual observations of the behavior of the manager being rated to the corresponding level on the measure by placing a check in the blank. 75
Typically, supervisors rate several performance dimensions using BARS and score an employ- ee’s overall job performance by taking the average value across all the dimensions. Because the critical incidents convey the precise kinds of behaviors that are effective and ineffective, feed- back from BARS can help an employee develop and improve over time. That is, employees can develop an appreciation of the types of behaviors that would make them effective. Such informa- tion provides a nice complement to MBO, which is less capable of providing specific feedback about why an objective might have been missed.
3 6 0 - D E G R E E F E E D B A C K The 360-degree feedback approach involves collecting performance information not just from the supervisor but from anyone else who might have firsthand knowledge about the employee’s performance behaviors. These other sources of performance information typically include the
TABLE 2-2 BARS Example for “Planning Organizing, and Scheduling”
RATING RATING BEHAVIORAL ANCHORS
[ 7 ] Excellent • Develops a comprehensive project plan, documents it well, obtains required approval, and distributes the plan to all concerned.
[ 6 ] Very Good • Plans, communicates, and observes milestones; states week by week where the project stands relative to plans. Maintains up-to-date charts of project accomplish- ment and backlogs and uses these to optimize any schedule modifications required.
• Experiences occasional minor operational problems but communicates effectively.
[ 5 ] Good • Lays out all the parts of a job and schedules each part to beat schedule; will allow for slack.
• Satisfies customer’s time constraints; time and cost overruns occur infrequently.
[ 4 ] Average • Makes a list of due dates and revises them as the project progresses, usually add- ing unforeseen events; investigates frequent customer complaints.
• May have a sound plan but does not keep track of milestones; does not report slippages in schedule or other problems as they occur.
[ 3 ] Below Average
• Plans are poorly defined; unrealistic time schedules are common. • Cannot plan more than a day or two ahead; has no concept of a realistic project
due date.
[ 2 ] Very Poor • Has no plan or schedule of work segments to be performed. • Does little or no planning for project assignments.
[ 1 ] Unacceptable • Seldom, if ever, completes project because of lack of planning and does not seem to care.
• Fails consistently due to lack of planning and does not inquire about how to improve.
Source: D.G. Shaw, C.E. Schneier, and R.W. Beatty, “Managing Performance with a Behaviorally Based Appraisal System,” in Applying Psychology in Business: The Handbook for Managers and Human Resource Professionals, eds. J.W. Jones, B.D. Steffy, and D.W. Bray (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 2001), pp. 314–25. Reprinted with permis- sion of Lexington Books.
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Confirming Pages
49C H A P T E R 2 Job Performance
employee’s subordinates, peers, and customers. With the exception of the supervisor’s ratings, the ratings are combined so that the raters can remain anonymous to the employee. Most 360-degree feedback systems also ask the employee to provide ratings of his or her own performance. The hope is that this 360-degree perspective will provide a more balanced and comprehensive exami- nation of performance. By explicitly comparing self-provided ratings with the ratings obtained from others, employees can develop a better sense of how their performance may be deficient in the eyes of others and exactly where they need to focus their energies to improve.
Although the information from a 360-degree feedback system can be used to evaluate employees for administrative purposes such as raises or promotions, there are problems with that sort of application. First, because ratings vary across sources, there is the question of which source is most “correct.” Even if multiple sources are taken into account in generating an overall performance score, it’s often unclear how the information from the various sources should be weighted. Second, raters may give biased evaluations if they believe that the information will be used for compensation, as opposed to just skill development. Peers in particular may be unwilling to provide negative information if they believe it will harm the person being rated. As a result, 360-degree feedback is best suited to improving or developing employee talent, espe- cially if the feedback is accompanied by coaching about how to improve the areas identified as points of concern.
F O R C E D R A N K I N G One of the most notable strategies that Jack Welch, Fortune ’s Manager of the 20th Century, 76 used to build a great workforce at General Electric involved evaluations that make clear distinctions among employees in terms of their job performance. Although Welch considered several systems that could differentiate employees, the most effective relied on the “vitality curve,” depicted in Figure 2-5 , which forces managers to rank all of their people into one of three categories: the top 20 percent (A players), the vital middle 70 percent (B players), or the bottom 10 percent (C players). The A players are thought to possess “the four Es of GE leadership: very high energy levels, the ability to energize others around common goals, the edge to make tough yes-and-no decisions, and finally the ability to consistently execute and deliver on their promises.” 77 The B players are developed. According to Welch, B players are the backbone of the company but lack the passion of As. The C players are those who cannot get the job done and are let go. The system was taken so seriously at GE that managers who couldn’t differentiate their people tended to find themselves in the C category. 78
FIGURE 2-5 Jack Welch’s Vitality Curve
Source: From Jack by Jack Welch with John A. Byrne. Copyright © 2001 by the John F. Welch Jr. Foundation. By permission of Grand Central Publishing.
“Top 20” “The Vital 70” “Bottom 10”
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